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I have emboldened my edits, because they are interspersed between the content already on Copenhagen's wikipedia page under the subheading "Environmental Planning." I have also removed the sources previously linked on the page so they would not clutter my sources. Thank you!

Environmental Planning

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Graph showcasing the population growth in Denmark from 1650-1800[1]

From the 16th century to the mid 18th century, Denmark suffered gradual economic, social, and environmental degradation that largely impacted urban areas such as the city of Copenhagen.[1][2] Unprecedented population growth coupled with the growth of Denmark as a fiscal-military state put severe pressure on the country's resources.[1] An overhaul in policy regarding land reclamation, energy and raw material resources, and agriculture in the late 1700s became known as the green revolution.[3][2] The green revolution created a new sense of national identity in Denmark as well as furthering the idea of political democracy.  The centralized power of the government and surrounding administrations had an a positive influence on Danish society and the commitment to sustainability.[1]

In 1971, the Ministry of Environment was introduced in Denmark, and in 1973 Denmark became the first country to implement legislature solely for the environment.[4] In recent years, with rising implications global warming poses to the environment worldwide, Copenhagen has become a leading city in building sustainable infrastructure and environmental awareness.[5][6][7] Copenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI). The culture in Copenhagen emphasizes an efficient, low-impact lifestyle focused on sustainability and environmental conservation.[8] In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden, which has caused a gradual rise in property prices in the surrounding areas.[9] It produces about 4% of the city's energy.  Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.

A graph showcasing the various responses from countries involved in the Copenhagen Accord of 2009[10]

In 2009, the Copenhagen Accord was drafted at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to try and get other countries onboard for combating rising effects of climate change.[10][11] The Copenhagen Accord challenged some of the world's leading countries in carbon emission to change their policies with environmental sustainability in mind.[12] Copenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025, a goal that would make Copenhagen the first carbon-neutral capital in the world.[13] However, the northern climate where Denmark is located makes for challenging implementation of sustainable building design.[14][15] Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds. Since 2009, it has been the strategy of administrators in Copenhagen's urban planning that future buildings are to produce more energy than they consume.[13]

