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Java War
Part of the Dutch colonial campaigns
From top, left to right: Submission of Dipo Negoro to De Kock, Attack on Diponegoro near Gawok, Charge of the Hussars at Magelang, Storming of Pleret
Date20 July 1825 – 28 March 1830 (1825-07-20 – 1830-03-28)
Location
Central Java
Result
  • Dutch victory
Belligerents
 Dutch Empire
Yogyakarta Sultanate[a]
Surakarta Sunanate[a]
Mangkunegaran[a]
Pakualaman[a]		 Javanese rebels
Commanders and leaders
Strength
Dutch Empire c. 25,000[b] c. 20,000 – 100,000[c]
Casualties and losses
Dutch Empire 15,000 dead
(8,000 European, 7,000 local recruits)[9]		 Heavy, near-total by 1830
>200,000 civilian dead[10]

The Java War (Javanese: ꦥꦼꦫꦁꦗꦮ; Dutch: De Java-oorlog; Indonesian: Perang Jawa), known in Indonesia as the Diponegoro War (Javanese: ꦥꦼꦫꦁꦢꦶꦥꦤꦼꦒꦫ; Indonesian: Perang Diponegoro), was fought in central and eastern Java from 1825 to 1830, between native Javanese rebels headed by Prince Diponegoro and the colonial Dutch Empire supported by Javanese princely states. It is considered a watershed moment in Javanese history, culture, and society.

During the early nineteenth century, declining Dutch power along with increased centralization of colonial authorities by brief French and British controls had upended the political order established after the 1755 Treaty of Giyanti, at the expense of the native Javanese princely states. After the deaths of Sultans of Yogyakarta Hamengkubuwana III and IV, along with the return of Dutch presence, Hamengkubuwana III's eldest son Diponegoro became estranged with Yogyakarta's regency of Hamengkubuwana V and with the colonial government. With a millenarian movement emerging and claimed visions of a holy war, Diponegoro would launch his rebellion following tensions caused by a government road project in July 1825.

Early rebel progress in 1825 and 1826 were reversed following the failed siege of Yogyakarta and a repelled assault on Surakarta. The war transitioned into a guerilla war, with Dutch forces failing to stamp down on guerilla activity due to Diponegoro's popular support and Dutch manpower shortages. By 1827, Dutch forces under H.M. de Kock employed a strategy of field fortifications and mobile columns, gradually confining Diponegoro's ability to maneuver. The war turned gradually against Diponegoro, with many of his key commanders surrendering or killed in action. Forced into negotiations, Diponegoro was captured by the Dutch while personally attending negotiations in Magelang, and was exiled to Sulawesi.

The war had disastrous consequences in Java, marking the last significant resistance to Dutch rule until the Indonesian National Revolution over 100 years later. At least 200,000 civilians were killed by violence or resulting disease and starvation, and the Dutch secured direct control over the island. Despite heavy costs of waging the war for the Dutch, the implementation of the Cultivation System in its immediate aftermath generated enormous revenues for the colonial government.

Background

[edit]
The former Mataram Sultanate after the Treaty of Giyanti and the creation of Mangkunegaran, 1757.

The 1755 Treaty of Giyanti divided the Mataram Sultanate in Java into princely states: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the Sunanate of Surakarta, and later Mangkunegaran (1757).[11] It brought a period of peace after the Javanese Wars of Succession, and allowed for major population growth in Java.[12] Due to Dutch relative weakness in the late eighteenth century, the princely states possessed de facto sovereignty. The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, and the Dutch East India Company's bankruptcy in 1799 further weakened the Dutch position, with Dutch colonial authorities in Batavia requesting assistance from the princely states to defend Dutch territories in Java.[13]

Under Napoleonic Netherlands, Herman Willem Daendels became Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.[14] Daendels aimed to weaken the princely states and prepare defences against a British invasion.[15] Daendels harshly enforced colonial authority, boosting anti-Dutch sentiment in the Yogyakarta court and causing an abortive armed revolt by Yogyakarta bupati Rongga Prawiradirja [id] in 1810.[16] The following year, Daendels was replaced, and British forces seized Java the same year.[17] Tensions remained between Yogyakarta and British administrators,[18] and British forces sacked Yogyakarta on 20 June 1812 [id], deposing Sultan Hamengkubuwono II in favor of his son Hamengkubuwono III.[19][d] During their four-year control, the British split off part of Yogyakarta to form the Pakualaman,[22] introduced a cash-based land tax which caused hardship to peasants,[23] and forced the princely states to limit their military and cede territory.[24]

Diponegoro

[edit]
Drawing of Diponegoro, 1835.

