User:WilliamThweatt/sandbox
សំពត់ អំបោះ ទូលាយ
Three syllables រតនា /ˌrea? ta? 'na:/ --> /ˌro tə 'na:/ gem, jewels, precious stones រដ្ធបាល កម្ពុជា
សំបុកចាប អំបិលម្ទេស អន្ទាក់រូត
Four syllables សីមារេខា /səi ˌma: rea? 'kha:/ boundary line សកម្មភាព រណូងរណាង
Five syllables មេឃវាហន /me: ˌkhea? viə ˌha? 'na?/ A name of Indra (lit. from Sanskrit "having clouds for a vehicle") រដ្ធប្បវេណី tradidions
INTONATION
- ខ្ញុំមិនចង់បានទេ : /↗kʰɲom mɨn caŋ baːn | ↘teː/
- អ្នក់ចង់ទៅលេងសៀមរាបទេ : /↗nea? caŋ | ↗tɨw leːŋ siəm riəp | ꜛteː/
- សៀវភៅនេះថ្លៃណាស់ : /↗siəw pʰɨw nih| ↗tʰlaj | ꜛnah/
Creating a table of situationally appropriate pronouns for Khmer
[edit]| English gloss | Intimate, same sex, or to an inferior | Neutral | Formal | Buddhist Clergy | Royalty |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'I, me' | អញ់ /aɲ/ | ខ្ញុំ /kʰɲom/ | យើងខ្ញុំ /yə:ŋ kʰɲom/, ខ្ញុំបាទ/kʰɲom ba:t/ | ខ្ញុំព្រះករុណា /kʰɲom preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ (by layperson) អាត្មា /a:ttma/, អាចក្តី /a:ckdəj/ (by clergy) |
ខ្ញុំព្រះបាទអម្ចាស់ /kʰɲom preə̯̆h ba:t aʔmcah/ |
| 'you' | ឯង /aɛ̯ŋ/ | អ្នក /neə̯̆ʔ/ | [typically a kinship term, title or rank] | ព្រះករុណា /preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ | ព្រះតេជព្រះគុណ /preə̯̆h daɛ̯c preə̯̆h kun/ |
| 'he/she/it' | វា /ʋiə̯/ | គេ /ke:/ | គាត់ /kɔə̯t/ | ព្រអង្គ /preə̯̆h ɐŋ/ | ទ្រង់ /truə̯̆ŋ/ |
Maybe a better table?
[edit]| Situational usage | "I, me" | "you" | "he, she, it" |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intimate or addressing an inferior | អញ់ /aɲ/ | ឯង /aɛ̯ŋ/ | វា /ʋiə̯/ |
| neutral | ខ្ញុំ /kʰɲom/ | អ្នក /neə̯̆ʔ/ | គេ /ke:/ |
| Formal | យើងខ្ញុំ /yə:ŋ kʰɲom/, ខ្ញុំបាទ /kʰɲom ba:t/ |
លោក /loːk/, (or kinship term, title or rank) |
គាត់ /kɔə̯t/ |
| Layperson to/about Buddhist clergy | ខ្ញុំព្រះករុណា /kʰɲom preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ |
ព្រះករុណា /preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ |
ព្រអង្គ /preə̯̆h ɑŋ/ |
| Buddhist clergy to layperson | អាត្មា /a:ttma/, អាចក្តី /a:ckdəj/ |
||
| when addressing royalty | ខ្ញុំព្រះបាទអម្ចាស់ /kʰɲom preə̯̆h ba:t aʔmcah/ |
ព្រះតេជព្រះគុណ /preə̯̆h daɛ̯c preə̯̆h kun/ |
ទ្រង់ /truə̯̆ŋ/ |
| Situational usage | "I, me" | IPA | "you" | IPA | "he, she, it" | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intimate or addressing an inferior | អញ់ | /aɲ/ | ឯង | /aɛ̯ŋ/ | វា | /ʋiə̯/ |
| neutral | ខ្ញុំ | /kʰɲom/ | អ្នក | /neə̯̆ʔ/ | គេ | /ke:/ |
| Formal | យើងខ្ញុំ or ខ្ញុំបាទ |
/yə:ŋ kʰɲom/ /kʰɲom ba:t/ |
លោក (or kinship term, title or rank) |
/loːk/ | គាត់ | /kɔə̯t/ |
| Layperson to/about Buddhist clergy | ខ្ញុំព្រះករុណា | /kʰɲom preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ | ព្រះករុណា | /preə̯̆h kaʔruʔna:/ | ព្រអង្គ | /preə̯̆h ɑŋ/ |
| Buddhist clergy to layperson | អាត្មា or អាចក្តី |
/a:ttma/ /a:ckdəj/ |
||||
| when addressing royalty | ខ្ញុំព្រះបាទអម្ចាស់ | /kʰɲom preə̯̆h ba:t aʔmcah/ | ព្រះតេជព្រះគុណ | /preə̯̆h daɛ̯c preə̯̆h kun/ | ទ្រង់ | /truə̯̆ŋ/ |
Northern Khmer vowels