The city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs, efficient waste management solutions and public transportation.[16] In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.[17] Copenhagen is the one of the world's leading cycling-friendly cities, and approximately 36 percent of all commuter destinations in the city are accessibly by bike.[18] 62 percent of the population in Copenhagen choses cycling as a way to get to work or school.[19] Additionally, Copenhagen's metro was designed in tandem with the creation of protected public green space to help enhance the Metropolitan Area.[20] Recently, technology and big-data is being implemented to create new jobs as well as sustainable solutions in Copenhagen.[21] A recent proposal is to identify a what the production of certain food's impact on climate change amounts to on the food label; this is an example of the Copenhagen's leading focus on environmental awareness.[22]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Kjærgaard, Thorkild. (1994). The Danish revolution, 1500-1800 : an ecohistorical interpretation. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521442672. OCLC 29600816.
  2. ^ a b "Denmark - The economy and agricultural reforms". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-06-13.
  3. ^ Ukraine, Denmark in. "Danish History and Culture". Denmark in Ukraine. Retrieved 2019-06-13.
  4. ^ "Quick Facts | Copenhagen: Sustainable City". Retrieved 2019-06-09.
  5. ^ Naess, Petter (2006-09-27). "Urban Structure Matters". doi:10.4324/9780203099186. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ Sterner, Thomas; Damon, Maria (2011). "Green growth in the post-Copenhagen climate". Energy Policy. 39 (11): 7169. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.08.036. ISSN 0301-4215.
  7. ^ Nordhaus, W. D. (2010-06-14). "Economic aspects of global warming in a post-Copenhagen environment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (26): 11721–11726. doi:10.1073/pnas.1005985107. ISSN 0027-8424.
  8. ^ Winter, Amanda K. (2018-11-28). "The green city citizen: Exploring the ambiguities of sustainable lifestyles in Copenhagen". Environmental Policy and Governance. 29 (1): 14–22. doi:10.1002/eet.1837. ISSN 1756-932X.
  9. ^ Jensen, Cathrine Ulla; Panduro, Toke Emil; Lundhede, Thomas Hedemark; Nielsen, Anne Sofie Elberg; Dalsgaard, Mette; Thorsen, Bo Jellesmark (2018). "The impact of on-shore and off-shore wind turbine farms on property prices". Energy Policy. 116: 50–59. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.01.046. ISSN 0301-4215.
  10. ^ a b Stern, Nicholas. "Prospects for progress: moving forward on climate policy." Harvard International Review 33.1 (2011): 27+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources. Web. 8 June 2019.  
  11. ^ Lau, Lee Chung; Lee, Keat Teong; Mohamed, Abdul Rahman (2012). "Global warming mitigation and renewable energy policy development from the Kyoto Protocol to the Copenhagen Accord—A comment". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 16 (7): 5280–5284. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.006. ISSN 1364-0321.
  12. ^ Yang, Yuan; Zhang, Junjie; Wang, Can (2018-04-01). "Forecasting China's Carbon Intensity -- Is China on Track to Comply with Its Copenhagen Commitment?". The Energy Journal. 39 (2). doi:10.5547/01956574.39.2.yyan. ISSN 0195-6574.
  13. ^ a b Engberg, Lars A. (2017-09-28), "Climate Adaptation and Citizens' Participation in Denmark: Experiences from Copenhagen", The Urban Book Series, Springer International Publishing, pp. 139–161, ISBN 9783319650029, retrieved 2019-06-09
  14. ^ Larsen, Rasmus Kløcker; Powell, Neil (2013). "Making Sense of Accountability in Baltic Agro-Environmental Governance: The Case of Denmark's Green Growth Strategy". Social and Environmental Accountability Journal. 33 (2): pg. 72. doi:10.1080/0969160x.2012.743276. ISSN 0969-160X. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  15. ^ Dubbeldam, Heather, and Villahermosa, Joseph. "The Next Green: Report From Denmark." The Canadian Architect 63, no. 2 (2018): 21-23.
  16. ^ Pineda, Andrés Felipe Valderrama; Vogel, Nina (2014-01-01). "Transitioning to a Low Carbon Society? The Case of Personal Transportation and Urban Form in Copenhagen: 1947 to the Present". Transfers. 4 (2). doi:10.3167/trans.2014.040202. ISSN 2045-4813.
  17. ^ Kemp, Roger L., editor. Stephani, Carl J., author. Urban transportation innovations worldwide : a handbook of best practices outside the United States. p. 87. ISBN 9781476618272. OCLC 900193929. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Nielsen, Thomas A. Sick; Skov-Petersen, Hans; Agervig Carstensen, Trine (2013). "Urban planning practices for bikeable cities – the case of Copenhagen". Urban Research & Practice. 6 (1): 111. doi:10.1080/17535069.2013.765108. ISSN 1753-5069.
  19. ^ "Copenhagen City of Cyclists - facts and figures 2017". Cycling Embassy of Denmark. 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2019-06-13.
  20. ^ Valderrama Pineda, Andrés Felipe; Jørgensen, Ulrik (2016). "Creating Copenhagen's Metro – On the role of protected spaces in arenas of development". Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. 18: 202. doi:10.1016/j.eist.2015.05.002. ISSN 2210-4224.
  21. ^ "Copenhagen Looks to Big Data to Deliver a Sustainable Future". State of Green. Retrieved 2019-06-09.
  22. ^ "Denmark's green proposals feature labels on food's climate impact". www.just-food.com. 2018-10-11. Retrieved 2019-06-13.

Diversity and immigration

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Amsterdam experienced an influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War. With 180 different nationalities, Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world. The proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50% and 88% of the population are Dutch citizens.

A large number of Amsterdam's immigrant population consists of Berbers.[1] The Berber people, also known as the Amazigh people, are an ethnic race of indigenous peoples from Morocco in North Africa and are sometimes referred to as from the Maghreb —a generalization of the region encompassing most Northern African countries.[2][3] After the Second World War ended, the Dutch economy underwent rapid growth, resulting in a shortage of labor.[1] Berbers left rural Morocco to find employment in the more prosperous Dutch economy, starting an annual decrease in Morocco's labor and work force percentages.[4] The migration resulted in large Berber populations gravitating toward urban economic centers like Amsterdam.


For the incoming Berber population in the Netherlands, a complicated process awaits to obtain a visa.[5][6] Berber peoples face racial exclusion or attacks, be they verbal or physical.[7] Migration policymaking has begun to change in Amsterdam to be more inclusive of incoming immigrants.[8][9] The Immigration and Naturalization Services (Immigratie en Naturalisatiedienst or IND) is now required by law to give immigrants seeking asylum a verdict on asylum applications within a 6 month time frame. [10] In recent years, there has been a measurable increase in political representation for migrant populations, including the Berbers, in Amsterdam.[11] Similarly, recent studies have shown that an effort to promote literacy among Berber women in the Netherlands has resulted in the betterment of their health. [12]

Amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the Netherlands which provided immigrants with extensive and free Dutch-language courses, which have benefited many immigrants.

