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Wikipedia's contents: Technology and applied sciences

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A steam turbine
Technology is an expanded concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human civilization, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several technological advances predate the formalization of these two disciplines. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas – examples include construction technology, medical technology, or state-of-the-art technology.

The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of plentiful natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear bombs.

Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific fields to solving practical problems. For example, fields of engineering are applied sciences. Applied science is important for technology development. Its use in industrial settings is usually referred to as research and development (R&D).

Technology and applied sciences
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Overview

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Main articles: Technology and Applied science

Technological concepts and issues – Accelerating change • Appropriate technology • Diffusion of innovations in science • Doomsday device • High technology • History of science and technology • History of technology • Industry • Innovation • Knowledge economy • Persuasion technology • Pollution • Posthumanism • Precautionary principle • Research and development • Strategy of technology • Superpowers • Technocapitalism • Technocriticism • Techno-progressivism • Technological convergence • Technological evolution • Technological determinism • Technological diffusion • Technological singularity • Technology acceptance model • Technology assessment • Technology lifecycle • Technology transfer • Technology tree • Technorealism • Timeline of invention • Transhumanism

Technologies and applied sciences – Aerospace • Agriculture, Agricultural science & Agronomy • Architecture • Automation • Automobile • Big science • Biotechnology • Cartography • Communication • Construction • Design • Electronics • Energy development • Energy storage • Engineering (Chemical engineering, Civil engineering, Electrical engineering, Mechanical engineering) • Ergonomics • Firefighting • Food science • Forensics • Forestry • Free software • Health sciences • Health Informatics • Industry • Information science (Library and information science) • Internet • Machines • Management • Manufacturing • Mass communication • Mass production • Medicine (Unsolved problems in neuroscience) • Military science • Military technology and equipment • Mining • Nanotechnology • Nuclear technology • Packaging and labeling • Processes • Robotics • Space exploration • Technology forecasting • Telecommunications • Tools • Weapons

Computing – Computer science (Open problems in computer science) • Information systems • Information technology • Programming • Software engineering • Computer engineering • Moore's law
Artificial intelligence – Automated reasoning • Computer vision • Ethics of AI • History of AI (Timeline of AI) • Machine learning (Pattern recognition) • Natural language processing • Progress in AI • Self-driving vehicles • Symbolic AI • Synthetic intelligence • Weak AI
Artificial general intelligence – AI control problem → Existential risk from AGI (Technological singularity → Intelligence explosion → Superintelligence → AI takeover → Human extinction?) • AI complete • Artificial consciousness • Friendly AI • Instrumental convergence • Singularitarianism
Emerging technologies – 3D printing • Artificial intelligence (see above) • Augmented reality • Bioplastics • Brain–computer interfacing • Cancer vaccine • Cellular agriculture • Cryptocurrency • Gene therapy • Nanotechnology • Reusable launch systems • Robotics (Autonomous robots, Robot-assisted surgery) • Stem-cell therapy • Tissue engineering
Transport –   Air transport (Aircraft, Airline, Airport) • Maritime transport (Harbors, Ports, Ships) • Off-road transport • Rail transport (Trains, Train track) • Road transport (Roads, Bridges, Tunnels, Vehicles) • Space transport


Outlines

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Applied Science – The application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Examples include testing a theoretical model through the use of formal science or solving a practical problem through the use of natural science.

Technology – The making, usage, knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function is referred as technology. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures.

