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This page is about the present classification of protists. For the science of naming and classifying protists, and previous classifications, see Protist systematics.

This is a test page for improving the article currently named Taxonomy of protists.

Legend:

* Lack of molecular data.
† Extinct, or exclusively fossil taxon.
? Uncertain position, reserved for above-genus taxa.
(P) Paraphyletic or polyphyletic taxon.
(P?) Potentially paraphyletic or polyphyletic taxon.
(=...) Taxonomic synonym.
(...) Same taxon in a different code of nomenclature.

Overview of classification

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Amorphea

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Amoebozoa

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Cladogram of the major groups of Amoebozoa based on an 824-gene phylogenetic analysis published in 2022.[1]

The phylum Amoebozoa contains around 2,400 species[2] of primarily amoeboid protists.[3] It includes a large portion of the traditional Sarcodina, the taxon uniting all amoebae. In particular, it groups naked and testate lobose amoebae (the traditional Lobosa), as well as the archamoebae and eumycetozoans (slime molds), and a few flagellates.[4] Since its modern description in 1998, After the general 2019 revisions published by the International Society of Protistologists (ISOP),[3] there have been specific revisions to the classification of eumycetozoans[5] and testate amoebae.[6]

Phylum Amoebozoa Lühe 1913 sensu Cavalier-Smith 1998. Genera incertae sedis: Belonocystis, Boveella, Biomyxa, Corallomyxa, Gibbodiscus, Hartmannia, Malamoeba, Malpighamoeba, Oscillosignum, Pseudothecamoeba, Rhabdamoeba, Schoutedamoeba, Stereomyxa, Subulamoeba, Triaenamoeba, Unda.[3]

Obazoa

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Cladogram of Obazoa based on several analyses.[25][26][27]

The clade Obazoa contains two small groups of flagellates, the breviates and the apusomonads, and the large clade Opisthokonta, which contains animals, fungi, and their closest protist relatives.[3] Under the Cavalier-Smith system, breviates and apusomonads were two classes that composed the phylum Apusozoa,[28] but this taxon is paraphyletic, as apusomonads are more closely related to opisthokonts.[25] The taxonomy of apusomonads was expanded in a 2022 phylogenetic sudy that introduced many new genera.[29]

Opisthokonta

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Opisthokonts are divided into two branches: Holozoa (animal-related), containing the ichthyosporeans, pluriformeans, filastereans and choanoflagellates; and Nucletmycea or Holomycota (fungus-related), containing the nucleariids and opisthosporidians. These groups, minus opisthosporidians, were classified as different classes within the paraphyletic phylum Choanozoa in the system of Cavalier-Smith, now obsolete. Instead, Choanozoa is the name used for the clade containing choanoflagellates and animals. Opisthosporidians (aphelids, rozellids and microsporidians) are often studied as protists, but are also considered fungi by protistologists[3] and mycologists alike.[23]

Archaeplastida

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The clade Archaeplastida encompasses photosynthetic eukaryotes whose chloroplasts are derived from an event of primary endosymbiosis with a cyanobacterium. This includes the multicellular land plants, distinguished by their embryonic development and differentiation into tissues, and a multitude of protist lineages, many of which have also evolved multicellularity independently (e.g., red algae). In some systems of classification, Archaeplastida is equivalent to the plant kingdom (Plantae). As such, the protist lineages, including simple, single-celled algae and protozoa, are regarded as "plants" under this definition. Other definitions exclude these protists, and reduce the plant kingdom to only "green plants" (including green algae) or, even more exclusively, only land plants.