Prince Diponegoro (born 1785) was the eldest son of Hamengkubuwana III. Through his mother, he claimed an ancestry from the Wali Songo, early apostles of Islam in Java.[25] In 1805, he made a pilgrimage to the southern coast of Java. He wrote that he received visions there from Sunan Kalijaga and Ratu Kidul.[26] He also wrote of warnings of the destruction of Yogyakarta and ruin for Java.[27] Shortly prior to the British sack of Yogyakarta, he was offered the position of crown prince under his father, but he refused the offer, passing the position on to his child younger brother.[28] Likely, he had been offered the position due to the aid he provided to the British.[29] Hamengkubuwana III would die in 1814, and with his successor still being a boy, a regency was installed with Paku Alam I as regent.[30]

Following Dutch return in 1816,[31] Diponegoro's view of the Dutch and the Sultanate began deteriorating due to tax collection disputes and the arrest of a well-known religious leader.[32] He also opposed the introduction of a land rent system in the late 1810s.[33] A millenarian movement began to emerge in the Javanese countryside,[34] fueled by a 1821 cholera epidemic[35] and an eruption of Mount Merapi in 1822.[36] A minor uprising by Diponegoro's great-uncle was suppressed in 1822.[37] Hamengkubuwana IV died suddenly in December 1822,[38] and with the new Sultan Hamengkubuwana V being two years old, Diponegoro was appointed one of his guardians. His relationship with other guardians was poor.[39] In 1823, Dutch official Anthonië Hendrik Smissaert was appointed Resident in Yogyakarta.[40] Smissaert alienated the aristocracy by offering to represent the young Sultan in a royal ceremony,[41] and angered them further by demanding heavy indemnities after abolishing the land rent.[42] Diponegoro was appointed to negotiate indemnities, but negotiations went poorly, and by 1824 Diponegoro refused to be involved.[43]

Outbreak

[edit]

Political moves from other guardians of Hamengkubuwana V in 1824 resulted in the expulsion of several of Diponegoro's allies from court.[44] Diponegoro also experienced humiliation from Smissaert and his officials.[45] In early 1825, Dutch authorities annexed some territory from the Sultanate as a lease, without consulting Diponegoro in his capacity as the Sultan's guardian.[46] During this period, Diponegoro claimed to have experienced a series of visions urging him to engage in a holy war.[46] By late 1824, he began meeting with other Yogyakartan officials to plan a rebellion, prepared armaments and supplies, and contacting armed bandit groups.[47] On 17 June 1825, Smissaert ordered a road near Yogya to be repaired, which happened to pass by Diponegoro's estate of Tegalreja. Occasional fights brokoe out between the road workers and Diponegoro's men, and by July, a large number of Diponegoro's supporters began gathering at Tegalreja for military action. On 20 July, a detachment of troops was sent to arrest Diponegoro, and after a skirmish Diponegoro retreated with his men to Selarong Cave [id]. Diponegoro declared his rebellion on 21 July 1825.[48]

Aspects

[edit]
Javanese sketch of Diponegoro (top left) in the war. His banner of crossed arrows and the solar disc represented the Erucakra.[49]

The rebel war effort carried significant Javanese traditional and spiritual aspects.

Forces

[edit]
De Kock, commander of Dutch forces in the war.

Dutch

[edit]

Upon receiving news of Diponegoro's uprising, Dutch forces in the region quickly moved to Yogyakarta.[50] Some of the Dutch forces in the archipelago was engaged in an expedition in South Sulawesi, and they were recalled to Java.[51] Overall Dutch military command in the Indies, under Hendrik Merkus de Kock, had 12,500 men, of which half were native Indonesian recruits whose loyalties were doubted by the Dutch. He would later receive additional troops – 3,000 European soldiers from the Netherlands and over 10,000 native auxillaries recruited during the war. De Kock's Javanese auxillaries were equipped similarly with Diponegoro's men, and had similar issues on loyalty to the Dutch cause.[5] The princely states of Surakarta and Mangkunegara would supply De Kock with additional troops.[52]

The Dutch also made heavy use of soldiers from elsewhere in the archipelago. In 1828, for instance, while auxillaries from Java and nearby Madura numbered just over 5,000, auxillaries were also recruited from North Sulawesi and Gorontalo (~1,300 men), Buton (700 men), and the Maluku Islands (850 men). Balinese kingdoms also provided 1,000 soldiers as mercenaries to the Dutch.[53]

Princely states

[edit]

During British rule, the Sultanate of Yogyakarta alone was able to raise around 10,000 soldiers on a short notice.[54]

Rebels

[edit]
Sentot Prawirodirdjo, the rebel military commander.