Technologies and applied sciences

  • Aerospace – flight or transport above the surface of the Earth.
    • Space exploration – the physical investigation of the space more than 100 km above the Earth by either manned or unmanned spacecraft.
  • Applied physics – physics which is intended for a particular technological or practical use. It is usually considered as a bridge or a connection between "pure" physics and engineering.
  • Agriculture – cultivation of plants, animals, and other living organisms.
    • Fishing – activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.
      • Fisheries – A fishery is an entity which is engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats, purpose of the activities or a combination of the foregoing features".
      • Fishing industry – industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products. It is defined by the FAO as including recreational, subsistence and commercial fishing, and the harvesting, processing, and marketing sectors.
    • Forestry – art and science of tree resources, including plantations and natural stands. The main goal of forestry is to create and implement systems that allow forests to continue a sustainable provision of environmental supplies and services.
    • Organic gardening and farming – a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones.
    • Sustainable agriculture – farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services, and the study of relationships between organisms and their environment.
  • Communication – the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium.
    • Books – A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of ink, paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side
    • Telecommunication – the transfer of information at a distance, including signaling, telegraphy, telephony, telemetry, radio, television, and data communications.
      • Radio – Aural or encoded telecommunications.
      • Internet – the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).
      • Television broadcasting – Visual and aural telecommunications.
  • Computing – any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computers. Computing includes designing and building hardware and software systems; processing, structuring, and managing various kinds of information; doing scientific research on and with computers; making computer systems behave intelligently; creating and using communications and entertainment media; and more.
    • Computer engineering – discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer systems, from designing individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design.
      • Computers – general purpose devices that can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, computers can solve more than one kind of problem.
    • Computer science – the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems.
      • Artificial intelligence – intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it.
        • Computer vision – interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do.
          • Object recognition – in computer vision, this is the task of finding a given object in an image or video sequence.
        • Natural language processing – computer activity in which computers are entailed to analyze, understand, alter, or generate natural language. This includes the automation of any or all linguistic forms, activities, or methods of communication, such as conversation, correspondence, reading, written composition, dictation, publishing, translation, lip reading, and so on.
      • Cryptography – the technology to secure communications in the presence of third parties.
      • Human-computer interaction – the study of how people interact with computers and to what extent computers are or are not developed for successful interaction with human beings.
    • Information technology – the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications.
    • Software engineering – the systematic approach to the development, operation, maintenance, and retirement of computer software.
      • Programming – the process of designing, writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code of computer programs.
      • Software development – development of a software product, which entails computer programming (process of writing and maintaining the source code), but also encompasses a planned and structured process from the conception of the desired software to its final manifestation.
        • Web design and web development – web design encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites, while web development is the work involved in developing a web site for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network).
      • C++ – One of the most popular programming languages with application domains including systems software, application software, device drivers, embedded software, high-performance server and client applications, and entertainment software such as video games.
      • Perl – high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Used for text processing, CGI scripting, graphics programming, system administration, network programming, finance, bioinformatics, and more.
    • Software – one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for one or more purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.
      • Application software – is program or a group of programs designed for end users.
        • Databases – is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed and updated.
          • MySQL ("My Structured Query Language") – world's second most widely used relational database management system (RDBMS) and most widely used open-source RDBMS.
        • Search engines – information retrieval systems designed to help find information stored on a computer system.
      • Free software – software that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction.
      • Operating systems
        • iOS – mobile operating system developed and distributed by Apple Inc. Originally released in 2007 for the iPhone and iPod Touch, it has since been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPad and Apple TV.
