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==Notes==

~~ ~~

My code collection

Thing v.1: use=future: (True)

Things=use: Foren.lang. (True)

ja

リンク

Search research-Improvement-useful things (maybe True)

https://www.thoughtco.com/key-copyediting-terms-1692372 (I was looking for a particular thing which there s a node energetically but no formal expression is known)

Actual temp.

Temperature Boomarang=B
https://www.metric-conversions.org(α)
Conversion of scales of temperature#Comparison_values_chart(β): 0.00 K = −273.15C −459.67F
Physics I For Dummies Dr. Steven Holzner PhD at Cornell (12 April 2022) p.277: confrms: K/C= "+/-273.15"
value cmbr: 2.725

Source(I): https://www.space.com/coldest-place-in-the-universe David Crookes (www.space.com/author/david-crookes="Sorry! Page not found.") published October 29, 2021
Analysis(I): In the case of "I": ("-273.15" does = 0 kelvin) "-272°C"(IB) (α) = 1.1500K an alternative value provided for B "-458°F" ergo B=0.92778K. Iβ B=K:1.15/1.6

Source(IIabc): https://esahubble.org/images/heic0301a/ (a) no pub. date, https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/The_Boomerang_Nebula_-_the_coolest_place_in_the_Universe_heic0301 - 03/02/2003 (b), https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2003/04/The_Boomerang_Nebula_-_the_coolest_place_in_the_Universe 02/04/2003 (c): "Credit:European Space Agency, NASA"(II) "astronomers Sahai and Nyman revealed that it is the coldest place in the Universe found so far. With a temperature of -272C, it is only 1 degree warmer than absolute zero (the lowest limit for all temperatures). Even the -270C background glow from the Big Bang is warmer than this nebula."
Findings(II): αβ -270°C = 3.1500K=cmbr. 0K=-273. (Explaining Physics Stephen Pople "a former science teacher" Oxford University Press 1987 p.124 "temperature of about -230C"=0K)

Source(III):https://www.astronomy.com/science/the-boomerang-nebula/ Stephen James O'Meara: "The International Astronomical Union named asteroid 3637 O’Meara in his honor...Steve has also been awarded with the Caroline Herschel Award for his greatest observing achievements, which include being to first person to visually recover Halley’s Comet in 1985 when it was at magnitude 19.6. O’Meara is the author of about a dozen books, including the Deep-Sky Companions series of deep-sky observing guides. " published: January 1, 2024: "What’s more, the nebula’s deep interior has a temperature of only 1 degree Celsius above absolute zero (nearly minus 460 degrees Fahrenheit), making it one of the coldest known natural environments in the universe."
Findings(III): 272.15=B1.15K

Source(IV):https://public.nrao.edu/news/alma-reveals-coldest-place-in-the-universe/ National Radio Astronomy Observatory Contact: Charles Blue (434) 296-0314: "At a cosmologically crisp one degree Kelvin (minus 458 degrees Fahrenheit), the Boomerang Nebula is the coldest known object in the Universe"
Findings(IV): B=1K

Source(V): https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2016/11/16/colder-than-empty-space-how-the-boomerang-nebula-does-it/ is shown author-medium.com-"become a member to read this story" - same wording visible for cmbr sentence Forbes. Forbes: "Senior Contributor." https://www.forbes.com/sites/ethansiegel/ I am a Ph.D. astrophysicist, author, and science communicator, who professes physics and astronomy at various colleges. I have won numerous awards for science writing since 2008 for my blog: "you might think that 2.725 K is the coldest you can ever get in nature... And as a result of all of this, it's the coldest natural place in the known Universe, with some portions of the nebula coming in at just 0.5 K: half a degree above absolute zero."
Findings(V): B=0.5 K

