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Tropical forests in the deep human past

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Citation:[1]

"Since Darwin, studies of human evolution have tended to give primacy to open ‘savannah’ environments as the ecological cradle of our lineage, with dense tropical forests cast as hostile, unfavourable frontiers. These perceptions continue to shape both the geographical context of fieldwork as well as dominant narratives concerning hominin evolution. This paradigm persists despite new, ground-breaking research highlighting the role of tropical forests in the human story. For example, novel research in Africa's rainforests has uncovered archaeological sites dating back into the Pleistocene; genetic studies have revealed very deep human roots in Central and West Africa and in the tropics of Asia and the Pacific; an unprecedented number of coexistent hominin species have now been documented, including Homo erectus, the ‘Hobbit’ (Homo floresiensis), Homo luzonensis, Denisovans, and Homo sapiens. Some of the earliest members of our own species to reach South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania and the tropical Americas have shown an unexpected rapidity in their adaptation to even some of the more ‘extreme’ tropical settings. This includes the early human manipulation of species and even habitats. This volume builds on these currently disparate threads and, for the first time, draws together a group of interdisciplinary, agenda-setting papers that firmly places a broader spectrum of tropical environments at the heart of the deep human past."

Yellow River Farmers

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The term Yellow River Farmers or Yellow River Neolithic, is used to refer to a population genomics lineage representing the late Mesolithic to early Neolithic population of the Yellow River region in Northern China.

Yellow River Neolithic ancestry refers to the early agricultural communities along the Yellow River. They can be associated with the Yellow River civilizationand played a major role in the demographic makeup of modern East Asian populations. The dispersal of Sino-Tibetan languages is usually affilated with the spread of Yellow River Neolithic ancestry, although its later spread also included different linguistic groups.

Formation

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See also: Genetic history of East Asians
Geographic location and dates of ancient individuals in Northern East Asia

After the initial northwards dispersal of Ancestral East Asians from Southeast Asia during the Paleolithic period, those diversified into multiple substructured populations, most notably Ancient Northern East Asian (ANEA) and Ancient Southern East Asian (ASEA) groups, which subsequently contributed to the formation of modern East Asians.[2][3]

Peopling of Eastern Asia via an interior and coastal route northwards

Yellow River Neolithic ancestry can either be modeled as admixture between an ANEA-like and an ASEA-like lineage; or alternatively as significantly earlier admixture between a deeply branching interior lineage northwards (represented by the Tianyuan specimen) and an equally deep branching coastal lineage northwards (represented by present-day Önge peoples). The amounts of interior and coastal contributions vary; while one study estimated 90% interior (Tianyuan-like) + 10% coastal (Önge-like) contributions, other studies estimated between 21–26% interior (Tianyuan-like) + 74–79% coastal (Önge-like) contributions, or nearly equal amounts of interior/coastal (51/49%) contributions.[4][2][5][6][7] A qpAdm model by Lazaridis 2018 estimated around 56% and 44% contribution from a Tianyuan-like and an Önge-like lineage respectively.[8]

Contribution to later populations

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Built up resources below:

"Yellow River ancestry refers to that of the early agricultural communities of the Yellow River Valley. The Middle Neolithic YR_MN can be associated with the Yangshao archeological culture of the Central Plain, but is also found from the West Liao River to Inner Mongolia. The Late Neolithic YR_LN can be associated with the Longshan culture and is distinguished from the YR_MN by a higher southern East Asian component. The spread of Sino-Tibetan languages is thought to have accompanied the expansion of YR ancestry."[9]

Models on Yellow River farmers formation:

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  • YR_MN to LN cline 70‐80% ANEA + 20-30% ASEA ? ([10])
  • sEA+nEA+AncientTibetan ? ([11])
  • YR_MN: 90% interior EA + 10% coastal EA ([12][13]); or c. 50% / 50% Tianyuan+Onge ([14]); or 21–26% (supplements: 4–32%) interior/Tianyuan + 74–79% (supplements: 68–96%) coastal/Onge ([15]) -> Also Lazaridis 2018 supplementary information: 56% Tianyuan + 44% Onge ([16])
  • Upper Yellow River samples 75% Ami-like + 25% ANA ??? ([17])

Affilations and legacy:

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Distinct from ANA, but deeply branching on the root of the ANEA lineage.[18][9]

Shandong_HG ???

Associated with a 9,500-year-old individual from the lower reaches of the Yellow River in Shandong: Bianbian or "Yangshao-culture-related ancestry from the middle reaches of the YR" ???