        • Ubuntu – multi-platform Debian Linux-based operating system.
    • Internet – the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).
      • Wikipedia – a multilingual free internet encyclopedia created by volunteers using a wiki-based editing system
    • Computer industry
      • Apple Inc. – manufacturer and retailer of computers, hand-held computing devices, and related products and services. It is one of the Big Five American information technology companies.
      • Google – Google Inc. and its Internet services including Google Search.
      • Microsoft – American multinational technology corporation producing computer software and hardware. It is one of the Big Five American information technology companies.
    • Computer security – Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, is the protection of information systems from theft or damage to the hardware, the software, and to the information on them, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.
  • Construction – building or assembly of any physical structure.
  • Design – the art and science of creating the abstract form and function for an object or environment.
    • Architecture – the art and science of designing buildings.
  • Electronics – the branch of physics and technology concerned with the design of circuits using transistors and microchips, and with the behavior and movement of electrons in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas.
  • Industry – production of an economic good or service.
    • Automation – use of machinery to replace human labor.
    • Industrial machinery –
    • Machines – devices that perform or assist in performing useful work.
    • Manufacturing – use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.
    • Metalworking – the science, art, industry, and craft of shaping metal.
    • Robotics – deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots.
  • Energy – is an indirectly observed quantity often understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other physical systems.
    • Energy development – ongoing effort to provide abundant, efficient, and accessible energy resources through knowledge, skills, and construction.
    • Energy storage – the storage of a form of energy that can then be used later.
    • Nuclear technology – the technology and application of the spontaneous and induced reactions of atomic nuclei.
      • Nuclear power – use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity.
    • Wind energy – is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also called wind.
    • Solar energy – radiant light and heat from the sun.
  • Engineering – the application of science, mathematics, and technology to produce useful goods and systems.
  • Firefighting – act of extinguishing fires. A firefighter fights fires to prevent destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a professional technical skill.
  • Forensic science – application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or a civil action.
  • Futures studies – includes identification and forecasting of possible futures and future events, and analysis of their ramifications
  • Health
    • Biotechnology – applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts.
    • Ergonomics – the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.
    • Medicine – applied science of diagnosing and treating illness and disease.
  • Hydrology – The study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
  • Information science – interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.[1]
    • Cartography – the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.
    • Library science – technology related to libraries and the information fields.
  • Military science – the study of the technique, psychology, practice and other phenomena which constitute war and armed conflict.
  • Mining – extraction of mineral resources from the earth.
  • Nanotechnology – The study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with structures sized between 1 to 100 nanometre in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices possessing at least one dimension within that size.
  • Prehistoric technology – technologies that emerged before recorded history (i.e., before the development of writing).
  • Rocketry – the design and construction of rockets.
  • Sustainability – capacity to endure. In ecology, the word describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions.
  • Transport – the transfer of people or things from one place to another.
    • Transport, by type:
      • Transport, by mode:
        • Land transport
          • Rail transport – means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks consisting of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties and ballast.
      • Transport, by power source:
        • Animal-powered transport – human use of non-human working animals for the movement of people and goods, via riding, having them carry packs or pull sleds or wheeled vehicles.
    • Transportation planning – process of defining future policies, goals, investments, and spatial planning designs to prepare for future needs to move people and goods to destinations.
    • Transportation Systems
      • Bridges – a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath.
    • Public transport – transport of passengers by group travel systems available for use by the general public, typically managed on a schedule, operated on established routes, and that charge a posted fee for each trip.
    • Vehicles – mechanical devices for transporting people or things.
      • Vehicles, by type:
        • Land vehicles
          • Automobiles – human-guided powered land-vehicles.
          • Bicycles – human-powered land-vehicles with two or more wheels.
          • Motorcycles – single-track, engine-powered, motor vehicles. They are also called motorbikes, bikes, or cycles.
      • Vehicle components
        • Tires – ring-shaped coverings that fit around wheel rims