[edit]| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||
| Close | /i/ | /ɨ/ | /u/ | |
| Near-close | /ɪ/ | /ʊ/ | ||
| Close-mid | /e/ | /ə/ | /ɤ/ | /o/ |
| Open-mid | /ɛ/ | /ʌ/ | /ɔ/ | |
| Open | /a/ | /ɑ/ | ||
Peterson Thweatt
[edit]Peterson Thweatt was Comptroller General of the state of Georgia from 1854 to 1865 and served as the state agent for poor relief in the early years of Reconstruction (United States).[1] As comptroller general, Thweatt showed unusual administrative ability which helped lead to the success of Georgia's revenue system in the 1850s. Under Thweatt's supervision, local tax officers were allowed more authority in the enforcement of tax laws which directly led to a large increase in the valuation of Georgia's property.[2]
References
- ^ Wright, Denise Elaine (2005). "Civil War and Reconstruction Welfare Programs for Georgia's White Poor: The State, the Freedmen's Bureau, and Northern Charity, 1863-1868" (PDF). University of Georgia. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ^ Wallenstein, Peter (December 1985). ""More Unequally Taxed than any People in the Civilized World": The Origins of Georgia's Ad Valorem Tax System" (PDF). The Georgia Historical Quarterly: 487. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Reminder to create Khmer honorifics
[edit]Khmer Grammar
[edit]| Affix | Function | Word | Meaning | Affixed Word | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| prefixed /p/ | causation | /dac/ /daəm/ |
"broke, torn" "origin" |
/pdac/ /pdaəm/ |
"to tear apart" "to originate (trans.)" |
| prefixed /rɔ/ | derives adjectives nominalization |
/lŭət/ /baŋ |
"to extinguish" "to hide" |
/rɔlŭət/ /rɔbaŋ/ |
"extinguished" "a screen, shade" |
| prefixed /prɑ/ | reciprocity | /kʰam/ /douc/ |
"to bite" "similar" |
/prɑkʰam/ /prɑdouc/ |
"to bite each other" "to compare" |
| prefixed /bɑN/ | causation | /baek/ /daə/ /riən/ |
"to break (intrans.)" "to walk" "to study, learn" |
/bɑmbaek/ /bɑndaə/ /bɑŋriən/ |
"to cause to break" "to take for a walk" "to teach" |
| infixed /ɑm/ | causation | /sʔaːt/ /slap/ |
"to be clean" "to die" |
/sɑmʔaːt/ /sɑmlap/ |
"to clean" "to kill" |
| infixed /Vmn/ | nominalization | /daə/ /dəŋ/ /cɨə/ |
"to walk" "to know (something)" "to believe" |
/dɑmnaə/ /dɑmnəŋ/ /cumnɨə/ |
"a trip" "information" "belief" |
nouns of agency
Syntax
[edit]Syntax is the rules and processes that describe how sentences are formed in a particular language, how words relate to each other within clauses or phrases and how those phrases relate to each other within a sentence to convey meaning. Khmer syntax is very analytic. Relationships between words and phrases are signified primarily by word order supplemented with auxiliary verbs and, particularly in formal and literary registers, grammatical marking particles. Grammatical phenomena such as negation and aspect are marked by particles while interrogative sentences are marked either by particles or interrogative words equivalent to English "wh-words".