Source(VI): https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/boomerang-nebula-boasts-the-coolest-spot-in-the-universe/ 20 June 1997: "has a temperature of about 1 Kelvin"
Findings(VI): B=about 1 Kelvin
Source(VII): https://science.nrao.edu/science/aas/220/sahai-alma-aas-jun2012.pdf National Radio Astronomy Observatory June 2012 https://science.nrao.edu/science/aas/220 = ALMA Special Session at the 220th AAS (American Astronomical Society): "Model indicates T_kin < 2K Sahai & Nyman 1997"
Findings(VII): B=< 2K
Source(VIII): https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/466/2/1412/2666379?login=false J. Bohigas National Autonomous University of Mexico (April 2017):
- 1 INTRODUCTION: "The outer shell is the ultracold absorbing cloud ...Sahai & Nyman (1997) reproduced the spectral profiles centred on the CO (2–1) and CO (1–0) lines, with a model consisting of with T0 = 4 and 2.8 K at the inner edge of the inner and outer shells. This implies that the model temperature at the outer edge of the ultracold cloud is 0.3 K. "
Preliminary Findings(VIII) source: Intro - 5th para.: B= 0.3 K
Source(IX): https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap071228.html Robert Nemiroff (MTU) & Jerry Bonnell (UMCP) after 2007 December 28: B="about one degree above absolute zero"
Source(X): https://public.nrao.edu/news/2017-alma-boomerang/ (via- https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/documents/769/sahai_cv_current.pdf from https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/Sahai/ : SELECTED PRESS RELEASES AND ARTICLES IN POPULAR MEDIA p.19) News Release: June 5, 2017 at 11:00 am EDT: This outflow is expanding so rapidly — about 10 times faster than a single star could produce on its own — that its temperature has fallen to less than half a degree Kelvin (minus 458.5 degrees Fahrenheit). Zero degrees Kelvin is known as absolute zero, the point at which all thermodynamic motion stops.
Findings(X): less than half a degree Kelvin
Source(X): https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/deep-space/a46188982/coldest-place-in-the-universe/ Robert Lea Published: Dec 20, 2023 11:52 AM EST: Yet, there is one object we know of out in the universe that is able to chill a region of space even colder than the temperature of the CMB. The coldest place in the universe, a young planetary nebula called the Boomerang Nebula, is -457.87 degrees Fahrenheit (-272.15 degrees Celsius). - “The lowest temperatures in the Boomerang Nebula are just a few tenths of a degree above absolute zero,” California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researcher and NASA Jet Propulsion scientist Raghvendra Sahai told Popular Mechanics.
Findings(XI): B=-457.87 degrees Fahrenheit (-272.15 degrees Celsius)/a few tenths of a degree above absolute zero