Lists

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Portals

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Technology
Computing and information technology
Electronics
Telecommunication
Telephones
Energy
Renewable energy
Wind power
Engineering
Transport
Roads

Glossaries

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Technology and applied sciences

Computing and information technology

Transport

Categories

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Main categories: Technology and Applied sciences

Indices

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Agriculture
Fishing
Organic food
Forestry
Architecture
Aviation
Home automation
Biotechnology
Index of biomedical engineering articles
Chemical engineering
Communication
Internet
Telephone
Video
Computing
Internet
Android OS
Software engineering
Construction
Structural engineering
Education
Electronics
Energy
Steam energy
Renewable energy
Solar energy
Engineering
Quality engineering
Structural engineering
Firefighting
Health
Oral health and dentistry
Management
Theory of Constraints
Military
Military food
Robotics
  1. ^ Merriam-Webster and American Heritage Dictionary.

Block Ice Plant

An ice machine, ice generator, ice plant, ice maker; call it what you want to, refers to the device for making ice, mostly found in your home freezer of your refrigeration gadget, a stand-alone appliance for producing ice or an industrial machine purposely built for large scale ice manufacturing. Commonly, we refer to the whole gadget as the “ice generator”. However, the ice generator is one of the main parts of the whole machine and its function is to generate ice. There are different types of artificial ice making machines, each designed for its use and purpose; e.g. the Block Ice Plant, Tube Ice Machine, Flake Ice Maker, Cube Ice Machine, Plate Ice Plant etc.


History

According to Schmidt L.M., the art of artificially freezing water to make ice cannot be acclaimed as a modern science. He explains, ages ago, in India, water was frozen in thin permeable earthen dishes resting on some non-conducting material such as straw or grass by being exposed to currents of air during the night.

  • In 1748, the first known artificial refrigeration was demonstrated by William Cullen at the University of Glasgow.
  • In 1844, an American physician, John Gorrie, built a refrigerator based on Oliver Evans' design to make ice to cool the air for his yellow fever patients.
  • In 1929, Dr. Jurgen Hans from Germany created the first tube ice plant capable of manufacturing edible ice tubes. In 1932, he founded his business venture Külinda in Frankfurt, which produced tube ice for restaurant demands. Külinda is now world renowned with business ventures as far as China; Focusun Refrigeration Corporation.

Principle of ice making

All refrigeration system use the same principles of generating ice; however, the method may differ putting into account some others factors. Nevertheless, Schmidt L.M. classify the refrigeration method in two main classes; Direct and Indirect Refrigeration.

Refrigeration

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or from a substance, and moving it to a place where it is unobjectionable. The main principle of refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or substance and then maintaining that lower temperature. Cold conditions can be created by removing heat, for this reason, in order to reduce a temperature, one "removes heat", rather than "adding cold.

Direct Refrigeration System

In this method of refrigeration, an evaporator is placed directly in the chambers or rooms desired to be cooled. When the refrigerant is allowed to expand in the coils of the evaporator, the surrounding pipes are cooled and absorb heat from the surrounding chamber or room, affecting the cooling as desired.

Brine or Indirect Refrigeration System

This system incorporates an intermediate liquid to transport chilled liquid between the refrigeration equipment and the process. It is employed where the space or product to be cooled is separated from the condensing equipment. Water, brine or some other suitable liquid is cooled by a direct-expansion refrigerant and pumped to the spaces or products being refrigerated. In these applications, the cooled liquid is called a secondary refrigerant. Secondary refrigerants are circulated directly to the product or vessel to be refrigerated or indirectly to several locations using air-cooling heat transfer coils. The advantage of indirect refrigeration is that, the cooling process is kept separate from the product or vessel being cooled. This is method is useful where the leakage of refrigerant and oil from the piping would cause undesirable contamination or product harm.

Block Ice Making Process

The block ice making process in Block Ice Plants is the same in principle as the above mentioned ice making plants. Some industrial block ice machines use the Brine (indirect) system of ice making while others use the direct system. Each system depends on the purpose and use of each machine. The thickness of ice blocks produced also depends on the use of the ice; the most common weight produced for industrial purposes ranges from 5kg to 50kg.

Brine or Indirect Refrigeration Technology System

Machines adopting this system may use salt water as heat transfer medium. Temperature goes down as far as -5 degrees Celsius through its heat exchange with refrigerant. Cold brine water then continues to cool the ice cans where the ice is then formed. The use of this machine and system of ice making is mostly popular along coastal and tropical areas.

