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Consonants

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Nasals

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Bilabial nasal

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Environment m
m Some accents Examples
Before /f/ and /v/ ɱ symphony, some value, circumvent
Finally after a consonant m m̩ rhythm
Elsewhere m man, hum

Alveolar nasal

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Environment n
n Some accents Examples
Finally after a consonant n n̩ button
Everywhere n no, Hun

Velar nasal

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Environment ŋ
Most accents Brummie (and which others?) Examples
Before /k/ and /g/ ŋ ŋ drink, finger
Intervocallically ŋg ringer
Finally hung

Plosives and affricates

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Bilabial plosives

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Environment p b
p Examples b Examples
Initially tʃʰ pit b bit
Medially p spin about
Finally tip b̥ web

Alveolar plosives

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Diaphoneme Environment t ord English English American and Australian English Scottish English Hiberno-English Examples
t Initially tʰ tin
In certain positions t ʔ t̞ better
ɾ ʔ
Elsewhere t sting
d Initially d din
Intervocallically d ɾ d daddy
Finally d̥ odd
Elsewhere d mandate

Postalveolar affricates

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Environment tʃ dʒ
tʃ Examples dʒ Examples
Initially tʃʰ cheap dʒ jeep, gin
Medially tʃ nature cagey
Finally teach d̥ʒ̊ edge

Velar plosives

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Environment k ɡ
k Examples ɡ Examples
Initially kʰ cut, kill, queen ɡ gut, get
Medially k skin again
Finally unique, thick ɡ̊ beg

Fricatives

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Labiodental fricatives

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Environment f v
f Examples v Examples
After /p/, /b/ and /m/ ([ɱ]) ɸ up-front, Cub fan, tomfoolery β upvote, obviate, Humvee
Finally f enough, leaf, off v̥ have, of, curve
Elsewhere fat, photo v vat

Alveolar fricatives

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Environment s z
s Some English English (which?) Examples z Examples
Before /j/ s ʃ assume N/A
Finally s pass z̥ rose
Elsewhere sap, city z zap

Dental fricatives

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Environment θ or ð Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, Indian English, New York English and South Asian English (th-stopping) some varieties of Cockney and African American Vernacular English (th-fronting) some Carribbean Examples
θ Everywhere θ t̪ f t thigh, teeth
ð Finally ð̥ d̪̥ v̥ d̥ breathe
Elsewhere ð d̪ v d thy

Postalveolar fricatives

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Environment ʃ ʒ
ʃ Examples ʒ Examples
Finally ʃ leash ʒ̊ beige
Elsewhere shin, sure, session, dilution ʒ genre, pleasure, delusion, seizure

Labiovelar fricative

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Environment hw
hw (wine-whine merger) Scottish English, Irish English, and many American South and New England dialects Examples
Everywhere w ʍ what

Glottal fricative

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Environment h
h Norfolk dialect (yod-dropping) Most British accents Some accents in the Southern Hemisphere Accents with H-dropping Examples
Before /j/ h ç ç ∅ hue
Before high front vowels h hit
Elsewhere ɦ ham

Approximants

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Alveolar lateral approximant

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Environment l
l Australian, New Zealand, Scottish, or American English Irish English RP, some other English accents, and South African English New Zealand English and many regional accents, such as African-American Vernacular English, Cockney, New York English, Estuary English, Pittsburgh English, Standard Singapore English Examples
Finally after a consonant l, ɫ? l̩ bottle
after a voiceless stop at the beginning of a stressed syllable l̥, ɫ̥? ɫ̥ l̥ ɫ l̥? please
In syllable rimes l, ɫ? ɫ l [ɤ~o] or [ɤ̯~o̯], forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel bell, sable
For l-vocalization ?
Elsewhere l lump

Alveolar and labiovelar approximants

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Environment r w
r some varieties of Scottish, Irish, Indian, Welsh, Northern England and South African English some accents in Southern England Scottish, Welsh, South African and Indian dialects Examples w Examples
After a voiceless stop at the beginning of a stressed syllable ɹ̠̊, ɹ̥ʷ, ɹ̥, ɻ̊ ɾ̥ ʋ̥ r̥ probably ʍ queen
Elsewhere ɹ̠, ɹʷ, ɹ, ɻ ɾ ʋ r run, very w wore

Palatal approximant

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Environment j
j Examples
Everywhere j your, Mayan

Marginal consonants

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These consonants are marginal phonemes, meaning that they only occur in a few specific words.