Diponegoro's forces quickly gathered at Selarong, with the Dutch reporting that "no fewer than seventy" members of the royal family joining him with their armed retinues.[50] The men had limited numbers firearms, being primarily equipped with Javanese traditional weapons such as bamboo spears.[55] However, Diponegoro's men would also employ captured Dutch firearms and artillery.[56] The rebels followed the organizational structure of the janissary units of the Ottoman Empire. Diponegoro subdivided his forces to sixteen commanders of noble origin, covering their own areas with a nominal force and appanage of 1,000 men and 10,000 households each, plus six units of royal guards.[6] Diponegoro himself had a personal bodyguard of 300 to 400 cavalrymen and a similar number of armed men from a priestly order.[57]

Overall military command was not held by Diponegoro, instead, it was given to Sentot Prawirodirdjo, son of the late rebel Rongga Prawiradirdja.[58] Other senior rebel leaders included Kyai Maja, Diponegoro's spiritual adviser,[59] and Diponegoro's uncle Prince Jayakusuma.[60] The army was initially financed through contributions from Javanese aristocrats siding with Diponegoro.[55] Many villages also sided with Diponegoro's forces, and as these had been fortified prior to the war to prevent bandit raids, they became useful strongpoints for the rebellion.[61] They also took control of abandoned Mataram forts.[58]

Course of the war

[edit]

Beginnings

[edit]

Diponegoro's forces in Selarong received an early morale boost by a successful ambush and destruction of a Dutch column on its way to assembling in Yogyakarta, which also allowed the rebels to capture Dutch weapons.[62] De Kock was appointed commissioner to the princely states on 26 July, giving him authority over military operations and civil affairs in the region.[63] By 28 July, Diponegoro's forces had moved out of Selarong, and laid siege to Yogyakarta.[64] As Dutch forces sent reinforcements from Semarang in an attempt to relieve the siege,[65] further uprisings aligned with Diponegoro broke out in Dutch-controlled territory recently ceded by the princely states to the north and northwest of Yogyakarta.[66] The Dutch relief force, accompanied by troops from Sumenep and the Mangkunegaran, arrived in Yogyakarta in 19 August and prevented the city from falling.[67] Dutch forces also reinforced the Magelang area, suppressing several uprisings there.[68] The rebels would unsuccessfully assault Yogyakarta several times throughout August and September,[69] until a relief force of 7,500 commanded by De Kock arrived in Yogyakarta on 25 September and ended the siege.[70]

De Kock attempted to negotiate with Diponegoro by September 1825, but Diponegoro rejected his offer. An attempt by Dutch forces to assault Selarong failed shortly after, as Diponegoro had evacuated his hideout.[71] De Kock continued his attempt to capture Diponegoro throughout late 1825 and 1826, but despite a series of skirmishes and battles, failed to capture him. Dutch forces also captured in June 1826 a rebel strongpoint at Pleret, Mataram's old capital, following an assault.[72] Diponegoro began to march northwards, killing a large number of Yogyakartan nobles in an ambush, destroying a Dutch column near Mount Merapi and seizing a Dutch strongpoint.[73][74] He linked up with a rebel force commanded by Kyai Maja and moved to assault De Kock's headquarters in Surakarta.[74] However, disagreements between Kyai Maja and Diponegoro caused delays which allowed Dutch forces to concentrate in Surakarta.[75] De Kock decisively defeated Diponegoro at the village of Gawok near Surakarta on 15 October 1826, shattering Diponegoro's numerical advantage and severely limiting Diponegoro's ability to engage in offensive operations.[76]

Guerilla war

[edit]

Diponegoro retreated westwards after his defeat at Gawok, still in command of a scattered army of around 5,000 and continuously receiving supplies and firearms through smugglers.[77] Although he lost the core of his army, he continued to fight a guerilla war and retained control of much of the Yogyakarta Sultanate's countryside.[76] On the other hand, Dutch forces were curtailed by disease, uncooperative local rulers, many of which held sympathies or outright sided with Diponegoro,[2] and a hostile populace.[78] By April 1827, 1,600 of De Kock's men had been killed, limiting his ability to control the countryside. Furthermore, the governor-general Leonard du Bus slashed government spending, limiting De Kock's ability to recruit native soldiers.[79] De Kock would later compare Diponegoro's guerilla campaign with the war in the Vendée.[80]