Direct Refrigeration Technology System

Block ice makers that use this system produce ice blocks after direct heat exchange between the refrigerant and water; depending on the thickness of ice being produced, water can be frozen into ice between 4-8 hours. After the ice is formed, a Program Logic Control (PLC) controls the machine automatically into ice doffing process. Most commonly, this system utilizes hot Freon to defrost the ice which make the defrosting process much faster. For durability and also to conform to food hygiene standards, the plates of the evaporator are constructed using special aluminum alloy, from which the Freon gas can follow constantly. Water outside can be frozen quickly and directly, without any power or energy waste. It is the reason why this refrigeration technology is more advanced and efficient than the brine tank system.

Note: Both system can produce quality, hygienic and consumable crystal or milky ice. Most commonly, the crystal clear ice are produced to be artistically sculptured for decoration as well as consumption; although this can also be done with the milky ice block.

Applications

Ice produced from the Tube Ice Plant and Cube Ice Maker is mostly used in the hospitality industry to mix or chill drinks. Flake ice from the Flake Ice Machine is commonly used to keep food fresh in your local shops and other applicable places. This also applies to the ice from Plate Ice Plants. Whereas ice from the Block Ice Machine can be left in its original shape and size or be crushed for any of the previously mentioned purposes.

Industrial ice makers

Although the above mentioned are mostly industrial machines, some of the ice produced with these machines or systems can be consumed, however, the use of these machine are mostly for the production of large quantities of ice for industries such as fishery, fresh meat storage, construction, medicine, hospitality etc.

Apart from the Block Ice Plant, other industrial ice making machines may include the Tube Ice Machine, Flake Ice Maker, Cube Ice Machine and Flake Ice Plant.

Consumer block ice makers

For domestic and small scale ice production, the consumer block ice machines are ideal. These include Freezer Ice Makers, Portable Ice Makers, Built-in / Freestanding Ice Machines etc.

Refrigeration System Components

To fully appreciate the working principles of the refrigeration system, one has to also be familiar with the important components that are assembled together to make this phenomenon work. There are many parts to a refrigeration; the main components however, include the Compressor, Evaporator, Condenser, Expansion Valve and Refrigerant.

Compressor

The compressor’s main function in the refrigeration process is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour from the evaporator through the pressure line. Once drawn, the vapour is then compressed. Vapour rises in temperature when it is compressed. As a result, the compressor converts the vapour from a low-temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, subsequently increasing the pressure. From here, the vapour is then released from the compressor in to the discharge line.

Evaporator

The evaporator’s main function is to remove excess heat from the product being chilled, through the liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator usually boils at a low-pressure; however, the level of this pressure may be determined by factors such as: - The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product being chilled to the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator. - The rate at which the low-pressure vapour is removed from the evaporator by the compressor. To enable the transmission of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from the evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant is in vapour form.

Condenser

The condenser extracts heat from the refrigerant to the outside air. The condenser is usually installed on the outside of the ice making equipment, to enable heat to travel outside. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils. The temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. As heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than that of the air. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the liquid line.

Expansion Valve

Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come from the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.

Refrigerant

The type of refrigerant used will depend on the pressure capabilities of the system and the temperatures that have to be achieved during refrigeration. The following brief table shows the relationship between temperature and pressure, given in bar, for three common refrigerants.

Manufacturers and Suppliers

See also

Refrigeration

References

  1. http://archive.org/stream/principlesandpr01schmgoog#page/n52/mode/2up
  2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icemaker
  3. http://block-ice-plant.com/brine_system_block_ice_machine.html
  4. http://home.howstuffworks.com/refrigerator4.htm
  5. http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/tan/x5940e/x5940e01.htm
  6. http://www.zitrec.com/Applications_indirect_cooling_systems.htm
  7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigeration
  8. https://www.classle.net/book/refrigeration-and-refrigeration-cycles#
  9. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/20353-methods-of-refrigeration-ice-refrigeration-and-dry-ice-refrigeration/
  10. http://www.acerefrigeration.co.uk/refrigeration-design-installation/refrigeration-explained/
  1. http://www.chinaicemachine.com/about-us.html
  2. http://www.kuelinda.de/
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