A complete Khmer sentence consist of four basic elements which include an optional topic, an optional subject, an obligitory predicate and various adverbials and particles.[1] The topic and subject are made up of noun phrases, predicates are verb phrases and another noun phrase acting as an object or verbal attribute often follows the predicate.[1]
Basic constituent order
[edit]When combining these noun and verb phrases into a sentence the order is typically SVO:
- ខ្ញុំឲ្យចេកមួយចំនួន kʰɲom ʔaoj ceik muəj cɑmnuən (I give banana one bunch) 'I gave a bunch of bananas'
When both a direct object and indirect object are present without any grammatical markers, the preferred order is SV(DO)(IO). In such a case, if the direct object contains multiple components, the indirect object immediately follows the noun of the direct object and the direct object's modifiers follow the indirect object:
- ខ្ញុំឲ្យចេកជ្រូកមួយចំនួន kʰɲom ʔaoj ceik cruːk muəj cɑmnuən (I give banana pig one bunch) 'I gave the pig a bunch of bananas'[2]: 207
However, in spoken discourse OSV is possible when emphasizing the object in a topic-comment-like structure.[2]: 211
- ទូកមួយគង់ប្រាំអង្គ /tuːk muəj kɔng pram ʔɑng/ (boat one sit five classifier for monks) 'In the boat there sit five monks'[2]: 148
- វិជ្ជាចោរលួចមិនបាន /ʋɪciə cao luəc mɨn baːn/ (science thief steal NEG CMPL) 'Science, a thief can not steal'.
Noun phrase
[edit]The noun phrase in Khmer typically has the following structure:[3]: 83 [4]: 50–51
- Noun Phrase = (honorific) noun (adjectival modifiers) (numeral) (classifier) (demonstrative)
The elements in parentheses are optional. Honorifics are a class of words that serve to index the social status of the referent. Honorifics can be kinship terms or personal names, both of which are often used as first and second person pronouns, or specialized words such as /preah/ ('god') before royal and religious objects.[2]: 155 The most common demonstratives are /nih/ ('this, these') and /nuh/ ('that, those'). /ae nuh/ ('those over there') has a more distal or vague connotation.[5] If the noun phrase contains a possessive adjective, it follows the noun and precedes the numeral. If a descriptive attribute co-occurs with a possessive, the possessive construction (/rɔbɑh/) is expected.[4]: 73
Some examples of typical Khmer noun phrases are:
| Khmer text | IPA | gloss | translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| ផ្ទះស្កឹមស្កៃបីបួនខ្នងនេះ | /ptĕəh skəm.skaj bəj buən kʰnɑːŋ nih/ | house high three four classifier these noun adj num num classifier dem |
these three or four high houses[2]: 142 |
| ចេកទុំពីរស្និតនេះ | /ceːk tum piː snət nih/ | banana ripe two classifier these noun adj num classifier dem |
these two bunches of ripe bananas |
| ពួកម៉ាកខ្ញុំពីរនាក់នេះ | /puəʔmaʔ kʰɲom piː nĕə nih/ | friend I two classifier these noun poss num classifier dem |
these two friends of mine |
| ពួកម៉ាកតូចរបស់ខ្ញុំពីរនាក់នេះ | /puəʔmaʔ touc rɔbɑh kʰɲom piː nĕə nih/ | friend small of I two classifier these noun adj poss num classifier dem |
these two small friends of mine[4]: 73 |
The Khmer particle /dɑː/ marked attributes in Old Khmer noun phrases and is used in formal and literary language to signify that what precedes is the noun and what follows is the attribute. Modern usage may carry the connotation of mild intensity.[2]: 163
- វាលស្រែដ៏ល្វឹងល្វើយ /ʋiəl srae dɑː lʋɨŋ lʋəːj/ (field paddy PART vast) '(very) expansive fields and paddies'.
Relative clauses introduced with /dael/[2]: 166
- headless relative clauses are permitted
- ta:m 0 dael ni'jiaj knong dambawn psee:ngpsee:ng
- follow which say in region various
- "according to that which/what is spoken in the various regions"
Subordinate clauses /ja:ng/ often signifies an adverbial clause of manner:[2]: 162 Ko:n srej knjom iw: tae ta: M.awn aoj ckae child female my hear only elder M. give dog stuh mau:k tatual pi: koat ja:ng pranjap dart come receive from him kind quick "My daughter, hearing that he was giving her a dog, darted forth quickly to accept him"
Verb phrase
[edit]Khmer verbs are completely uninflected and once a subject or topic has been introduced or is clear from context it may be dropped. Thus, the simplest possible sentence in Khmer consists of a single verb. For example, /tɨw/ can mean "I'm going.", "He went.", "They've gone.", "Let's go.", etc.[4]: 17 This also results in long strings of verbs such as:
- /kʰɲom cɑng tɨw daə leːng/ (I to want to go to stroll) 'I want to go for a stroll'Cite error: The
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Khmer uses three verbs for what translates into English as the copula. The general copula is /ciə/; it is used to convey identity with nominal predicates.[2]: 212 For locative predicates, the copula is /nɨw/.[2]: 212 The verb /miən/ is the "existential" copula meaning "there is" or "there exists".[2]: 208
- ភាសាជាកាសំដែងចិត្តគំនិតគ្រាប់យាង /piəsaː ciə kaː sɑmdaeŋ cət kumnɨt krŏəp jaːŋ/ (language be NOM express heart thought all kind) 'Language is the expression of all emotions and ideas'
- វានៅជិតវត្ត /ʋiə nɨw cɪt ʋŏət/ (he is close temple) 'He is close to the temple'
- មានផែនការ /miən pʰaen kaː/ (exist plan) 'There is a plan'
Negation is achieved by putting មិន /mɨn/ before the verb and the particle ទេ /teː/ at the end of the sentence or clause. In colloquial speech, verbs can also be negated without the need for a final particle, by placing ឥត /ʔɑt/~/ʔət/ before them.[6]
- ខ្ញុំជឿ /kɲom cɨə/ ('I believe')
- ខ្ញុំមិនជឿទេ /kɲom mɨn cɨə teː/ ('I don't believe')
- ខ្ញុំឥតជឿ /kɲom ʔɑt cɨə/ ('I don't believe')
Past tense can be conveyed by adverbs, such as "yesterday" or by the use of perfective particles such as /haəj/
- គាត់ទៅម្សិលមិញ /kŏət tɨw msəlmɨɲ/ 'He went yesterday.'