Range of minimum–maximum actual–theoretical temperatures

List of orders of magnitude for temperature
Factor	Multiple	Negative thermodynamic temperatures^[a]	Type
10⁻⁹	− nK	³⁹K bosonic atoms.^[1]^[3]	Artificial (A)
10⁻¹²	−100 pK	nuclear spin temperature of −750 pK using rhodium.^[4]	A
		Absolute zero^[5]^[6]
0	N/A	Theoretical lowest temperature limit not realizable in practice because of the third law of thermodynamics^[5]^[6]
		Positive temperatures
10⁻¹²	10s–100s pK	38 pK; matter-wave lensing of rubidium Bose–Einstein condensates^[7] (BEC).^[8] 450 ± 80 pK; lowest temperature sodium BEC gas ever observed in a laboratory.^[9]	A
10⁻⁹	10–100 nK	50 nK: using quantum degeneracy of a rubidium BEC with a potassium Fermi gas: approximately 25000 (maximum) of 100000 molecules of fermionic ⁴⁰K ⁸⁷Rb^[8] approximately 170 nK; first BEC product^[10]	A
10⁻⁶	1μK	approximately 2μK;^[11] first ²³Na BEC^[12] Nuclear demagnetization Doppler-cooled refrigerants in laser cooling and magneto-optical traps
10⁻³	1–100s mK	Radio excitations 1.7 mK, temperature record for helium-3 (³He) / helium-4 (⁴He) dilution refrigeration, and the lowest temperature which may be sustained for arbitrarily long time with known techniques. 2 mK,^[13] first order transition - D state^[14] superfluidic phase transition ³He^[15] 2.6^[15] / 2.65 mK, second order transition - F state^[14] superfluidic phase transition ³He^[16]^[13]^[17] 10mK, operational temperature of CUORE detector^[18] 60 mK adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic molecules 300 mK in evaporative cooling of ³He 700 mK, ³He / ⁴He mixtures begin phase separation 950 mK, melting point of helium at 2.5 megapascals of pressure. All 118 elements are solid at or below this temperature. microwave excitations
1	1 K	1.5 K, melting point of overbound helium 2.17 K, λ point of ⁴He / superfluid helium^[19] < 2.725 K; ^[b]temperature indicated by modelling of carbon monoxide (CO) flux in a shell structure at the Boomerang Nebula; ^[c] this would indicate the COflux is the coldest natural environment known^[20] Cooling to sub cosmic microwave background radiation temperature is by adiabatic expansion.^[22] 2.725 K, cosmic microwave background 4.1 K, superconductivity point of mercury 4.22 K, boiling point of bound helium 5.19 K, critical temperature of helium 7.2 K, superconductivity point of lead 9.3 K, superconductivity point of niobium
10¹	10 K	Fermi melting point of valence electrons for superconductivity 14.01 K, melting point of bound hydrogen 20.28 K, boiling point of bound hydrogen 33 K, critical temperature of hydrogen 44 K mean on Pluto 53 K mean of Neptune 63 K, melting point of bound nitrogen 68 K mean of Uranus 77.35 K, boiling point of bound nitrogen 90.19 K, boiling point of bound oxygen 92 K, superconductivity point of Y–Ba–Cu–oxide (YBCO)
10²	100 K	Infrared excitations 134 K, highest-temperature superconductor at ambient pressure, mercury barium calcium copper oxide 165 K, glass point of supercooled water 184.0 K (–89.2 °C), coldest air recorded on Earth 192 K, Debye temperature of ice 194.7 K, sublimation temperature of dry ice 273.15 K (0 °C), melting point of bound water 273.16 K (0.01 °C), temperature of triple point of water c. 293 K, room temperature 373.15 K (100 °C), boiling point of bound water at sea level 647 K, critical point of superheated water 737.5 K, mean on Venus See detailed list below
10³	1-10 kK	Visible light excitations 500–2200 K on brown dwarfs (photosphere) 1043 K Curie temperature of iron (point at which iron transitions from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior and loses any permanent magnetism) 1170 K at wood fire 1300 K in lava flows, open flames 1500 K in basalt lava flows c. 1670 K at blue candle flame 1811 K, melting point of iron (lower for steel) 1830 K in Bunsen burner flame 1900 K at the Space Shuttle orbiter hull in 8 km/s dive 2022 K, boiling point of lead 2074 K, surface temperature of the coolest star, 2MASS J0523-1403 2230 K, Debye temperature of carbon 