Rhodophyta

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Rhodelphidia

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Picozoa

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Glaucophyta

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Green algae

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Green algae

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The green algae are a paraphyletic group from which land plants (Embryophyta) evolved. They form the clade Chloroplastida or Viridiplantae (meaning "green plants")

Prasinodermophyta

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Chlorophyta

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Streptophyta

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Pancryptista

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Cladogram of Pancryptista based on 2020 and 2022 analyses.[52][53]

The phylum Cryptista contains heterotrophic and photosynthetic single-celled flagellates. Its classification has undergone many changes through the years, and several conflicting systems and nomenclatures coexist. It was described by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1989 to unite two distinct groups of flagellates: the photosynthetic cryptomonads, and the heterotrophic goniomonads (respectively the two classes Cryptomonadea and Cyathomonadea). The name Cryptista was meant to be a synonym of Cryptophyta,[54] the algal division described by the same author in previous years.[55] In 2004, he modified the classification of Cryptista to add two subphyla: Cryptomonada, containing the aforementioned classes (renamed as Cryptophyceae and Goniomonadea respectively), and Leucocrypta, containing the heterotrophic katablepharids.[56] The next year, a separate group of authors proposed a different higher ranking for katablepharids as a phylum Kathablepharida or division Katablepharidophyta, related to but independent from phylum Cryptophyta, with no mention of Cryptista.[57] Between 2013 and 2015, Cavalier-Smith updated the classification once more by describing three new subphyla: Rollomonadia, containing the previous subphyla lowered to superclasses; Palpitia, containing the flagellate Palpitomonas bilix;[58] and Corbihelia, containing picozoans, telonemids, and some heliozoan species (Heliomorpha and Microheliella).[59] Corbihelia did not reach consensus: later analyses and revisions separated telonemids and picozoans as their own clades, and placed Heliomorpha in Cercozoa.[3] However, the addition of Palpitomonas and the monophyly of Rollomonadia have been supported in other analyses.[52]

Cryptista was redefined in the 2019 ISOP revision as the clade containing Palpitomonas, katablepharids, goniomonads and cryptomonads. However, this revision introduced yet another classification system that is contradictory with the previous ones. They proposed a single class Cryptophyceae uniting cryptomonads, goniomonads and katablepharids, and treated cryptomonads as a single order Cryptomonadales,[3] although this does not follow scientific consensus: there are more cryptomonad orders (e.g., Pyrenomonadales, Tetragonidiales) and the name Cryptophyceae was already used for taxa that excluded katablepharids[60] and often excluded goniomonads too.[59] There has not been a new revision since.

Unlike with Heliomorpha, the genus Microheliella was genetically sequenced and its affinities have been resolved. In 2022, it was proposed as the sister group of Cryptista, in a clade known as Pancryptista.[53]

Pancryptista Yazaki et al. 2022

Haptista

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Alveolata

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Ciliophora

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Myzozoa

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Chrompodellids

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Apicomplexa

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Perkinsozoa

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Dinoflagellata

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Rhizaria

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Cercozoa

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Endomyxa

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Retaria

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Radiolaria

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Foraminifera

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Stramenopiles

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Bigyra

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Pseudofungi

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Bigyromonada

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Ochrophyta

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Diatoms

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Excavates

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Malawimonada

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Metamonada

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Discoba

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Jakobida

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Heterolobosea

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Cladogram of heterolobosean orders based on combined phylogenomic and 18S rRNA analyses published in 2025.[64]

The phylum Heterolobosea contains around 170 species of amoebae, flagellates, and amoeboflagellates. It was initially established to unite two historically well-known amoeboid orders, Schizopyrenida (such as Naegleria fowleri, a human pathogen) and Acrasida (slime molds). Later, as more flagellates joined this grouping, the usage of Heterolobosea was split between two meanings: the more common usage applies to the entire clade,[3] while the usage by Cavalier-Smith and collaborators was restricted to a paraphyletic class of "traditional" heteroloboseans, with the name Percolozoa used for the phylum instead.[65][66] The first comprehensive phylogenomic study of Heterolobosea was published in 2025 by Tomáš Pánek and coauthors, resulting in its modern classification.[64]

Phylum Heterolobosea Page & Blanton 1985 sensu Hanousková et al. 2019 (=Percolozoa Cavalier-Smith 1991)