Velar fricative

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Environment x
x With loch-lock merger Welsh English White South African English Marginal Examples
Scottish loan words x k χ χ h, ɦ? loch
Welsh loan words N/A Amlwch /ˈæmlʊx/
Afrikaans or Xhosa loan words N/A χ gogga /ˈxɒxə/
ugh (read) ɣ, g, k
ugh (spoken) x, ɣ, ʀ̊, ɣ, g, k

Glottal stop

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Environment ʔ
∅uh-oh ʔ

Alveolar lateral fricatives

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Environment ɬ ɮ
ɬ Welsh English South African English Examples ɮ South African English Examples
Welsh loan words l ɬ l Llangefni N/A
Zulu loan words l ɬ hlala gahle[1] l ɮ ibandla[2]

Vowels

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Current representation of sets

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This section contains the section of each set in the large current table. All realizations which are not part of that set (whether internal or merged) are deleted and the cells are merged for clarity.

TRAP

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Dia-

phoneme[i]

Keyword Examples AmE AuE[3][4] BahE BarE CaE[5] Cameroonian English[6] CIE EnE FiE InE[7] IrE[8] NZE[9][10] Newfoundland English[11] PaE ScE[12] SIE SAE[13][14] SSE WaE[15]
AAVE Boston accent Cajun English California English Chicano English General American[16][17][9] Inland Northern American English Miami accent Mid-Atlantic English New York accent Philadelphia accent Southern American English Brummie[18] Southern England English Northern England English RP Ulster English West & South-West Irish English Dublin English Supraregional southern Irish English Abercraf English Port Talbot English Cardiff English
Non-Rhotic Rhotic Older Younger Northern Southern Non-Rhotic Older Rhotic Older Non-Rhotic Rhotic Cultivated General Broad Cockney Estuary English (EE) MLE[19] West Country Cumbrian Geordie Lancashire Manchester Pitmatic Scouse Yorkshire Conservative[20][21] Contemporary (SSBE)[22] Belfast Mid-Ulster traditional Ulster Scots Local Dublin English New Dublin English Cultivated General Broad Cultivated General Broad
æ TRAP ham ɛː~ɛə̯~eə̯ ɪə̯~eə̯~ɛɐ̯[ii] æ eə~ɛə æ~ɛə̯~eə̯ eə̯~ɛə̯~æ[ii] eə̯~ɪə̯ æ ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯[ii] æə̯~ɛə̯~eə̯[ii] æɛæ~eə eə̯~æjə[ii] æː[iii] æː~ɛː[iii] æ̝ː~ɛː~e̞ː[iii] æ~a a æ~ɛə̯[ii] a̽ æ a æ~ɛ~ɛɪ æ~a~ɛ̞ ɐ̞ æː~aː a~ä a a~ä a a~ä æ aː[iii] æ æ~ɛ äː~a æ a æ~a æ ɛ ɛ̝ æ æ ä ɑ~æ æ a~æ æ~ɛ~e̞ ɛ[23] a aː[iii] aː~æː[iii]
bad æ~ɛː~ɛə̯ æ~ɛə̯ æ~ɛə̯ ɛ~æ~a~ä æ~æ̞ æ æ, ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯[ii] æ æ~æɛæ~ɐɛɐ æ~æjə~æ̠ɛæ̠ æ~a̝
lad æ a̝~æ æ~ɛ æ~ɛ a a a~æ (TRAP-BATH split is variable)
ɑː / æ BATH
ɑː PALM

BATH

[edit]
Dia-

phoneme[iv]