Between December 1826 and January 1827, little military action occurred, as both sides opted against attacking.[77] Starting in February, Dutch forces went on the offensive, attacking Diponegoro's base several times between February and June and forcing him to move bases or temporarily retreat. Dutch forces began establishing field fortifications in 1827 in order to secure key supply routes.[81] After two of his commanders defected to the Dutch in July 1827, Diponegoro was defeated in a series of battles and was forced away from the city of Yogyakarta.[82] By late 1827, Diponegoro's forces had scattered into smaller groups.[81] Both sides agreed to a brief ceasefire to negotiate between August and September 1827, but no agreement was reached and fighting continued.[83]

During the ceasefire, Diponegoro had moved west along the south coast, crossing into the Bagelen [id] area west of Yogyakarta by October 1827. This caught Dutch forces stationed there by surprise, and after a series of assaults on Dutch strongpoints, Diponegoro's men were initially pushed inland.[84] By early 1828, rebel forces in the vicinity of Yogyakarta and Surakarta had been reduced to small groups.[85] These would be further reduced by a Dutch operation which lasted until July 1828, and more field fortifications were constructed to deny rebels the ability to regain control.[86] Meanwhile, Diponegoro's men continued to cross into Bagelen, largely taking over its countryside by the end of the year while Dutch control was limited to the immediate vicinity of their fortifications.[87]

Other campaigns

[edit]

Beyond the vicinity of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, other areas of Java also saw fighting. In Java's northeastern coast near the Dutch-held city of Semarang, a rebel army operated under Prince Serang, supported by his mother Nyi Ageng Serang (described by Dutch authors as "a clever but much dreaded woman").[88] Prince Serang's forces reportedly had a strength of 8,000 at the beginning of the war, and they assaulted Dutch posts, captured villages, and attacked Chinese communities.[88][89] Rebel activities led the Dutch to also construct some fortifications around Semarang and Madiun (in modern East Java), although most were still constructed within Diponegoro's area of operations.[90] Another area of rebel activity was near Tuban under Raden Aria Sasradilaga, which campaigned briefly from November 1827 until he was defeated in March 1828.[91]

Rebel collapse

[edit]

Conclusion

[edit]
The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro, 1857 painting by Raden Saleh.

After his defeat at Siluk, Diponegoro's situation became untenable. By late 1829, most of his commanders had been killed, captured, or surrendered, with Sentot surrendering in October.[92] Most of his remaining commanders gave up the fight, leaving Diponegoro with around fifty men as his personal escorts.[93] The Dutch and the new governor-general Johannes van den Bosch, on the other hand, received explicit instructions from Dutch King William I that Diponegoro was to be killed or captured, and no agreement was to be entered. De Kock, on the other hand, was much more open to negotiations, and he managed to lobby Van den Bosch to grant Diponegoro safe conduct.[94]

After a successful early meeting in February 1830 with the Dutch local commander,[95] Diponegoro journeyed to Magelang in order to meet personally with De Kock.[96] After several informal meetings between the two,[97] Diponegoro gave De Kock an informal visit at the Dutch Resident's house on 28 March. During this visit, De Kock announced Diponegoro's arrest, and Dutch soldiers surrounded the house.[98] Diponegoro's ~100 escort troops were away on morning exercises at the time of the arrest, and were disarmed peacefully.[99] Diponegoro was taken away that day to Semarang to be exiled, ending the war.[100]

Aftermath

[edit]
Remaining territories of the princely states after the war, 1830.

Diponegoro was exiled to Manado with a number of his followers, as colonial authorities saw that keeping him in Java posed an unacceptable risk.[101] He was moved to the more fortified Makassar in 1833 due to concerns that the British may launch an attack on Manado in the event of an European conflict and free Diponegoro, triggering a new rebellion in Java.[102] Diponegoro would be restricted to Fort Rotterdam starting in 1849, and he died on 8 January 1855.[103]

The war had caused severe damage to Java, especially in modern Central Java and East Java, along with parts of the north coast outside of those provinces. At least 200,000 Javanese were killed – between 1825 and 1831, colonial authorities in affected regions reported a population decline in Mataram, Yogyakarta, and Gunung Kidul areas from just over 400 thousand to under 200 thousand. One-third of Java's population of 6 million were directly affected by the war, and around one-quarter of arable land in Java were damaged.[9]