Amsterdam References

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  1. ^ a b van Amersfoort, Hans; van Heelsum, Anja (October 2008). "Moroccan Berber Immigrants in The Netherlands, Their Associations and Transnational Ties: A Quest for Identity and Recognition". Immigrants & Minorities. 25 (3): pp. 236. doi:10.1080/02619280802407343. ISSN 0261-9288 – via Taylor & Francis eJournals. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  2. ^ El Aissati, Abderrahman (2005-08-22). "A socio-historical (Berber) perspective on the Amazigh Cultural Movement in North Africa". Afrika Focus. 18 (1–2). doi:10.21825/af.v18i1-2.5420. ISSN 0772-084X.
  3. ^ Barbour, Nevill (1965). Morocco : With 91 ill. and 5 maps. Thames Hudson. pp. 17, 19. OCLC 310101257.
  4. ^ United States. Embassy (Morocco) United States. Bureau of International Labor Affairs. (1989). Morocco. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs. OCLC 24648004.
  5. ^ Ucarer, E. M. (2003-03-01). "Implementing Amsterdam: Immigration and Asylum Rights in EC Law". Journal of Refugee Studies. 16 (1): 100–102. doi:10.1093/jrs/16.1.100. ISSN 0951-6328.
  6. ^ Kuijper, Pj. "Some Legal Problems Associated with the Communitarization of Policy on Visas, Asylum and Immigration under the Amsterdam Treaty and Incorporation of the Schengen Acquis." Common Market Law Review 37, no. 2 (2000): 356.
  7. ^ Siebers, Hans; Dennissen, Marjolein HJ (2014-10-09). "Is it cultural racism? Discursive exclusion and oppression of migrants in the Netherlands". Current Sociology. 63 (3): 470–489. doi:10.1177/0011392114552504. ISSN 0011-3921.
  8. ^ McMahon, Simon (October 2012). "TizianaCaponio and MarenBorkert (eds) The Local Dimension of Migration Policymaking Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, 204 pp. £39.95 pbk". Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. 12 (2): 412. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9469.2012.01168.x. ISSN 1473-8481 – via Wiley Online Library.
  9. ^ Peers, Steve (2016-03-24). EU Justice and Home Affairs Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198776840.
  10. ^ Naturalisatiedienst, Immigratie-en. "Processing times asylum procedure". ind.nl. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  11. ^ Hall, Suzanne M. (2015-06-21). "New York and Amsterdam: immigration and the new urban landscape". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 38 (8): pp. 1450. doi:10.1080/01419870.2014.979849. ISSN 0141-9870. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  12. ^ Bekker, Marrie HJ; Lhajoui, Mina (2004-06-28). "Health and literacy in first- and second-generation Moroccan Berber women in the Netherlands: Ill literacy?". International Journal for Equity in Health. 3 (1). doi:10.1186/1475-9276-3-8. ISSN 1475-9276.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

(old assignment below)

Architecture

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Photograph of Bayeux Cathedral taken in 1865 by F. G. Stephens[1]
Photograph of Rouen Cathedral taken in 1865 by F.G. Stephens

The earliest description of the architecture in Rouen dates back to the 10th century. The town was a rich, flourishing hub of trade on the River Seine and the architecture reflected this in its buildings.[2] As the city fell under different rulers, the lasting architecture reflected their reign. For example, William the Conquerorwas of the Catholic religion. Under his reign during the 11th century, many churches were built in and around Rouen, including La Trinité-du-Mont, Notre-Dame-du-Pré, and the Romanesque cathedral.[2] Gothic architecture emerged in Normandy (the region of France where Rouen is located) in the mid-12th century.[3] Gothic elements of architecture in Rouen still stand today--such as the renowned Rouen Cathedral.

Rouen References

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  1. ^ Stephens, Frederic George. Normandy, Its Gothic Architecture and History: As Illustrated by Twenty-five Photographs from Buildings in Rouen, Caen, Mantes, Bayeaux, and Falaise : A Sketch. A. W. Bennett, 1865.
  2. ^ a b Stratford, Jenny., and British Archaeological Association. Medieval Art, Architecture, and Archaeology at Rouen. Conference Transactions for the Year ... ; 1986. London]: British Archaeological Association, 1993.
  3. ^ Grant, Lindy. Architecture and Society in Normandy 1120 to 1270. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005.



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