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Petroleum industry in Venezuela

See also: History of the Venezuelan oil industry

Oil wells on Lake Maracaibo

Petroluem fields, pipelines, and refineries in Venezuela (1972)

The petroleum industry in Venezuela accounts for 15% of its GDP and 37% of its domestic energy consumption.

Venezuela's oil exports also account for 80% of its total export revenue.

By 1950, it had a GDP per capita of $5,550, the third highest in Latin America. This was in comparison to other Latin colonies that were significantly more impoverished, like Brazil ($1,850) or Guatemala ($2,040).

Discovery

Oil was first discovered in the Maracaibo Basin of Zulia in 1914. The first Venezuelan oil well, Zumaque I, was located in Mene Grande, Zulia.

In 1922, the Barroso II oil well exploded in Zulia state, causing a million barrels of crude oil to burst out of the ground. This was when its promise as an oil-rich country was noticed.

Foreign involvement

In the first decades after oil began to be exploited, foreign companies controlled production, infrastructure, and commercialization. One of the most important was Creole Petroleum Corporation, a subsidiary of Standard Oil, which came to control a substantial share of national production.

In 1960, Venezuela was one of the five founding countries of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC, along with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait. Despite this leadership role, foreign companies continued to dominate the industry until nationalization in 1976.

In August 1971, under the presidency of Rafael Caldera, a law was passed that nationalized the country's natural gas industry, foreshadowing the broader oil nationalization to come. Nationalization (1976)

Pérez administration

President Carlos Andrés Pérez nationalized the oil industry of Venezuela on 1 January 1976, creating Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) to oversee all exploring, producing, refining, and exporting of oil.

The announcement occurred at the Mene Grande oilfield in Zulia. The transition to the oil industry being run by the state went well. Large American and other foreign companies invested in the country and were also hired by PDVSA for their expertise. Pérez allowed PDVSA to partner with foreign oil companies as long as it held 60% equity in joint ventures, along with other constraints.

During the 1980s, global oil prices plummeted. As global oil prices plummeted in the 1980s, Venezuela's economy contracted and inflation soared; at the same time, it accrued massive foreign debt by purchasing foreign refineries, such as Citgo in the United States.

Chávez administration

Hugo Chávez was elected president in 1998 running on a socialist platform. He promised to use the country's oil wealth to reduce poverty in Venezuela, a serious problem at the time.

In 2002, many PDVSA employees went on strike against Chávez, who responsed by firing 19,000 workers from the company. This decision was later criticized, as it removed much of the company's technical expertise.

In 2005, Chávez began to provide subsidized oil to several countries in the region, including Cuba, with Petrocaribe being created later.

In 2007, the government decreed that PDVSA must hold at least a 60% stake in all heavy crude projects in the Orinoco Belt, forcing foreign companies to accept new contractual conditions or leave the country. As a result, ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips withdrew from Venezuela.

Maduro administration

Due to the crisis in Venezuela

In mid-2014, global oil prices tumbled and Venezuela's economy went into free fall. Since 2014, oil production in Venezuela has suffered from a poor oil market and Venezuela's insufficient funding of the industry.

In 2016, the oil production reached the lowest it had been in 23 years. The decline continued through subsequent years, with production hitting historic lows during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In January 2026, the Trump administration stated that it would fix Venezuelas oil industry while the U.S. was engaging in Operation Southern Spear. Maduro was captured in Caracas and taken to the U.S. on 3 January 2026.

Oil reserves

PDVSA refinery

Venezuela produces over 900,000 barrels of oil per day and has an estimated 303 billion barrels of proven oil reserves. These reserves account for roughly 17% of the global total, with most concentrated in the Orinoco Belt, where deposits are predominantly heavy crude. There is doubt about the reliability of this figure however, as it is self-reported and not verified by OPEC or another international organization.

Production

At its peak in the 1970s, Venezuela's oil production reached 3.5 million barrels of crude oil per day. By contrast, Venezuela crude oil production was reported at 896,000 barrels per day in December 2025.

Venezuela's oil is abundant but it is known for being more expensive to extract from the ground than oil from the Persian Gulf, which lowers its profitability. The oil being heavy crude means special refineries are needed.

Petróleos de Venezuela

In 1986, PDVSA bought 50% of the United States gasoline brand Citgo from Southland Corporation and in 1990 the remaining half. This gave Venezuela a significant presence in the U.S. market.

