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Unified Solid-State Theory, Total Electron Counts (TEC)
[edit]The Earth’s crust is composed of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are electrically neutral in their native states. But, when igneous rocks are subjected to mechanical stress around faults, their natural properties begin to change, allowing volumes of rocks in the Earth’s crust to become electrically conductive. This phenomenon leads to the formation of Electromagnetic forces that disrupt the ecology and natural habitat of the Earth’s crust around faults. More specifically, dormant peroxy defects O- (from a small amount of water trapped in igneous rock crystals in the last stage of their cooling process) become activated. The activation of O- peroxy defects create holes, which open the possibility for new electron-hole pairs formation. Electron-hole pairs formation create an electric current, changing the electrical conductivity of igneous rocks. [1] In addition, the formation of an electric current creates the following:
a. Electric voltages
b. Static and time-varying Magnetic fields
c. Time-varying Electric fields
d. Electromagnetic fields that are strong enough to field-ionize air molecules. [2]
Changes in Electromagnetic fields were also observed by Friedemann Freund in various experiments conducted at NASA Ames, prompting traditional seismologists to describe his observations as “Freund Physics.” [3]
One method proposed to apply this Theory for deterministic earthquake forecasting is monitoring atmospheric Total Electron Count (TEC), commonly used to eliminate errors due to signal delay in GPS tracking. [4] TEC data was examined from the day of the 9.1 magnitude earthquake, which occurred in Japan on March 11, 2011, at 2:46 PM JST. This data showed a spike in TEC an hour before the earthquake, followed by a drop in TEC shortly before and abnormal fluctuations in TEC values for several hours after the earthquake. Normally, the TEC over a given area would remain stable slowly and smoothly, changing over a day following the normal pattern of the ultraviolet rays from the Sun illuminating the Earth’s atmosphere during the day and disappearing at night. Solar activities and magnetic storms, which can cause anomalies and make the TEC deviate from its normal behavior, were studied during the earthquake. Researchers found no significant related events occurred on the day of the earthquake that could have affected the Japan TEC data. [5] [6]
A primary publication on the limitations of earthquake forecasting rejects the Unified Solid-State Theory for several reasons. First, the authors believe that stress does not accumulate rapidly before a major earthquake, and thus, there is no reason to expect large currents to be generated quickly. Secondly, traditional seismologists have searched for statistically reliable electrical precursors using sophisticated, ground based instrumentation and have not identified any quickly generated large currents as precursors. And thirdly, water in the Earth's crust would cause any generated currents to be absorbed before reaching the surface. (Hough, 3)
In the unified Solid-State Theory, recent researchers have addressed the three asserted limitations of the Theory. First, the Theory is not predicated on “rapid accumulation” of significant stresses; instead, it is agnostic to the rate and degree of stress accumulation. Second, satellite rather than ground-based seismic instruments have measured ionized energy releases that directly correlate with recorded earthquakes as early as 2004. [7] Third, water conductivity due to changes in the electrical properties of igneous rocks has been confirmed by using a mass spectrometer to observe proton motion when heavy water is chilled to absolute zero. [8] The Grotthuss mechanism confirms this behavior of water conductivity with the anomalously high proton mobility in water as a sequence of proton transfers along a hydrogen-bonded (H-bonded) network.
Notes
[edit]Sources
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Freund, F.T.; Hoenig, S.A.; Braun, A.; Dahlgren, R.P.; Momayez, M.; Chu, J.J. (2010). "Softening Rocks with Stress-Activated Electric Current". Rock Stress and Earthquakes-Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on In-Situ Rock Stress.
- ^ Freund, F.T. (October 2010). "Toward a Unified Solid State Theory for Pre-Earthquake Signals". Acta Geophysica. 58 (5): 719–766. doi:10.2478/s11600-009-0066-x.
- ^ Hough, Susan Elizabeth (2010). Predicting the Unpredictable: The Tumultuous Science of Earthquake Prediction. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13816-9.
- ^ Cornely, P.R.; McNeill III, G.T. "The Future of the Field of Earthquake Forecasting, New Data Assimilation and Fusion Strategy" (PDF). COJ Review. 1 (3): 2.
- ^ Lindh, A.G.; Lockner, D.A.; Lee, W.H. (1978). "Velocity Anomalies: An Alternative Explanation". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 68 (3): 721–734.
- ^ Scoville, J.; Sornette, J.; Freund, F.T. (December 2015). "Paradox of peroxy defects and positive holes in rocks Part II: Outflow of electric currents from stressed rocks". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 114: 338–351. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.04.016. ISSN 1367-9120.
- ^ Parrot, M.; Berthelier, J.J.; Lebreton, J.P.; Sauvaud, J.A.; Santolik, O.; Blecki, J. (January 2006). "Examples of unusual ionospheric observations made by the DEMETER satellite over seismic regions". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. 31 (4–9): 486–495. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2006.02.011.
- ^ Wolke, Conrad T.; Fournier, Joseph A.; Dzugan, Laura C.; Fagiani, Matias R.; Odbadrakh, Tuguldur T.; Knorke, Harald; Jordan, Kenneth D.; McCoy, Anne B.; Asmis, Knut R.; Johnson, Mark A. (2 December 2016). "Spectroscopic snapshots of the proton-transfer mechanism in water". Science. 354 (6316): 1131–1135. doi:10.1126/science.aaf8425.