Keyword Examples AmE AuE[3][4] BahE BarE CaE[5] Cameroonian English[6] CIE EnE FiE InE[7] IrE[8] NZE[9][10] Newfoundland English[11] PaE ScE[12] SIE SAE[13][14] SSE WaE[15]
AAVE Boston accent Cajun English California English Chicano English General American[16][17][9] Inland Northern American English Miami accent Mid-Atlantic English New York accent Philadelphia accent Southern American English Brummie[18] Southern England English Northern England English RP Ulster English West & South-West Irish English Dublin English Supraregional southern Irish English Abercraf English Port Talbot English Cardiff English
Non-Rhotic Rhotic Older Younger Northern Southern Non-Rhotic Older Rhotic Older Non-Rhotic Rhotic Cultivated General Broad Cockney Estuary English (EE) MLE[19] West Country Cumbrian Geordie Lancashire Manchester Pitmatic Scouse Yorkshire Conservative[20][21] Contemporary (SSBE)[22] Belfast Mid-Ulster traditional Ulster Scots Local Dublin English New Dublin English Cultivated General Broad Cultivated General Broad
æ TRAP ham æ eə̯~ɪə̯ æ æ~a a̽ a æː~aː a~ä a a~ä a a~ä äː~a æ ä a
bad æ~ɛː~ɛə̯ æ~ɛə̯ ɛ~æ~a~ä æ~æ̞ æ æ~æjə~æ̠ɛæ̠ æ~a̝
lad a a~æ (TRAP-BATH split is variable)
ɑː / æ BATH ä~a ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯[ii] æə̯~ɛə̯~eə̯[ii] æɛ~æe äː äː~ɐː aː ɑː ɑː ɑː~ɑ̟ː~ɑ̹ː ɑː ɑ̟ː ɑ̈ː~ʌ̞ː a~ɑ äː æː~aː aː ɐː~äː æː ɑ ɑ̟ː ɑː ɒː~ɔː ä[24]
ɑː PALM

PALM

[edit]
Dia-

phoneme[v]

AmE AuE[25][26] BahE BajE CaE[27] Cameroonian English[28] CIE EnE FiE InE[29] IrE[30] NZE[31][32] Newfoundland English[11] PaE ScE[33] SIE SAE[34][35] SSE WaE[36] Keyword Examples
AAVE Boston accent Cajun English California English Chicano English General American[37][38][31] Inland Northern American English Miami accent Mid-Atlantic accent New York accent Philadelphia English Southern American English Brummie[39] Southern England English Northern England English RP Ulster English South-West Irish English Dublin English Standard Irish English Abercraf English Port Talbot English Cardiff English
Non-Rhotic Rhotic Older Younger Northern Southern Non-Rhotic Older Rhotic Older Non-Rhotic Rhotic Cultivated General Broad Cockney Estuary English (EE) MLE[40] West Country Cumbrian Geordie Lancashire Manchester Pitmatic Scouse Yorkshire Conservative[41][42] Contemporary (SSBE)[43] Belfast Mid-Ulster Traditional Ulster Scots Local New Cultivated General Broad Cultivated General Broad
æ a̽ ä TRAP ham
bad
lad
ɑː / æ ä~a äː äː~ɐː aː ɑː ɑː ɑː~ɑ̟ː~ɑ̹ː ɑː ɑ̟ː ɑ̈ː~ʌ̞ː äː æː~aː aː ɐː~äː ɑ̟ː ɑː ɒː~ɔː ä[44] BATH pass
ɑː a~ä~ɑ a~ä ɑ ä~ɑ~ɒ ä~a ɑ~ä a~ä ɑ ɑ̟ː ɑ~ä ɑ ɑ ɒ~ɑ ɑː ɒ~ɑ äː ɒː~ɑː äː aː~ɑː äː aː äː~ɑː æ~ɑː ɑː ɑː aː aː~æː PALM father
ɒ LOT not
ɒ / ɔː CLOTH off[vi]
ɔː THOUGHT law
pause

Conditional mergers proposal

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DRESS

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Accent Realizations and sub-sets Mergers
Allophonic splits ? Away from DRESS
pen MERRy length[citation needed] DRESS MURRay-MERRy merger pin-pen merger
AmE Cajun English[citation needed] ɪ ʌr i ɛ~æ Green tickY Green tickY

KIT

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Accent Realizations and sub-sets Mergers
Towards KIT
KIT pen
AmE Cajun English[citation needed] ɪ Green tickY

NURSE example

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Accent Realizations Splits Mergers
Existing sets which make up Wells' set Phonemic splits Allophonic splits Absent from Wells' sets Present in Wells' sets Towards NURSE Away from NURSE Towards a new realization
FUR FIR FERN WORSE (fictional) BURN (fictional) FUR-HURRy split, FIR-MIRROR split, FERN-MERRy split NURSE-FORCE split (fictional) HURRy-FURRy merger NURSE-SQUAREmerger NURSE-NORTH

merger

NURSE-lettER merger[citation needed] NURSE-START merger (fictional)
AmE General American ɚ~ɝ — — Orange tickY Red XN Green tickY Red XN Red XN Green tickY Red XN
ScE[45] ʌɾ ɪɾ~ʌɾ ɛɾ Red XN (Green tickY) Red XN
EnE Northern England English[citation needed] broadest Geordie øː(ɹ)~ɪː(ɹ)~əː(ɹ)~ɔː(ɹ) Green tickY Red XN Green tickY
Various various Green tickY Red XN