PDVSA has not regularly disclosed its financial performance since 2014 and provides extremely limited public information, having not published annual reports or other documentation to improve transparency and corporate governance since 2016.

Economy

See also: Economy of Venezuela

In 2023, Venezuela's oil exports totaled just $4.05 billion—dwarfed by Saudi Arabia's $181 billion and the U.S.'s $125 billion.

Most of Venezuela's modest oil production goes to China, an ally of the Maduro regime and major investor in the region, with Venezuela currently paying down an estimated $10-billion debt to China, covered in part by oil exports.

The United States bought about 23% of Venezuela's oil in 2023, but data shows that the U.S. didn't buy any in 2020 and 2021.

U.S. involvement and sanctions

The United States has been involved in the Venezuelan oil industry. has been imposing sanctions on Venezuela in some capacity since 2006, although full sanctions against petroleum trade itself did not occur until much later. For almost two decades, Washington has imposed sweeping sanctions against Caracas, the most significant of which have blocked oil imports from PDVSA and prevented the government from accessing the U.S. financial system.

To return Venezuela to its production highs of the early 2000s of around 3 million barrels per day would likely take around $180 billion in extra funding between now and 2040, according to energy intelligence firm Rystad Energy.

Corruption, mismanagement, brain drain, and a lack of repair and upkeep work on critical infrastructure, including throughout Venezuela's flagship Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, have made operating without significant investment nearly impossible.

External links

• Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Annual Statistical Bulletin 2025
• [Council on Foreign Relations - Venezuela: The Rise and Fall of a Petrostate]
• Natural Resource Governance Institute - National Oil Company Profile: PDSVA
• Yale Climate Connections - "Five keys to understanding Venezuela's oil history"
• Caracas Chronicles - "The Theft That Never Was: Inside Venezuela's 1976 Oil Takeover"
• Visual Capitalist - "How Venezuela's Oil Reserves Compare to the Rest of the World"

See also

• Oil reserves in Venezuela
• Energy policy of Venezuela
• Energy crisis in Venezuela
• Petrostate
• Latin American economy

2025 Totonicapán bus crash

On 27 December 2025, an intercity bus fell into a ravine on the Inter-American Highway in Guatemala, killing 16 and injuring 26 people. The bus was on a route coming from Guatemala City.

Background

Typical street in Totonicapán

Road accidents are common in Guatemala, as the country is mountainous and road infrastructure is less developed than in other places. The Central American volcanic arc specifically the Sierra Madre de Chiapas crosses over much of the central and southern part of the country, and forms the Guatemalan Highlands. As such, it has a high rate of traffic fatalities relative to miles driven. Accidents of this kind tend to be more fatal compared to collisions as well. Totonicapán is located at a very high elevation, at almost 2,500 metres (8,200 ft).

The Inter-American Highway is another name for the portion of the Pan-American Highway within Central America. Chicken buses regularly use the highway, as many citizens do not own their own form of motor transportation. The road connects Totonicapán to nearby cities like Quetzaltenango (27 km (17 mi) away) and Santa Cruz del Quiché. Highways in Guatemala are typically named after a department and a number, for example QUI-4. The Inter-American Highway passes through the center of Totonicapán.

Accident

Authorities took more than two hours to rescue the injured and remove the bodies of those who died.

Bernardo Arévalo, the president of Guatemala, expressed his lament for the accident via X and declared three days of national mourning.

Articles to create

• Fernandinho Beira-Mar

Contra War
Part of the Nicaraguan Revolution and the Central American Crisis
'Frente Sur' Contras in Nueva Guinea ARDE Contra unit
Location Nicaragua Result Sandinista victory

Contra War

Copy from

• Contra War - Revision (Wikipedia)
• ru: Гражданская_война_в_Никарагуа "Contra War" different name in Russian
• de: Contra-Krieg - in german.
• ru: Потери авиации в войне с «контрас» "Aviation losses in the Contra War"

The Contra War (sometimes called the Nicaraguan Civil War) was an armed conflict in Nicaragua that took place from 1981 to 1990 between the socialist government led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) and various anti‑Sandinista rebel forces collectively known as the Contras.