2320 K at open hydrogen flame 2150–2450 K at open hydrocarbon flame 2900 K, color temperature of halogen lamps, black-body radiation maximum at 1000 nm 3695 K, melting point of tungsten 3915 K, sublimation point of carbon 4231 K, melting point of hafnium carbide 4800 K, 10 MPa, triple point of carbon^[23] 5000 K, 12 GPa melting point of diamond^[24] 5100 K in cyanogen–dioxygen flame 5516 K at dicyanoacetylene (carbon subnitride)–ozone flame 5650 K at Earth's Inner Core Boundary 5772 K (Effective temperature (T_eff)^[25] 5778^[26]^[27] (radiative temperature within vicinity of Earth)^[28] 5780 T_eff^[29] 5830 (estimated)^[28]: the Sun 5933 K, boiling point of tungsten 6000 K, mean of the Universe 300,000 years after the Big Bang 7445 K, 850 GPa;^[30] 8750 K, 520 GPa;^[31] 5400 K, 220 GPa,^[32] critical point of diamond/solid III 7735 K, a monatomic ideal gas has one electron volt of kinetic energy 8000 K, routinely sustainable temperature in an analytical inductively coupled plasma 8801 K, 10.56 GPa^[33] 7020.5 K, 797 MPa,^[34] critical point of carbon Anionic sparks Ultraviolet excitations
10⁴	10-100s kK	10 kK on Sirius A 10–15 kK in mononitrogen recombination 15.5 kK, critical point of tungsten 25 kK, mean temperature of the universe 10,000 years after the Big Bang 26 kK on the white dwarf Sirius B 28 kK in record cationic lightning over Earth 29 kK on surface of Alnitak (easternmost star of Orion's belt) 4–8–40–160 kK^{[clarification needed]} on white dwarfs 30–400 kK on a planetary nebula's asymptotic giant helium star 36 kK boundary between inner and outer core within Jupiter 37 kK in proton–electron reactions 38 kK on Eta Carinae 46 kK on Wolf–Rayet star R136a1^[35] 50 kK at protostar (core) 54.5 kK on ON2 III(f*) star LH64-16^[36] >200 kK in Butterfly Nebula c. 300 kK at 17 meters from Little Boy's detonation 0.8 MK in solar wind Fermi boiling point of valence electrons X-ray excitations
10⁶	1–100s MK	Gamma ray excitations 1 MK inside old neutron stars, brown dwarfs, and at gravital deuterium fusion range 1–3–10 MK^{[clarification needed]} above Sun (corona) 2.4 MK at T Tauri stars and gravital lithium-6 fusion range 2.5 MK at red dwarfs and gravital protium fusion range 10 MK at orange dwarfs and gravital helium-3 fusion range 15.6 MK at Sun's core 10–30–100^{[clarification needed]} MK in stellar flares 20 MK in novae 23 MK, beryllium-7 fusion range 60 MK above Eta Carinae 85 MK (15 keV) in a magnetic confinement fusion plasma 200 MK at helium star and gravital helium-4 fusion range 230 MK, gravital carbon-12 fusion range 460 MK, gravital neon fusion–disproportionation range 5–530 MK in Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor's plasma 750 MK, gravital oxygen fusion range
10⁹	1–100s GK	1 GK, everything 100 seconds after the Big Bang 1.3–1.7 GK, gravital silicon fusion range 3 GK in electron–positron reactions 10 GK in supernovae 10 GK, everything 1 second after the Big Bang 0.1–1 TK at new neutron star 700 GK in quasars' accretion discs 740 GK, Hagedorn temperature or Fermi melting point of pions
10¹²	0.1–100s TK	0.5–1.2 TK, Fermi melting point of hadrons into quark–gluon plasma 3–5 TK in proton–antiproton reactions 3.6 TK, temperature at which matter doubles in mass (compared to its mass at 0 K) due to relativistic effects 5.5 TK, highest man-made temperature in thermal equilibrium as of 2015 (quark–gluon plasma from LHC collisions)^[37] 10 TK, 100 microseconds after the Big Bang 45–67 TK at collapsar of a gamma-ray burst 300–900 TK at proton–nickel conversions in the Tevatron's Main Injector^{[clarification needed]}
10¹⁵	0.1-1 PK	0.3–2.2 PK at proton–antiproton collisions 2.8 PK within an electroweak star
10¹⁸	EK
10²¹	ZK
10²⁴	1 YK	0.5–7 YK at ultra-high-energy cosmic ray collisions
10²⁷	1 RK	Everything 10⁻³⁵ seconds after the Big Bang
10³⁰	1 QK	Hagedorn temperature of strings
10³²	100 QK	142 QK, Planck temperature
10³³	1000 QK	Theory of everything excitations^{[citation needed]}
10²⁹⁰	10²⁶⁰ QK	Landau pole of quantum electrodynamics