The Dutch annexed significant proportions of the princely states' remaining territories – namely outlying areas known as mancanagara – shortly after the war, leaving the Yogyakarta Sultanate with the modern boundary of the Yogyakarta Special Region (with a small amount of territory within the region held by the Pakualaman).[104] The Sunan of Surakarta, Pakubuwono VI, was deposed by the Dutch and exiled to Ambon in 1830 due to Dutch suspicions of him working with Diponegoro.[4] Diponegoro's descendants were barred from entering Yogyakarta's keraton until 1950, when the sultanate under Hamengkubuwono IX reconciled with the descendants.[105][106]

To the Dutch, the war had cost 15,000 military dead – 8,000 Dutch and 7,000 native Indonesian recruits.[9] The financial cost of the war was estimated at 20 million guilders.[9][e] This financial cost, coupled with the Belgian Revolution which broke out shortly after the war's end, heavily strained the Dutch government finances. The costs would be recouped following the introduction of the Cultivation System by new Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch in 1830, which generated immense profits for the Dutch through a coerced labor system.[108]

Heavy casualties and costs to the Dutch colonial army resulted in changes of how the colonial government approached colonial wars, especially outside Java and Sumatra. In order to avoid guerilla warfare and attrition, Dutch forces adopted a shock and awe approach with coastal bombardments and large-scale landings, intended to break any intent to resist from local populations and rulers.[109] Manpower shortages and increased doubts on the loyalty of native troops after the war led to the recruitment of Africans into the Dutch colonial army, known in Indonesia as Belanda Hitam ("Black Dutch").[110]

Legacy

[edit]

Indonesian nationalism

[edit]
Diponegoro Monument in Jakarta.

The war, and Diponegoro, has been attributed as the origin of Indonesian nationalism.[111] During the Indonesian National Awakening, imagery of Diponegoro and the Java War was used by Indonesian nationalists as an unifying factor of resistance against colonial rule, in favor of the more sectarian Islamic angle.[111] Various non-government institutions – for example, the now-banned Indonesian Communist Party – use Diponegoro as an icon or claim inspiration from his rebellion.[112]

Diponegoro was declared a National Hero of Indonesia in 1973.[113] Prior to the official designation, many Indonesian leaders had publicly referred to Diponegoro as a national hero, especially during the Indonesian National Revolution.[114] A number of Indonesian institutions are named after Diponegoro – such as an Indonesian Army military district and a state-funded university – along with street names in most Indonesian cities.[115]

Chinese role

[edit]