The war took place within the broader context of the Cold War, drawing significant involvement from the United States, which provided financial, logistical, and covert military support to Contra factions. The conflict resulted in substantial military and civilian casualties, widespread displacement, and economic disruption, and concluded after negotiated peace agreements and national elections in 1990 that brought an opposition government to power.

Background

The 'Central America and the Caribbean' region is a label initially created by the United States. This region was of particular interest to the U.S. during the 20th century and the Cold War, primarily due to its instability and proximity to the U.S.

The causes of regional instability in Central America and the Caribbean are hard to ascertain, one proposed reason is that the two regions are split into many different countries; the Caribbean for its islands (the Antilles), and Central America for historical and political reasons that date from when it was a Spanish colony.

The Spanish colonial governments divided regions into captaincy generals and provinces, rather than separate states within one republic. This led to different regions developing identities as separate nations during the 16th-18th centuries. The various countries in South America were formed for similar reasons.

Other parts of Latin America were either already relatively stable, (such as Peru and Ecuador), or simply not of interest to the U.S. at the time (such as Mexico).

Conflict

Peace process

The Esquipulas Peace Agreement peace agreement was signed by both parties in Esquipulas, Guatemala. The agreement stipulated the demobilization of the Contras, ending the war.

United States involvement

U.S. president Ronald Reagan took interest in the war from the very start, since his administration took office in 1981. Reagan was afraid that Nicaragua would turn into a "second Cuba", which by then was already under a communist government led by Fidel Castro for 16 years.

Refugees and emigration

The agrarian reforms and nationalization of land by the Sandinista government led many plantation owners and farmers to leave the country. The most common countries for emigration were Costa Rica and the United States. The first wave of about 120,000 Nicaraguans entering the U.S. happened in the 1980s during the Sandinista government. Many of these people were middle-class or wealthy before the revolution. The second wave occured in early 1989, after Hurricane Joan caused upheaval in the country.

---

• Add Contra War to \{\{history of nicaragua}}

Nicaraguan Civil War may refer to:

• American occupation of Nicaragua (1912)
• Nicaraguan Civil War (1926–1927)
• Nicaraguan Revolution (1962–1990)
• Contra War, an insurgency in the country (1981-1990)

Draft:Survivor México

Draft:Survivor México

Cuban Revolution

From top-left:

From top-left:

• Reenactment of a cavalry scene by M-26-7
• Fidel Castro and his men in the Sierra Maestra mountains
• The Landing of the Granma
• The Havana Presidential Palace attack
• Cubans celebrating the anniversary of the Revolution

]]

Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua

Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua

Nicaragüenses nativos
Indigenous settlement in Rama Cay, South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region
Total population
443,847 8.6% of the population (2005)
Languages
Spanish, Miskito, Sumo, Rama, Garífuna
Religion
Catholicism
Related ethnic groups
Indigenous Mexicans, Indigenous Hondurans, Indigenous Costa Ricans, Indigenous Colombians

Good table:
Nicaraguan_Indigenous_Organizations#Chart_of_Indigenous_Populations_by_Department_/_Autonomous_Region

Nicaragua is part of the 'intermediate area'

The area comprising modern-day Nicaragua has long been inhabited by various Indigenous groups.

The Pacific coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by groups like the Nicarao before the Spanish arrived. The areas further inland such as in Matagalpa Department were inhabited by other groups like the Cacaopera, and the areas in the east are inhabited by the Miskito people.

There are an estimated 450,000 Indigenous people living in Nicaragua today. The true number however is unknown, as the country does not collect ethnicity data in the census.

Regions

Pacific

The Gran Nicoya region, which consists of the Pacific coast and the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica, is where the Nahua and Manguean groups lived.

This region (including El Salvador) is considered to be a part of Mesoamerica because some groups within it spoke a Nahua language, as well as the fact that they shared other cultural traits with Mesoamerica that were not equally shared by other groups in Central America.

One of these traits is agriculture (cultivation of maize).

They are sometimes categorized as being in a distinct Central American region.

They are geographically separated from the groups in Honduras by the Rio Coco and the groups in Costa Rica by the Rio San Juan. This led to Costa Rican groups developing differnet cultures and speaking Chibchan languages over time.

Groups

Nicarao people

The Nahua-speaking Nicarao in the south (Rivas) and the Oto-Manguean speaking groups in the north had a long-standing enmity with each other.