Notes

^ Such a temperature, while negative as a scalar value, correspond to thermodynamic states hotter than every positive temperature^[1] – even infinite temperature^[2]
^
- requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).
- This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)
- with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],
- and I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),
- where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.
- Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0.^[20]
^ The concept: "boomerang" is a belonging/possession of native tribes of Australia.^[21]

References

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^ "Negative Absolute Temperatures Does that mean that temperature is circular?". Quantum Optics Group. Ludwig-Maximilians Universität Munich. Retrieved 20 February 2025. How do you measure temperature?...we take images of our atoms with a CCD camera...We compare the distribution of our atoms with the theoretically expected distributions. The distribution that fits best gives us the temperature of the atoms.
^ "A temperature below absolute zero". www.mpg.de. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. 4 January 2013. Archived from the original on 9 March 2025. Retrieved 18 February 2025.
^ Lounasmaa, Olli V.; Hakonen, Pertti; Nummila, Kaj; Vuorinen, Reko; Martikainen, Juha (2 February 1994). "Negative nanokelvin temperature in the nuclear spin systems of silver and rhodium metals". Physica B: Condensed Matter. 194-196 Part 1: 291–292. Bibcode:1994PhyB..194..291L. doi:10.1016/0921-4526(94)90475-8 – via Abraham & Penrose (November 25, 2016) www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~oliver/PREpaper.pdf.
^ ^a ^b Barton, Allan F.M. (1997). "5 Thermodynamic Matter". States of Matter. Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 9780750304184. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.
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^ Ospelkaus-Schwarzer, Silke (21 December 2006). "Chapter 1 Introduction". Quantum Degenerate Fermi-Bose Mixtures of ⁴⁰K and ⁸⁷Rb in 3D Optical Lattices (PDF). Hamburg: uni-hamburg.de – via jila.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2019-05/goldwin_thesis.pdf [JM Goldwin 2005 University of Colorado-x-Table 3.1/95: thesis director: Deborah S. Jin].
^ ^a ^b Enss, Christian; Hunklinger, Siegfried (2005). "Superfluid ³HE". Low-temperature physics. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/3-540-26619-4_4. ISBN 3-540-23164-1. Retrieved 1 April 2025. superfluid ³He was finally discovered in 1971. Osheroff, Richardson and Lee observed clear indications for two phase transitions in ³He at temperatures around 2mK" (sic) "in experiments using a Pomeranchuk cell
^ ^a ^b Soda, Toshio; Yamazaki, Koji (February 1974). "On the Superfluid Phases of Liquid ³He". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 51 (2): Abstract. doi:10.1143/PTP.51.327 – via iask.ai/?mode=question&options[detail_level]=detailed&q=Osheroff+DD%2C+Gully+WJ%2C+Richardson+RC%2C+Lee+DM+1972.+Phys.+Rev.+Lett.+29%3A920 using W.P. Halperin Superfluid ³He in Aerogel Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics Volume 10, 2019 search: iask.ai: "2. Osheroff DD, Gully WJ, Richardson RC, Lee DM 1972. Phys. Rev. Lett. 29:920".
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^ ^a ^b Morozov, A N (2017). "Скрипкин Алексей Владимирович Calculation of the Intensity of Physical Time Fluctuations Using the Standard Solar Model and its Comparison with the Results of Experimental Measurements". IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series (9th Russian National Conference on Irreversible Processes in Nature and Technics (9RNC-IPNT) 25–27 January 2017). 918 (012008). Bauman Moscow State Technical University: IOP Publishing Ltd: 3. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations during the production of entropy by irreversible processes (16): p.4 ("5830") 6. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations due to the Earth's thermal radiation (28): p.8. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/918/1/012008.
^ Chitta, L. P.; Smitha, H. N.; Solanki, S. K. (30 April 2020). "Solar Photosphere". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics. Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research: Oxford University Press and the American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 1 April 2025.
^ Correa, A. A.; Bonev, S. A.; Galli, G. (2006). "Carbon under extreme conditions: Phase boundaries and electronic properties from first-principles theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1204–1208. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1204C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510489103. PMC 1345714. PMID 16432191.
^ Wang, Xiaofei; Scandolo, Sandro; Car, Roberto (2005). "Carbon Phase Diagram from Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 95 (18): 185701. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95r5701W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.185701. PMID 16383918. S2CID 15373344.
^ Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)
^ Glosli, James; Ree, Francis (1999). "Liquid-Liquid Phase Transformation in Carbon". Physical Review Letters. 82 (23): 4659–4662. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.4659G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4659.
^ Man Chai Chang; Ryong, Ryoo; Mu Shik Jhon (1985). "Thermodynamic properties of liquid carbon". Carbon. 23 (5): 481–485. Bibcode:1985Carbo..23..481M. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(85)90083-1.
^ Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801.
^ Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal. 608 (2): 1001–1027. arXiv:astro-ph/0402633. Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M. doi:10.1086/420766. S2CID 119373878.
^ "Highest man-made temperature". Guinness World Records. Jim Pattison Group. Retrieved 16 August 2015.

other peoples Drafts

Draft:Routine Outcome Measurement in Psychotherapy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:AfC_pending_submissions_by_age - Wikipedia:Articles for creation:

Draft:White Beaches

Draft:Anticipatory action

Draft:Staged tree

Draft:Oceanic Deserts

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Wikipedia:WikiProject Articles for creation/Reviewing instructions 18:42, 18 April 2025 (UTC) +: Peer review

List of toxins and pollutants in households

In 2015, German consumer watchdog Stiftung Warentest analyzed cosmetics containing mineral oils, finding significant concentrations of MOAH and polyaromatics in products containing mineral oils.^[1] Vaseline products contained the most MOAH of all tested cosmetics (up to 9%).^[1] Based on the 2015 results, Stiftung Warentest warned consumers not to use Vaseline or any product that is based on mineral oils for lip care.^[1]

A 2013 academic study of fragranced laundry products found "more than 25 VOCs emitted from dryer vents, with the highest concentrations of acetaldehyde, acetone, and ethanol. Seven of these VOCs are classified as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and two as carcinogenic HAPs (acetaldehyde and benzene)".^[2]

^ ^a ^b ^c "Critical substances in creams, lip care products and Vaseline (translated from German)". Stiftung Warentest. 26 May 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
^ Anne C. Steinemann, "Chemical Emissions from Residential Dryer Vents During Use of Fragranced Laundry Products", Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, March 2013, Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp. 151–156.