Other projects

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Dia-

phoneme[vii]

r / ∅ ɛə(r) / eɪ.ə(r) aɪl / aɪ.əl æ æ(r) ɑː / æ ɑː(r) ɑː ɒ ɒ / ɔː ɔː ə ɪ ɪ(r) iː i eɪ ɛ ɛ(r) ʌ ʌ(r) ʊ uː juː aɪ ɔɪ oʊ aʊ ɪə(r) ɪə(r) ɛə(r) ɜː(r) ə(r) ɔː(r) ʊə(r) jʊə(r)
Wells' Lexical Set Rhoticity Mare-mayor merger Vile-vial merger TRAP BATH START PALM LOT CLOTH THOUGHT commA KIT FLEECE happY FACE DRESS STRUT FOOT GOOSE PRICE CHOICE GOAT MOUTH NEAR SQUARE NURSE lettER NORTH FORCE CURE
Extended Lexical Set TRAP MARRy KIT MIRRor MEET MEAT PANE PAIN FACE DRESS MERRy[viii] STRUT HURRy THROUGH THREW GOOSE TOE TOW GOAT NEAR NEARer FUR[ix] FIR FERN
Allophonic Contrast ham bad lad THOUGHT pause fall roses KIT bit (OS) think[x] feel free fail pen length[citation needed] DRESS celery STRUT hull gulf put? full ruler cute PRICE pride hole/dole[xi] MOUTH proud lettER donor[citation needed] tour pure
AmE AAVE Non-Rhotic ɛː~ɛə̯~eə̯ æ~ɛː~ɛə̯ ɑ~ɒ a~ä~ɑ ɒ(ɔ̯)~ɔ(ʊ̯)~ɔə̯ ə ɪ~iə̯ i ɪ~i eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯ ɪ~iə̯, ɛ~eə̯ ɛ~eə̯ ʌ~ɜ ʊ~ʊ̜̈~ɵ~ø̞ ʊu̯~u (j)ʊu̯~(j)u äɪ̯ äː~äe̯~aː oɪ̯ ʌʊ̯~ɔʊ̯ æɔ̯~æə̯ æɔ̯~æə̯ or äː~äe̯~aː iə̯~iɤ̯ ɛə̯ ɚ ə oə̯~ɔə̯~ɔo̯ juə̯~jʊə̯
Rhotic ɑɹ~ɒɹ iɹ ɛɹ ɚ ɚ oɹ juɹ~jʊɹ
Boston accent Younger ɪə̯~eə̯~ɛɐ̯ æ~ɛə̯ a(ɹ)~ä(ɹ) ä~a ɒ~ɑ ɪ~ɪ̞~ɪ̈ i eɪ̯ ɛ ʌ~ɐ ʊ u~ʊu̯~ɵu̯ (j)u~(j)ʊu̯~(j)ɵu̯ ɐɪ̯ äɪ̯ ɔɪ̯~oɪ̯ oʊ̯~ɔʊ̯ ɐʊ̯ ɑ̟ʊ̯ ɪə̯(ɹ)~ɪɐ̯(ɹ) ɛə̯(ɹ)~ɛɐ̯(ɹ) əː(ɹ) ɔə̯(ɹ)~ɒə̯(ɹ)~ɒ(ɹ) ɔə̯(ɹ)~oɐ̯(ɹ) ʊə̯(ɹ)~ʊɐ̯(ɹ) jʊə̯(ɹ)~jʊɐ̯(ɹ)
Older æ~ɛə̯ ä~a əː(ɹ)
Cajun English[citation needed] æ ɑ(ɹ)~a(ɹ) ɑ a ɪ ɪ~i eː ɪ i ɛ~æ ʌ u ɑɪ̯~aː ɔɪ̯ oː aʊ̯~aː i(ɹ)~ɪ(ɹ) ɛ(ɹ)~æ(ɹ) ʌə(ɹ)~ʌɹ əɹ ʌə(ɹ)~ʌɹ ɔə(ɹ)~ɔɹ uə(ɹ)~ʊə(ɹ) juə(ɹ)~jʊə(ɹ)

Consonant table from General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages with IPA symbols (surely the table's classifications are enough evidence for broad transcription to be useful?)