"Yangshao-culture-related ancestry (represented by YR_MN, including individuals from the Wanggou and Xiaowu sites) in local Longshan-culture-related (represented by YR_LN, including individuals from Haojiatai, Pingliangtai, and Wadian sites) and Late Bronze and Iron Age (represented by YR_LBIA, including individuals from Luoheguxiang, Jiaozuoniecun, and Haojiatai sites) people".[19]

The ancestry of YR (Shandong) differed from the ANEA observed among Yumin and ASEA among Fujian Neolithic, but had both ANEA-like and ASEA-like affinities.[20]

"Yangshao-associated YR ancestry from the Middle Neolithic (YR_MN) has likewise been found to be widespread among Middle Neolithic populations from the West Liao River to Inner Mongolia (Ning et al. 2020b) and Tibet (Wang et al. 2023, Wang2021b)."[9]

Yellow River Neolithic saw an "monotonic" increase of ASEA-like ancestry, likely affilated with the spread of rice agriculture.[21]

Modern Han Chinese derive between 57–92% of their ancestry from Yellow River Neolithic sources. -> Sinitic cline ???

"Compared to present-day Chinese populations, YR_MN ancestry is most similar to Naxi and Yi populations centered near the Himalayan foothills of western China, while present-day Han Chinese show additional affinities to southern coastal East Asians than Middle Neolithic or even Iron Age Yellow River populations (Ning et al. 2020b)."[9]

Relevant:[22][23]

Other:[24][25]

Affilated with Yellow River civilization. Linguistic implications, etc.

Diverse archaeogenetic topics

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A structured coalescent model reveals deep ancestral structure shared by all modern humans

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Citation:[26]

Cisbaikal_LNBA

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Possible Cisbaikal_LNBA affinity for Eastern Saka groups (Yeniseian layer?):[27] (supplementary)

The two ancient outliers from the Late Bronze Age Minusinsk Basin from the period of the Karasuk culture that ADMIXTURE and F4-statistics suggest have high levels of ancestry from Cisbaikal_LNBA also require such ancestry in qpAdm; interestingly, the population that succeeds the Karasuk and Lugavskaya cultures in the region, the Tagar culture (Russia_Tagar.SG), also requires ancestry from Cisbaikal_LNBA in qpAdm for all passing models. In addition, Mongolic-speaking Kalmyks and Kazakhstan_CentralKazakhSteppe_Saka also require such ancestry for passing models in this qpAdm setup, but no other populations from their ethnolinguistic or cultural categories behave similarly. All qpAdm models in this section are listed in SI Data 6, Table 4.

Fig. S80 (qpadm; supplementary); Glazkovo; Baikal EBA.

Yumin_N

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The Yumin archaeological site is located in Huade County, Ulanqab city, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. Yumin culture is the earliest Neolithic culture found in Inner Mongolia thus far. Radiocarbon analysis of charcoal samples associated with the remains of a house were dated to ~8,400 cal BP (62). We sequenced a single individual (M1) from this site, identified to be female, and she was directly radiocarbon dated to 8,415-8,335 cal BP.

Yumin: 8,500-year-old newly sampled individual from Inner Mongolia belonging to the inland nEastAsia_EN group. = distinct ANEA branch; not identical to Amur_N. Cite:[28] supplementary information

38-40% Tianyuan ancestry for Yana in supplementary models, 32% in main article (Fig. 2).

Xiongnu/Turkic/Uyghur period

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Lee & Kuang:[29]

"The geneticists who analysed the dna of the Xiongnu specimens from the Egyin Gol necropolis and that of modern Mongolians suggest that ‘the impact of the succession of Turkic and Mongolian confederations on the territory of the current Mongolia was a cultural or linguistic process rather than a migratory and/or genetic one’ (Keyser-Tracqui et al. 2006: 279). Similarly, a comparative study of the autosomal dna of the Mongols and the Tsaatan, a Turkic people residing in northern Mongolia, also concludes that the two, along with the Sakhas, form the same cluster and are genetically distinct from other world populations (Brissenden et al. 2015: 82). Finally, an extensive study of the genetic legacy of the Turkic nomads across Eurasia based on autosomal dna analysis reveals that the source populations for the Turkic nomads who spread ‘Asian genes’ to non-Turkic peoples were (the ancestors of modern-day) Tuvinians, Mongols and Buryats, despite the fact that the latter two are Mongolic (Yunusbayev et al. 2015).81 In sum, one should note that the early eastern Turkic peoples were in all likelihood genetically closer to their neighbouring Mongolic peoples than to various later Turkic peoles of central and western Eurasia.

... The analysis of genetic survey data on the Turkic peoples also allows us to speculate on the Turkic Urheimat. We suggest that it was a geographical region where the carriers of haplogroups C2, N, Q and R1a1 could intermix, since these haplogroups are carried by various past and modern-day Turkic peoples in eastern Inner Asia and the Xiongnu. It has been suggested that the early Turkic peoples probably had contact with Indo-European, Uralic, Yeniseian, and Mongolic groups in their formative period (Golden 2006: 139). As non-linguists, we are unqualified to discuss the origin of the Turkic languages. However, drawing on the findings of dna studies, we are inclined to think that certain similarities that exist between the Turkic languages and the Mongolic, Tungusic and Uralic languages are at least partly associated with haplogroups C2 and N, among others. More specifically, we conjecture that the Turkic languages came into existence as a result of the fusion of Uralic groups (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup N subclades) and Proto-Mongolic groups (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup C2) who also merged with other linguistic groups, including Yeniseian speakers (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup Q like the Kets) and Indo-European speakers (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroups R1a1).