Euglenozoa

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The phylum Euglenozoa is home to at least 2,000 described species of single-celled flagellates of very dissimilar lifestyles. It was originally proposed to group the euglenids (such as the photosynthetic Euglena) and the kinetoplastids (like the pathogenic Trypanosoma), usually studied separatedly; eventually it included diplonemids and symbiontids as well.[67][68][69] Due to its share of photosynthetic species, traditionally regarded as algae, the phylum is also known as Euglenophyta by phycologists, and euglenids in particular were often studied as algae. Euglenids and kinetoplastids are the most diverse in terms of described species, although diplonemids may compose over 67,000 potential species.[69] The classification of euglenozoans was summarized by Cavalier-Smith in 2016.[68] A more phylogenetically precise revision of their classification was published in 2021 by Alexei Kostygov and coauthors,[69] with newer clades and genera described in the following years, particularly of euglenids. Still, one group of euglenids, the paraphyletic "ploeotids",[70] remains unresolved in the current classification, spread out across multiple clades.[71][72][73]

Phylum Euglenozoa Cavalier-Smith 1981 emend. Simpson 1997

Minor clades

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Ancyromonadida

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CRuMs

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Hemimastigophora

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Provora

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Telonemia

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The phylum Telonemia (telonemids) contains a few species of flagellates found in ocean and fresh waters worldwide. It was originally proposed in 2006 for Telonema, a genus of previously uncertain affinity.[82] Under the Cavalier-Smith system, telonemids were initially classified as a class of Cryptista,[59] but later analyses consistently recovered it as a separate group.[33] Until 2019, only two species had been formally described, each belonging to a separate genus,[83] although environmental DNA sequencing suggests there are many more species not yet described.[84] In 2022, five additional species were described along with a third new genus, bringing the total number of species to seven.[85]

Phylum Telonemia Shalchian-Tabrizi 2006, class Telonemea Cavalier-Smith 1993, order Telonemida Cavalier-Smith 1993, family Telonemidae Cavalier-Smith 1993, genera Arpakorses, Lateronema, Telonema.

Protists of uncertain position

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Notes

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  1. ^ The position of the genera Microcorycia, Parmulina, Penardochlamys and Zonomyxa, which were listed in 2002 under family Microcoryciidae, is not clear. They are placed here by morphological characters but this needs to be supported by molecular data.[3]
  2. ^ This genus grouped with Dermamoebidae in a phylogenetic anaysis that used a limited number of taxa.[14] In the recent taxonomy it was listed as a separate clade until its position was better resolved.[3] A 2023 analysis placed it, once again, related to Dermamoebida in a clade with Microglomus.[15]
  3. ^ The two genera of Stygamoebidae, Stygamoeba and Vermistella, group together in some phylogenetic analyses, but usually appear separated. In 2019 they were considered only a potential branch of Discosea, unless proven otherwise.[3] A 2023 analysis places both genera in Flabellinia, closely related to Thecamoebida.[15]
  4. ^ a b c d e The orders Thecamoebida, Dactylopodida, Acanthopodida, Himatismenida and Pellitida were initially divided into families, but phylogenetic analyses haven't supported the monophyly of each family. For this reason, in recent classifications there is no family rank division within it.[7][3]
  5. ^ The genus Pessonella could be a synonym of Vannella.[3]
  6. ^ The 2019 revision by the ISOP ignores the grouping of some variosean genera into higher rank clades (orders and families) proposed in older studies, due to the weakly supported SSU rRNA phylogenetic analyses.[3]
  7. ^ The 2019 revision by the ISOP wrongly stated that goniomonads are classified as "Cyathomonadacea Pringsheim 1944".[3] The name Cyathomonadacea does not exist; Pringsheim only described the family Cyathomonadaceae based on the genus Cyathomonas, and later the order Cyathomonadales and class Cyathomonadea were described, each by different authors. However, as pointed out in 1993 by Gianfranco Novarino and Ian Lucas, this genus was based on a species that actually belonged to Goniomonas; since then, taxonomists have prioritized higher taxa named after it (Goniomonadaceae, Goniomonadales/adida, Goniomonadea) instead.[60]
  8. ^ The genus Tetragonidium is known only from one written diagnosis and some illustrations, and its affinities with cryptomonads are very uncertain.[60]
  9. ^ The family Orodruinidae is possibly polyphyletic, and its type genus Orodruina may belong to the order Neovahlkampfiida.[64]

References

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