Cacaopera people

The Cacaopera people are primarily located in the Matagalpa Department. This group spoke a Misumalpan language which is now extinct. The language is unrelated to the other languages spoken in Nicaragua, coming from a different language family.

It has been suggested that the Cacaopera lost their language due to suffering heavy casualties in the first century of Spanish rule. They are still the primary group in Matagalpa today.

History

Spanish conquest

Main article: Spanish conquest of Nicaragua

The Spanish conquest of Nicaragua killed hundreds of thousands of Indigenous people in Nicaragua through violence and disease. Estimated vary from 300,000 to over 2 million people killed during the 16th century.

es:HelloTalk

HelloTalk es una aplicación de intercambio de idiomas lanzado en 2012. Fue creada por el desarrollador chino Zackery Ngai.

En diciembre de 2025, la plataforma ofrecía aprendizaje y comunicación en más de 260 idiomas. La aplicación está disponible para descargar en las tiendas de Android y Apple, y también se puede acceder a la plataforma a través de su sitio web.

Translations

Spanish to english

• Revolución Liberal de 1871 - Liberal Revolution of 1871

English to spanish

• 3-Methylmethcathinone
• HelloTalk

Military dictatorship in Guatemala

From 1954 to 1986, Guatemala was under a series of military leaders.

Eraín Ríos Montt, who was president from 1982 to 1983, is regarded as the most egregious leader. Torture, murder, and other human rights abuses increased significantly during his administration, until he was deposed in a coup.

Ethnic tensions

Most of the presidents during this period were white or ladino, meaning mixed white and mestizo.

Spanish conquest of Venezuela

• Conquista de Venezuela

The Spanish conquest of Venezuela officially started in 1498 when Columbus reached the northern coast of Venezuela from the Atlantic Ocean.

• WikiProjects: same as Talk:Spanish conquest of Nicaragua

See also

• Spanish conquest of Colombia
• Spanish conquest of Peru
• Spanish conquest of Ecuador
• Spanish conquest of Bolivia

Operation Red Christmas

• Navidad roja

Operation Red Christmas Navidad roja
Part of the Nicaraguan Revolution and the Contra war
The village of Palo Yumpa destroyed
Date December 1981 Location Nicaragua Result Sandinista victory
Belligerents
Sandinista Popular Army	MISURASATA
Casualties and losses
8,000 Desplazados 71 deaths

Operation Red Christmas was an operation undertaken by the Sandinista government of Nicaragua to relocate 42 Indigenous Miskito communities away from the Caribbean coast towards inland towns along the Coco River with Honduras, into new communities known as Tasba Pri (Free Land).

This operation was carried out in early 1982, at the outset of Contra actions against the Sandinista government, which were particularly intense in the northeastern region of the Caribbean (or Atlantic) coast.

Navidad Roja fue la operación de traslado de 42 comunidades de indígenas misquitos de la región nor-oriental de la Costa Caribe de Nicaragua desde la franja fronteriza del Río Coco con Honduras hacia el interior del país, a unas nuevas comunidades conocidas como Tasba Pri (Tierra Libre).[1]​ Esta operación se realizó a principios de 1982, en los inicios de las acciones de los Contras hacia el gobierno sandinista que fueron especialmente virulentas en la región nor-oriental de la costa caribeña o atlántica.

Western Highlands (Guatemala)

Western Highlands
Using Template:Infobox
Location	Guatemala
Languages	Spanish, Mam
Departments	Quetzaltenango, Huehuetenango, Quiché, San Marcos, Totonicapán
Cities	Quetzaltenango, Huehuetenango, Chichicastenango, Momostenango

The Western Highlands are a region in Guatemala. It borders the state of Chiapas in Mexico. The region is almost identical to the Region VII or the northwest political region in Guatemala.

It was less historically relevant to the Maya civilization than areas to the north in the Yucatán and Petén, but after the Maya collapse ir rose in relevance, and today is majority Maya.

• 
  Western and Central highlands are heavily Maya
• 
  Economic regions of Guatemala

Barberena

es: Barberena

El 11(?) de octubre de 2024, 3 personas fueron victimadas en Barberena.[ref]. El video de la cámara de seguridad muestra a 2 hombres y mujeres jóvenes bebiendo y platicando casualmente, cuando 2 asaltantes entran al bar y comienzan disparándoles. Una persona sobrevivió escondiéndose debajo de un taburete, los demás no sobrevivieron. Se dice que una mujer era conocido como «La Diabla» en línea.