[3] Such a temperature, while negative as a scalar value, correspond to thermodynamic states hotter than every positive temperature^[1] – even infinite temperature^[2]

[22] 
requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).

This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)

with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],

and I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),

where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.

Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0.^[20]

[3] requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).

[4] This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)

[5] with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],

[6] I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),

[7] where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.

[8] Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0.^[20]

[24] The concept: "boomerang" is a belonging/possession of native tribes of Australia.^[21]

[Braun2013-1] Braun, S.; Ronzheimer, J. P.; Schreiber, M.; Hodgman, S. S.; Rom, T.; Bloch, I.; Schneider, U. (4 January 2013). "Negative Absolute Temperature for Motional Degrees of Freedom". Science. 339 (6115): 52–55. arXiv:1211.0545. Bibcode:2013Sci...339...52B. doi:10.1126/science.1227831. PMID 23288533 – via Zeeya Merali: doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.12146.

[qmunich-2] "Negative Absolute Temperatures Does that mean that temperature is circular?". Quantum Optics Group. Ludwig-Maximilians Universität Munich. Retrieved 20 February 2025. How do you measure temperature?...we take images of our atoms with a CCD camera...We compare the distribution of our atoms with the theoretically expected distributions. The distribution that fits best gives us the temperature of the atoms.

[4] "A temperature below absolute zero". www.mpg.de. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. 4 January 2013. Archived from the original on 9 March 2025. Retrieved 18 February 2025.

[5] Lounasmaa, Olli V.; Hakonen, Pertti; Nummila, Kaj; Vuorinen, Reko; Martikainen, Juha (2 February 1994). "Negative nanokelvin temperature in the nuclear spin systems of silver and rhodium metals". Physica B: Condensed Matter. 194-196 Part 1: 291–292. Bibcode:1994PhyB..194..291L. doi:10.1016/0921-4526(94)90475-8 – via Abraham & Penrose (November 25, 2016) www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~oliver/PREpaper.pdf.

[Barton-6] Barton, Allan F.M. (1997). "5 Thermodynamic Matter". States of Matter. Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 9780750304184. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.

[Angelo-7] Angelo Jnr., Joseph A. (April 2020). "Very Cold Matter". Extreme States of Matter. New York: Infobase. p. 112. ISBN 9781438195834. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.

[8] Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (2021-08-30). "Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics". Physical Review Letters. 127 (10): 100401. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.127j0401D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 34533345. S2CID 237396804.

[DeMarco-9] De Marco, Luigi; Valtolina, Giacomo; Matsuda, Kyle; Tobias, William G.; Covey, Jacob P.; Ye, Jun (17 January 2019). "A degenerate Fermi gas of polar molecules". SCIENCE. 363 (6429): 853–856. doi:10.1126/science.aau7230. PMID 30655445.

[10] Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, T. A.; Saba, M.; Schirotzek, A.; Shin, Y.; Kielpinski, D.; Pritchard, D. E.; Ketterle, W. (12 September 2003). "Cooling Bose-Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin". Science. 301 (5639). MIT: 1513–1515. doi:10.1126/science.1088827. PMID 12970559 – via Isabella Dumé Physics World: web.archive.org/web/20120402094614/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/18214.

[11] Anderson, M. H.; Ensher, J. R.; Matthews, M. R.; Wieman, C. E.; Cornell, E. A. (14 July 1995). "Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor". SCIENCE. 269 (5221). Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA): Abstract. doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198 – via www.cibtech.org/J-PHYSICS-MATHEMATICAL-SCIENCES/PUBLICATIONS/2015/Vol-5-NO-3/01-JPMS-001-(SEP)-THOMAS-CRITICAL.pdf (INTRODUCTION) & iask.ai/?mode=question&q=what+was+the+first+Bose-Einstein+Condensation+made%2Fcreated (ai verified: bingweb.binghamton.edu/~suzuki/ModernPhysics/31_BEC_in_alkali_atoms.pdf).