... Finally, we suggest that the Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was the product of multiple processes of language diffusion85 that involved not only originally Turkic-speaking groups, but also Turkicised (Indo-European) groups. That is, the earliest Turkic groups first Turkicised some non-Turkic groups residing in Mongolia and beyond. Then both Turkic and ‘Turkicised’ groups Turkicised non-Turkic tribes (who were mostly carriers of haplogroups R1a1) residing in the Kazakh steppes and beyond. Through multiple processes, including the Mongol conquest, the members of the extended Turkic entity spread the Turkic languages across Eurasia."

Ancient Siberian mythology - Deer Goddess

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Deer images, carvings, paintings, and monolithic stelae of South Siberia and northern Central Asia.[30]

Nicobarese – Austroasiatic

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Mishra et al. 2024:[31]

Huns–Xiongnu

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Gnecchi-Ruscone et al. 2025:[32]

Ancient West Eurasian

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Ancient West Eurasian

The term Ancient West Eurasian, alternatively also known as West Eurasian or Western Eurasian, is used in population genomics to describe the genetic ancestry and phylogenetic relationship of diverse populations primarily living in the western and northern parts of Eurasia as well as parts of Northern and Northeastern Africa, deriving large amounts of their ancestry from the "West Eurasian Core" of human genetic diversity, and which can be associated with the Upper Paleolithic (UP) wave outgoing from Paleolithic Western Asia and Europe (eg. Kostenki-14-like WEC and WEC2), following the earlier Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) wave associated with the "East Eurasian Core" populatios (EEC), and ultimately the Out of Africa migration (>60kya).

Repetitive expansions into Eurasia from a population Hub OoA. (A) Zlatý Kůň can be described as a putative early expansion from the population formed after the major expansion OoA and hybridization with Neanderthals, and could be linked with non-Mousterian and non-IUP cultures found in Europe 48–45 ka or with IUP. (B) Representative samples dated between 45 and 40 ka across Eurasia can be ascribed to a population movement with uniform genetic features and material culture consistent with an IUP affiliation and which can also explain Oase1 after allowing for additional Neanderthal contributions; modern Papuans may be genetically seen as an extreme extension of this movement. (C) Following local genetic differentiation, a subsequent population expansion could explain the genetic components found in ancient samples <38 ka which contain it in unadmixed form (Kostenki14, Sunghir) or admixed with preexisting IUP components (Goyet Q116-1, Yana1, Mal’ta).
Inferred phylogenetic structure of West Eurasian lineages, taking admixture events into account.

Modern humans of the Upper Paleolithic wave (UP) associated with the "West Eurasian Core", are suggested to have expanded from a population hub located in the Iranian Plateau (c. 38kya) after an earlier "Initial Upper Paleolithic" wave. This UP wave is are linked to the "West Eurasian" ancestry represented by the Kostenki-14 specimen, and broadly ancestral to historical and modern populations in the Middle East/Western Asia, Northern and Northeastern Africa, Europe, and partially Siberia, Central Asia, and Southern Asia. Unadmixed Early West Eurasians are currently represented by several Upper Paleolithic European remains such as Kostenki-14 and Sungir. Other early Western Eurasian lineages in Europe and elsewhere displayed varying degrees of contact/admixture with preceeding IUP Ancient East Eurasian and or Basal Eurasian lineages. The expansion of early West Eurasian ancestry can be associated with Upper Paleolithic material culture distinct from previous IUP material culture.

Ancient West Eurasians can be divided into two deep early branches, specifically 'WEC' (represented by Ice Age Europeans) and 'WEC2' (making up a significant amount of ancestry of ancient Iranian hunter-gatherers. In tandem with varying amounts of East and Basal Eurasian components, these two branches gave rise to historical and modern West Eurasian lineages/populations.

Primary sources:[33][34]

Secondary sources and reviews:[35][36]

Vallini et al. 2024:

"West Eurasians, North Western South Asians, and Levantines occupy the area below the bisector, compatible with an admixture between EEC and WEC, or below the blue axis, further complicated by the presence of Basal Eurasian or African components in these populations."

"We simulated two different West Eurasian populations: WEC and WEC2, with WEC2 staying in the Hub longer than WEC (and Kostenki14), and hence closer to it from a genetic point of view. We then have each of these populations acting as a source for admixture events with Basal Eurasians (BEA) and East Eurasians in different proportions (Supplementary Data 9)."

Other

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Pre-prints:[37][38][39]

May be relevant:[40][41]

Glazkovo culture (Neolithic to EBA Baikal):[42]

Papuan archaic introgression:[43]

Usefull: [https://haplotree.info/maps/ancient_dna/samples.php] & [44]

IUP sites:[45]

Hub OOA:[46]

ANA:[47]

Notes

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Reference

[edit]
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  2. ^ a b Bennett, Andrew E.; Liu, Yichen; Fu, Qiaomei (2025). Reconstructing the Human Population History of East Asia through Ancient Genomics. doi:10.1017/9781009246675. ISBN 978-1-009-24667-5.
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