Después, se informó que las víctimas estaban descansando en el bar mientras su viaje hacia vecino El Salvador. El crimen ocurrió alrededor de las 4 PM.

La mayor violencia en Santa Rosa como este crimen, puede ser debido a su proximidad a El Salvador.[ref]

Alta Verapaz

Alta Verapaz is heavily indigenous and primarily populated by the Qʼeqchiʼ Mayan people. The 2018 census recorded 93% of the department's population as belonging to an indigenous group and 80% as belonging to the Qʼeqchiʼ Maya.

HelloTalk

Criticism

HelloTalk has been criticized for its use as a dating app. This has attracted controversy both within the community and in other online forums. Although its gial is to facilitate language learning. the app is ptimarily centered on its chat feature. Some people claim they started romantic relationships through using the app, usually long-distance relationships.

The company has been criticized for encouraging ita use in this way. through prominently featuring lartners of the opposite gender more often, as well as notifications in this vein. Peoplr have critized that HelloTalk no longer primarily focuses on improving language skills.

Reports that users of the app quickly ask language partners for their WhatsApp account raizes further concern over it being abused as a dating app. While HelloTalk aims to connect casual language partners{REF! }from different countries, WhatsApp focuses on being an instant messaging app primarily used for communication between friends and family. Users who ask their partners to switch to WhatsApp rather than practice second language acquisition have been targeted by criticism as well. HelloTlak has not released any data about the gender of its users as of December 2025{check)

Intendacy of Valladolid

Intendancy of Valladolid Intendencia de Valladolid de Michoacán
Intendancy of New Spain
1786–1821
Capital	Morelia
Population
• 19th c.	900,000
Historical era	Spanish colonial period
• Bourbon Reforms	1786
• Independence of Mexico	16 September 1821
Preceded by Succeeded by Province of Michoacán Michoacán Colima
Today part of	Mexico

Dictators

TABLE THAT WORKS

Largest population centres of South America by metropolitan area
	Rank	City name	Member state	Pop.	Rank	City name	Member state	Pop.
São Paulo Buenos Aires	1	São Paulo	Brazil	21,090,792	11	Fortaleza	Brazil	3,985,297	Rio de Janeiro Bogotá
	2	Buenos Aires	Argentina	13,693,657	12	Salvador	Brazil	3,953,290
	3	Rio de Janeiro	Brazil	13,131,431	13	Recife	Brazil	3,914,397
	4	Bogotá	Colombia	10,777,931	14	Medellín	Colombia	3,777,009
	5	Lima	Peru	9,904,727	15	Curitiba	Brazil	3,502,804
	6	Santiago	Chile	6,683,852	16	Campinas	Brazil	3,094,181
	7	Belo Horizonte	Brazil	5,829,923	17	Guayaquil	Ecuador	2,952,159
	8	Caracas	Venezuela	5,322,310	18	Cali	Colombia	2,911,278
	9	Porto Alegre	Brazil	4,258,926	19	Quito	Ecuador	2,653,330
	10	Brasília	Brazil	4,201,737	20	Maracaibo	Venezuela	2,576,836

Bad table

Principales municipios de Querétaro
Querétaro San Juan del Río	Núm.	18 municipios	Pob.	Núm.	18 municipios	Pob.	El Marqués Corregidora
	1	Querétaro	1 049 777	10	Ezequiel Montes	45 141
	2	San Juan del Río	297 804	11	Huimilpan	36 808
	3	El Marqués	231 668	12	Tolimán	27 916
	4	Corregidora	212 567	13	Pinal de Amoles	27 365
	5	Pedro Escobedo	77 404	14	Jalpan de Serra	27 343
	6	Tequisquiapan	72 201	15	Peñamiller	19 141
	7	Cadereyta de Montes	69 075	16	Landa de Matamoros	18 794
	8	Colón	67 121	17	Arroyo Seco	13 142
	9	Amealco de Bonfil	66 841	18	San Joaquín	8 359
	Fuente:INEGI 2020

Collages

1. Use photomontage template

2. Zoom to 200% on wikipedia and snip

3. Pick photos close on aspect ratio

Use black brush on snipping tool to get rid of white

image frame

• Querétaro
• 
  Querétaro City, the capital
• 
  San Juan del Río, the second largest

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