[12] Davis, K. B.; Mewes, M. -O.; Andrews, M. R.; van Druten, N. J.; Durfee, D. S.; Kurn, D. M.; Ketterle, W. (27 November 1995). "Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Gas of Sodium Atoms". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (3969). aps.org: 3969–3973. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.3969 – via Silke Ospelkaus-Schwarzer ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/bitstream/ediss/1637/1/silke_ospelkaus_dissertation.pdf p.1.

[13] Ospelkaus-Schwarzer, Silke (21 December 2006). "Chapter 1 Introduction". Quantum Degenerate Fermi-Bose Mixtures of ⁴⁰K and ⁸⁷Rb in 3D Optical Lattices (PDF). Hamburg: uni-hamburg.de – via jila.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2019-05/goldwin_thesis.pdf [JM Goldwin 2005 University of Colorado-x-Table 3.1/95: thesis director: Deborah S. Jin].

[10.10073-540-26619-4_4-14] Enss, Christian; Hunklinger, Siegfried (2005). "Superfluid ³HE". Low-temperature physics. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/3-540-26619-4_4. ISBN 3-540-23164-1. Retrieved 1 April 2025. superfluid ³He was finally discovered in 1971. Osheroff, Richardson and Lee observed clear indications for two phase transitions in ³He at temperatures around 2mK" (sic) "in experiments using a Pomeranchuk cell

[10.1143PTP.51.327-15] Soda, Toshio; Yamazaki, Koji (February 1974). "On the Superfluid Phases of Liquid ³He". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 51 (2): Abstract. doi:10.1143/PTP.51.327 – via iask.ai/?mode=question&options[detail_level]=detailed&q=Osheroff+DD%2C+Gully+WJ%2C+Richardson+RC%2C+Lee+DM+1972.+Phys.+Rev.+Lett.+29%3A920 using W.P. Halperin Superfluid ³He in Aerogel Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics Volume 10, 2019 search: iask.ai: "2. Osheroff DD, Gully WJ, Richardson RC, Lee DM 1972. Phys. Rev. Lett. 29:920".

[epn19740510p1-16] Lounasmaa, O.V. (October 1974). "³HE-Two Superfluid Phases" (PDF). europhysics news BULLETIN OF THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY. 5 (10). Helsinki University of Technology.

[17] Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (3 April 1972). "Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He³". Phys. Rev. Lett. 28 (885). Cornell University. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 – via Enss & Hunklinger. indicate the existence of a new phase in solid He³ below 2.7 mK of a fundamentally different nature

[18] Jin, D.S.; Regal, C.C. (18 April 2008). "Fermi Gas Experiments". In Inguscio, M.; Ketterle, W.; Salomon, C. (eds.). Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" COURSE CLXIV Ultra-cold Fermi Gases. AMSTERDAM OXFORD TOKYO WASHINGTON DC: IOS Press & Società Italiana di Fisica. p. 3. ISBN 1607503182. Retrieved 1 April 2025. [13]-p.47:OSHEROFF, RICHARDSON, LEE (1972)

[19] Ouellet, Jonathan (14 October 2014). "The Coldest Cubic Meter in the Known Universe". arXiv:1410.1560.

[20] Allen and Misener; Kapitza (1938). Regal, C.A.; Jin, D.S. (2007). "Introduction". Experimental Realization of the BCS-BEC Crossover with a Fermi Gas of Atoms. Advances In Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Vol. 54. JILA: ELSEVIER. pp. 1–79. doi:10.1016/S1049-250X(06)54001-7. ISBN 978-0-12-003854-1.

[Sahai_&_Nyman,_1997-21] Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997). "The Boomerang Nebula: The Coolest Region of the Universe?". The Astrophysical Journal. 487 (2): L155 – L159. Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S. doi:10.1086/310897. hdl:2014/22450. L156: We have measured a 9 mK upper limit (3 σ) on continuum emission at 89.2 and 145.6 GHz toward the Boomerang Nebula, which is much smaller than the negative temperatures seen in the CO and ¹³CO J 1–0 spectra, so these must result from absorption of the microwave background, requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T_bb). 3. A TWO–SHELL MODEL In shell 2 (R₁,_o < r < R₂), T_kin < 2.8 K

[23] "Defining Moments in Australian History Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia". www.nma.gov.au. Lawson Crescent Acton Peninsula, Canberra: National Museum Australia. Retrieved 29 March 2025. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people should be aware this website contains images, voices and names of people who have died.