Cultural depictions

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d The princely states did not fully commit against Diponegoro. A large number of aristocrats openly sided with Diponegoro, while others provided covert support.[1][2] For example, Sunan of Surakarta Pakubuwono VI was described by Dutch sources as "ambiguous" during the war,[3] and was deposed following Diponegoro's defeat.[4]
  2. ^ At the outbreak of the war, the Dutch colonial army in the Indies numbered 12,500. A further 13,000 would be recruited throughout the war.[5]
  3. ^ At the beginning of the war, Diponegoro divided his forces into sixteen units with a nominal strength of 1,000 men and several royal guard units.[6] However, spontaneous uprisings by local villagers numbered as high as 55,000[7] and other armies not directly under Diponegoro's command also operated, numbering as high as 8,000.[8]
  4. ^ Hamengkubuwono II had previously also been deposed by Daendels in favor of Hamengkubuwono III in December 1810,[20] but retook the throne in 1811.[21]
  5. ^ For comparison, the Dutch GNI was around 430 million guilders before the war.[107]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 795–806.
  2. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, p. 97.
  3. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1905, pp. 480–481.
  4. ^ a b Sugiarto, R. Toto (1 May 2021). Pakubuwono VI (1807-1849) hingga Sultan Agung (1591-1645): Seri Ensiklopedi Pahlawan Perintis Kemerdekaan Indonesia (in Indonesian). Hikam Pustaka. ISBN 978-623-311-378-6.
  5. ^ a b Groen 2012, p. 280.
  6. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, pp. 68–70.
  7. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 91.
  8. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 93.
  9. ^ a b c d Carey 1976, p. 52.
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Prasojo_Herlia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ Carey 2015, p. 12.
  12. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 35–36.
  13. ^ Carey 2015, pp. xi–xii.
  14. ^ Carey 2015, p. 157.
  15. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 159–160.
  16. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 218–222.
  17. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 275–287.
  18. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 312–315.
  19. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 331–343.
  20. ^ Carey 2015, p. 262.
  21. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 271–273.
  22. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 359–362.
  23. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 464–465.
  24. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 377–381.
  25. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 69–72.
  26. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 132–146.
  27. ^ Carey 2015, p. 150.
  28. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 324–325.
  29. ^ van der Kroef 1949, p. 426.
  30. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 405–409.
  31. ^ Carey 2015, p. 431.
  32. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 443–453.
  33. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 458–462.
  34. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 485–493.
  35. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 494–495.
  36. ^ Carey 2015, p. 515.
  37. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 495–498.
  38. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 502–503.
  39. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 507–510.
  40. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 517–518.
  41. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 525–527.
  42. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 532–534.
  43. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 541–542.
  44. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 543–547.
  45. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 550–551.
  46. ^ a b Carey 2015, pp. 560–561.
  47. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 591–594.
  48. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 597–602.
  49. ^ Carey 2015, p. 598.
  50. ^ a b De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 257.
  51. ^ Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200. Stanford University Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-8047-6130-7.
  52. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 78.
  53. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 187–188.
  54. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 5–7.
  55. ^ a b Carey 2015, p. 607.
  56. ^ Carey 2015, p. 609.
  57. ^ Carey 2015, p. 631.
  58. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, p. 71.
  59. ^ Carey 2015, p. 92.
  60. ^ Carey 2015, p. 71.
  61. ^ Carey 2015, p. 608.
  62. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, pp. 257–259.
  63. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 253.
  64. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 261.
  65. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 263.
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  68. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 322.
  69. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, pp. 340–360.
  70. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1894, p. 396.
  71. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 81.
  72. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 83–84.
  73. ^ De Klerck & Louw 1897, pp. 386–390.
  74. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, p. 85.
  75. ^ Carey 2015, p. 642.
  76. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, p. 96.
  77. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, p. 130.
  78. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 155–156.
  79. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 111–112.
  80. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 113.
  81. ^ a b Djamhari 2002, pp. 131–133.
  82. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 141–145.
  83. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 137–139.
  84. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 159–161.
  85. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 177–178.
  86. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 193–202.
  87. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 228.
  88. ^ a b Carey 2015, pp. 613–615.
  89. ^ Djamhari 2002, pp. 91–93.
  90. ^ Djamhari 2002, p. 323.
  91. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 617–618.
  92. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 652–659.
  93. ^ Carey 2015, p. 660.
  94. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 666–668.
  95. ^ Carey 2015, p. 673.
  96. ^ Carey 2015, p. 675.
  97. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 677–683.
  98. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 689–694.
  99. ^ Carey 2015, p. 693.
  100. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 699–700.
  101. ^ Carey 2015, p. 706.
  102. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 734–738.
  103. ^ Carey 2015, pp. 751–752.
  104. ^ "Wilayah Yogyakarta dari Giyanti Hingga Kini" (in Indonesian). Karaton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat. 23 June 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2025.
  105. ^ "Tak Mau Ribut, Keturunan Diponegoro Tolak 'Warisan' Tanah dan Emas". detiknews (in Indonesian). 9 February 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  106. ^ "Hari Ini Pangeran Diponegoro Dijebak dan Ditangkap". Republika Online (in Indonesian). 28 March 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  107. ^ "DUTCH GNP AND ITS COMPONENTS, 1800-1913" (PDF). Groningen Growth and Development Centre. p. 172. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
  108. ^ Harris, Peter; Cogan, Dominic de (21 September 2023). Studies in the History of Tax Law, Volume 11. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 238–240. ISBN 978-1-5099-6327-0.
  109. ^ Groen 2012, p. 282.
  110. ^ Abbink, Jon; Walraven, Klaas van; Bruijn, Mirjam de (1 January 2003). Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History. BRILL. pp. 146, 167. ISBN 978-90-474-0162-9.
  111. ^ a b van der Kroef 1949, pp. 449–450.
  112. ^ "MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER - Babad Diponegoro or Autobiographical Chronicle of Prince Diponegoro (1785-1855)" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  113. ^ "Biografi Pangeran Diponegoro, Sang Pemimpin Perang Jawa". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). 8 May 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  114. ^ van der Kroef 1949, pp. 424–425.
  115. ^ Sudardi, Bani (8 October 2019). "Moral Identity In The Text Babad Diponegoro". Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference Education Culture and Technology. doi:10.4108/eai.20-8-2019.2288135. Retrieved 25 February 2025.

Bibliography

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