bilabial labio-

dental

inter-

dental

dental/

alveolar

post-alveolar palatal velar labio-

velar

glottal
Stop voiceless p ⟨p⟩ t ⟨t⟩ k ⟨k⟩ k͡p ⟨kp⟩ ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩
voiced b ⟨b⟩ d ⟨d⟩ g ⟨g⟩ ɡ͡b ⟨gb⟩
Implosive ɓ ⟨ɓ⟩ ɗ ⟨ɗ⟩ ƴ ⟨ƴ⟩
Affricate voiceless p͡f ⟨pf⟩ t͡f ⟨tf⟩ t͡s ⟨ts⟩ t͡ʃ ⟨c⟩ k͡f ⟨kf⟩
voiced b͡v ⟨bv⟩ d͡v ⟨dv⟩ d͡z ⟨dz⟩ d͡ʒ ⟨j⟩ g͡v ⟨gv⟩
Fricative voiceless f ⟨f⟩ s ⟨s⟩ ʃ ⟨sh⟩ x ⟨x⟩ x͡f ⟨xf⟩ h ⟨h⟩
voiced v ⟨v⟩ z ⟨z⟩ ʒ ⟨zh⟩ ɣ ⟨gh⟩ ɣ͡v ⟨hv⟩
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩ ɲ ⟨ny⟩ ŋ ⟨ŋ⟩ ŋ͡m ⟨ŋm⟩
Lateral approximant l ⟨l⟩
voiceless fric. ɬ ⟨sl⟩
voiced fric. ɮ ⟨zl⟩
Vibrant ʙ ⟨ʙ⟩** ⱱ ⟨vb⟩ ɾ ⟨r⟩
Approximant w ⟨ẅ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
  1. ^ Dictionary Unit for South African English (2023). "‖hlala kahle". Dictionary of South African English. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  2. ^ Dictionary Unit for South African English (2023). "ibandla". Dictionary of South African English. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  3. ^ a b Harrington, Cox & Evans (1997)
  4. ^ a b Cox & Palethorpe (2007)
  5. ^ a b Boberg (2004)
  6. ^ a b Todd, Loreto (1982). Cameroon. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027286703.
  7. ^ a b Sailaja (2009:19–26)
  8. ^ a b Wells (1982:422)
  9. ^ a b c d Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  10. ^ a b Bauer et al. (2007:97–102)
  11. ^ a b c Wells (1982), p. 499.
  12. ^ a b Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7)
  13. ^ a b Bekker (2008)
  14. ^ a b Lass (2002:111–119)
  15. ^ a b Coupland & Thomas (1990:93–136)
  16. ^ a b Kenyon & Knott (1953)
  17. ^ a b Kenyon (1950)
  18. ^ a b Wells (1982:364)
  19. ^ a b Fox, Susan (2015). The New Cockney: New Ethnicities and Adolescent Speech in the Traditional East End of London.
  20. ^ a b Roach (2004:241–243)
  21. ^ a b "Case Studies – Received Pronunciation Phonology – RP Vowel Sounds". British Library. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
  22. ^ a b "The British English vowel system". 8 March 2012.
  23. ^ Suzanna Bet Hashim and Brown, Adam (2000) 'The [e] and [æ] vowels in Singapore English'. In Adam Brown, David Deterding and Low Ee Ling (eds.) The English Language in Singapore: Research on Pronunciation, Singapore: Singapore Association for Applied Linguistics ISBN 981-04-2598-8, pp. 84–92.
  24. ^ Deterding, David (2007). Singapore English. United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-7486-3096-7.
  25. ^ Harrington, Cox & Evans (1997)
  26. ^ Cox & Palethorpe (2007)
  27. ^ Boberg (2004)
  28. ^ Todd, Loreto (1982). Cameroon. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027286703.
  29. ^ Sailaja (2009:19–26)
  30. ^ Wells (1982:422)
  31. ^ a b Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  32. ^ Bauer et al. (2007:97–102)
  33. ^ Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7)
  34. ^ Bekker (2008)
  35. ^ Lass (2002:111–119)
  36. ^ Coupland & Thomas (1990:93–136)
  37. ^ Kenyon & Knott (1953)
  38. ^ Kenyon (1950)
  39. ^ Wells (1982:364)
  40. ^ Fox, Susan (2015). The New Cockney: New Ethnicities and Adolescent Speech in the Traditional East End of London.
  41. ^ Roach (2004:241–243)
  42. ^ "Case Studies – Received Pronunciation Phonology – RP Vowel Sounds". British Library. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
  43. ^ "The British English vowel system". 8 March 2012.
  44. ^ Deterding, David (2007). Singapore English. United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-7486-3096-7.
  45. ^ Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7)


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