[25] Sahai, R.; Vlemmings, W. H. T.; Huggins, P.J.; Nyman, L.-Å.; Gonidakis, I. (10 November 2013). "ALMA OBSERVATIONS OF THE COLDEST PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE: THE BOOMERANG NEBULA". The Astrophysical Journal. 777 (92): 1. arXiv:1308.4360. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/777/2/92.

[26] Savvatimskii, Aleksandr I (2003). "Melting point of graphite and liquid carbon (Concerning the paper 'Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of carbon at high temperatures and moderate pressures' by E. I. Asinovskii, A. V. Kirillin, and A. V. Kostanovskii)". Physics-Uspekhi. 46 (12): 1295–1303. Bibcode:2003PhyU...46.1295S. doi:10.1070/PU2003v046n12ABEH001699. S2CID 250746507.

[27] Yang, C. C.; Li, S. (2008). "Size-Dependent Temperature-Pressure Phase Diagram of Carbon". Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 112 (5): 1423–1426. doi:10.1021/jp076049+.

[28] David R. Williams (9 May 2024). "Solar Atmosphere". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NSSDCA, Mail Code 690.1 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, MD 20771. Archived from the original on 6 Aug 2024. Retrieved 1 April 2025.

[29] Mullen, P. D.; Woods, C. N. (8 December 2015). "Determining the Suns Surface Temperature With iPhone" (PDF). Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

[30] Abdelsalam, Tarek I.; Tian, Zhao; Robinson, Adam (1 May 2023). "Directly irradiated liquid metal film in an ultra-high temperature solar cavity receiver. Part 1: Concepts and a quasi-steady-state analysis". Solar Energy. 255: 2.1. Solar concentration. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.03.047.

[Morozov-31] Morozov, A N (2017). "Скрипкин Алексей Владимирович Calculation of the Intensity of Physical Time Fluctuations Using the Standard Solar Model and its Comparison with the Results of Experimental Measurements". IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series (9th Russian National Conference on Irreversible Processes in Nature and Technics (9RNC-IPNT) 25–27 January 2017). 918 (012008). Bauman Moscow State Technical University: IOP Publishing Ltd: 3. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations during the production of entropy by irreversible processes (16): p.4 ("5830") 6. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations due to the Earth's thermal radiation (28): p.8. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/918/1/012008.

[32] Chitta, L. P.; Smitha, H. N.; Solanki, S. K. (30 April 2020). "Solar Photosphere". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics. Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research: Oxford University Press and the American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 1 April 2025.

[33] Correa, A. A.; Bonev, S. A.; Galli, G. (2006). "Carbon under extreme conditions: Phase boundaries and electronic properties from first-principles theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1204–1208. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1204C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510489103. PMC 1345714. PMID 16432191.

[34] Wang, Xiaofei; Scandolo, Sandro; Car, Roberto (2005). "Carbon Phase Diagram from Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 95 (18): 185701. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95r5701W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.185701. PMID 16383918. S2CID 15373344.

[35] Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)

[36] Glosli, James; Ree, Francis (1999). "Liquid-Liquid Phase Transformation in Carbon". Physical Review Letters. 82 (23): 4659–4662. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.4659G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4659.

[37] Man Chai Chang; Ryong, Ryoo; Mu Shik Jhon (1985). "Thermodynamic properties of liquid carbon". Carbon. 23 (5): 481–485. Bibcode:1985Carbo..23..481M. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(85)90083-1.

[bestenlehner2020-38] Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801.

[39] Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal. 608 (2): 1001–1027. arXiv:astro-ph/0402633. Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M. doi:10.1086/420766. S2CID 119373878.

[40] "Highest man-made temperature". Guinness World Records. Jim Pattison Group. Retrieved 16 August 2015.

[sw-41] "Critical substances in creams, lip care products and Vaseline (translated from German)". Stiftung Warentest. 26 May 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2023.

[42] Anne C. Steinemann, "Chemical Emissions from Residential Dryer Vents During Use of Fragranced Laundry Products", Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, March 2013, Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp. 151–156.

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