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Phthalates
[edit]Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are a classification of chemical plasticizers used to increase flexibility in commercial plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Phthalates are currently used in several consumer goods, including food packaging, cosmetics, clothing, fragrance, and toys.[1] Additionally, they have wide-spread use in pharmaceutical and medical products, including in coatings and fillers of extend-release medications[2], blood bag packaging, tubes used in blood transfers, and hemodialysis units.[3]
The most common phthalates include di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP). As of 2017, DEHP is estimated to make up 30% of plastic produced in the United States and European Union[1], and up to 80% of plastic produced in China.[1]
Several animal studies have been conducted to observe the specific effects of DEHP in vitro, including rats, mice, and chick embryos. Observed effects of high phthalate exposure in utero included neural tube malformations[3], encephalopathy[4], limb malformations[3], decreased vasculature[5], vascular malformations[6], decreased bodyweight[1], and interuterine death at high concentrations[1]. Higher concentrations of phthalates and phthalate metabolites have also been observed in the urine of mothers to children with neural tube malformations.
Phthalate exposure induces teratogenic effects through multiple mechanisms of action. High levels of DEHP create oxidative stress in utero, which results in cellular apoptosis in developing fetuses.[5] In vivo, DEHP is hydrolyzed into 2-ethylhexanol (2-EHXO). It's hypothesized that the metabolic byproduct of 2-EHXO, ethylhexanoic acid (2-EHXA), is the primary teratogen responsible for developmental defects in embryos exposed to DEHP.[7]
The use of DBP in children's products was restricted in the United States in 2008, and is restricted in cosmetics in the European Union. Several phthalates, including DBP, di-n-hexyl phthalate (DnHP), and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), were issued a Proposition 65 warning by the state of California in March, 2005 following evidence of reproductive toxicity and teratogenic effects.[8]
Caffeine
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e Ungewitter, Erica; Rotgers, Emmi; Bantukul, Tanika; Kawakami, Yasuhiko; Kissling, Grace E.; Yao, Humphrey Hung-Chang (2017-05-01). "From the Cover: Teratogenic Effects of in Utero Exposure to Di-(2-Ethylhexyl)-Phthalate (DEHP) in B6:129S4 Mice". Toxicological Sciences. 157 (1): 8–19. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfx019. ISSN 1096-6080.
- ^ Sree, Chendruru Geya; Buddolla, Viswanath; Lakshmi, Buddolla Anantha; Kim, Young-Joon (2023-01-01). "Phthalate toxicity mechanisms: An update". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 263: 109498. doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2022.109498. ISSN 1532-0456.
- ^ a b c Shiota, K.; Nishimura, H. (1982-11). "Teratogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) in mice". Environmental Health Perspectives. 45: 65–70. doi:10.1289/ehp.824565. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1568998. PMID 7140698.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Ungewitter, Erica; Rotgers, Emmi; Bantukul, Tanika; Kawakami, Yasuhiko; Kissling, Grace E.; Yao, Humphrey Hung-Chang (2017-05-01). "From the Cover: Teratogenic Effects of in Utero Exposure to Di-(2-Ethylhexyl)-Phthalate (DEHP) in B6:129S4 Mice". Toxicological Sciences. 157 (1): 8–19. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfx019. ISSN 1096-6080.
- ^ a b Song, Ge; Wang, Rui; Cui, Yi; Hao, Chan Juan; Xia, Hong-Fei; Ma, Xu (2020-09). "Diethylhexyl phthalate induces teratogenic effects through oxidative stress response in a chick embryo model". Toxicology Research. 9 (5): 622–631. doi:10.1093/toxres/tfaa058. ISSN 2045-452X. PMC 7640930. PMID 33178422.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Wang, Ling; Duan, Wei; Zhao, Yun; Sun, Guoqiang; Lin, Ying; Gao, Ying (2021-12-01). "The exposure levels of phthalates in pregnant women and impact factors of fetal malformation". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 40 (12_suppl): S622 – S631. doi:10.1177/09603271211049551. ISSN 0960-3271.
- ^ Ritter, E. J.; Scott Jr., W. J.; Randall, J. L.; Ritter, J. M. (1987). "Teratogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, 2-ethylhexanol, 2-ethylhexanoic acid, and valproic acid, and potentiation by caffeine". Teratology. 35 (1): 41–46. doi:10.1002/tera.1420350107. ISSN 1096-9926.
- ^ California Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) (December 2, 2005). "Chemicals Listed Effective December 2, 2005 as Known to the State of California to Cause Reproductive Toxicity". State of California OEHHA. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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