- គាត់ទៅហើយ /kŏət tɨw haəj/ 'He left.' or 'He's already gone.'[4]: 22
Different senses of future action can also be expressed by the use of adverbs like "tomorrow" or by the future tense marker /nɨŋ/, which is placed immediately before the verb, or both:
- ស្អែកខ្ញុំទៅសាលារៀន /sʔaek kʰɲom tɨw saːlaː riən/ 'Tomorrow, I am going to school.'
- ខ្ញុំនឹងទៅសាលារៀន /kʰɲom nɨŋ tɨw saːlaː riən/ 'I will go to school'
- ស្អែកខ្ញុំនឹងទៅសាលារៀន /sʔaek kʰɲom nɨŋ tɨw saːlaː riən/ 'Tomorrow, I will go to school'[5]
Questions
[edit]There are three basic types of questions in Khmer.[4]: 46 Questions requesting specific information use question words. Polar questions are indicated with interrogative particles, most commonly /teː/ a homonym of the negation particle. Tag questions are indicated with various particles and rising inflection.[4]: 57 The SVO word order is generally not inverted for questions.
- លោកទៅណា? /loːk tɨw naː/ (you go where) 'Where are you going?'
- លោកស្ដាប់បានទេ? /loːk sdap baːn teː/ (you understand can INT PART) 'Can you understand?'
- លោកទៅផ្សារហើយឬនៅ /loːk tɨw psaː haəj rɨː nɨw/ (you go store PERF or yet) 'Have you gone to the store yet?'
In more formal contexts and in polite speech, questions are also marked at their beginning by the particle /taə/.
- តើលោកអញ្ជើញទៅណា? /taə loːk ɑɲcəːɲ tɨw naː/ (INT PART you POLITE PART go where) 'Where are you going?'
Passive voice
[edit]Jacob states that Khmer does not have a passive voice,[7] but there is a construction utilizing the main verb /trəw/ ("to hit", "to be correct", "to affect") as an auxiliary verb meaning "to be subject to" or "to undergo" which results in sentences that are translated to English using the passive voice.[2]: 286–288
- ពីម្សិលមិញខ្ញុំត្រូវឆ្កែខាំ /piː msəlmɨɲ kʰɲom trəw cʰkae kʰam/ (yesterday I was subject to dog bite) 'Yesterday I was bitten by a dog.'[4]: 302
References
- ^ a b Ehrman, Madeline Elizabeth; Kem, Sos; Lim, Hak Kheang (1974). Contemporary Cambodian: Grammatical Sketch. Foreign Service Institute, US Department of State.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Cite error: The named reference
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Jacob68was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d e f g h Cite error: The named reference
ModSpokwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
KhDictwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
mscwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
CamPartwas invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Lao reference
[edit]- http://www.linguaakshara.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Lew_2013_A_linguistic_analysis_of_the_Lao_writing_system_-_authors_accepted_manuscript.358115935.pdf
- https://books.google.com/books?id=ayUjBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=estimate+of+Khmer+speakers&source=bl&ots=uz9gegDz81&sig=7vd_5wcj_w1HoGYnL3l0qPv4yYI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiRhdjiiOPKAhVU8mMKHQa9DDUQ6AEIOTAF#v=onepage&q=estimate%20of%20Khmer%20speakers&f=false