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Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a smaller scale as compared to traditional large-scale hydro. Exact definitions vary by country but small hydro power (SHP) projects are typically less than 50 megawatts (MW) and can be further subdivided by scale into "mini" (<500kW), "micro" (<100 kW), and "pico" (<10 kW).[1] Maximum energy generation capacity is the primary factor of SHP classification. Factors like dam height, reservoir area, outlet structures and operating procedures are not standardized under this metric.

SHP projects have grown rapidly in the past two decades. Quicker permitting processes can make them easier to develop and contribute to distributed generation in a regional electricity grid. In isolated areas that are uneconomic to serve from a national electricity grid, SHP projects provide a renewable energy solution to energy injustices, producing hydroelectric power on a scale suitable for local community use and promoting energy independence. An absence of political focus, accurate data, and sustainable funding creates difficulty with integrating SHPs in rural areas.[2] Without community-minded policy in place, small hydropower as a renewable, climate mitigation strategy can negatively affect local livelihoods.[3]

The exact socio-environmental effects of smaller scale hydro are not yet fully understood. Many countries do not require environmental impact assessments for smaller installations.[4]

Description

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The use of the term "small hydro" varies considerably around the world. In India, hydro projects with up to 25 MW capacities are categorized as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects.[5] In California, hydroelectric generating stations with a maximum capacity of less than 30 MW are classified as small and are eligible for inclusion in the state's renewable portfolio standard.[6] The maximum limit is usually somewhere between 10 and 30 MW and is stretched up to 50 MW in Canada, China, Pakistan, and the United States.

A variety of project designs can be implemented for hydro projects with similar energy capacities. Some SHP projects utilize a run-of-river system. Others, such as the Iron Gate Dam, utilize impoundment systems which host the disadvantages associated with reservoirs. More research is required to determine the environmental effects of smaller-scale hydroelectric projects.

The former site of the Iron Gate Dam on the Klamath River, viewed shortly after removal.
The former site of the Iron Gate Dam and its reservoir on the Klamath River, a 18.0 MW capacity facility.

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Post 20th century environmental doctrine is moving away from large-scale hydropower construction due to increased awareness of ecological problems associated with dams. Examples of previous dam deconstruction projects include the Restoration of the Elwha River and Un-Dam the Klamath river movement in the United States. Both of these projects deconstructed dams with generation capacities less than 30 MW.

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growth

The global capacity (for projects ≤10 MW) is approximately 79.0 GW as of 2022, with China holding over 53% of the world's SHP installed capacity. Under this definition (≤10 MW), installed SHP capacity increased by 11% in the Americas from 2019 to 2022. Because of local differences in SHP definitions, it is likely that the installed capacity of SHPs across the globe is higher than these totals.[7] Countries within the continents of Asia, Africa and the Americas hold the most potential for small hydro power growth.[8]

Brazil is another country which is investing heavily in small hydro. Fifty one new SHP projects are, as of 2024, being constructed in Brazil. Seven of these are being acquired by ENERGO-PRO, hydropower's largest Czech investor.[9]

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Cost to Build

Small hydro projects may be created from the re-development of existing dams whose primary purpose is flood control or irrigation. Old hydro sites may also be re-developed and water rights re-used, salvaging substantial investment in installation technology such as penstock pie and turbines.[10]

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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The primary advantages of small hydro development include low costs to build and the ability to remain disconnected from centralized power grids. Contentious points within small hydropower development include issues in environmental justice, regulatory oversight, and environmental impacts.

Energy Justice

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Many small hydro developments are made in rural or geographically isolated areas where it is expensive to connect to national power grids. Issues in the environmental justice of small hydro development and construction have been most discussed in Asia and the Americas.

Asia

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In mountainous regions, such as in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, small tributaries play an essential role in the water supply of villages, irrigating agriculture and supplying water to households. The diversion of these streams for small hydropower generation threatens water quality, irrigation supply, and local livelihoods.[11][12] Local residents of Himachal Pradesh assert that benefits of local SHP projects have been exaggerated and have pushed for legal opposition to their development.[13]

In Matsuguma Village, Japan, a 30 kW small hydropower plant was completed in 2020 using a private-public partnership model. The local government approached the community explaining their goal to supply power to the regional electric grid and community members collaborated with a business model based "by the local community and for the local community." By selling the electricity produced, community members obtained energy democracy, improved the infrastructure of the village and improved their welfare and quality of life.[14]

South America

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Because SHP projects under 20 MW are considered renewable in Chile, they are oftentimes approved without indigenous consultation, ignoring community demands for autonomy and self-determination. The Ralco Dam controversy in Chile afforded indigenous Chilean communities a governmental promise of no more mega-projects on the upper BioBío river, the second largest river in Chile. Lack of political and environmental oversight has allowed for multiple small hydropower installations to be developed in this area, contributing to further tensions in the Mapuche Conflict.[15][16]

Policy and Regulations

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Government support of small hydro differs by country. To support renewable energy policy in Japan, the government promotes the development of community-based SHP projects with high feed-in tariffs and low interest rates for loans.[17] In 2022, Bosnia and Herzegovina's parliament banned small hydro projects up to 10 MWh in energy generation capacity, citing environmental harm.[18] Lack of consistency in small hydropower definitions and lack of research of socio-environmental impacts has created variance surrounding policy-making and licensing decisions. Around two-thirds of countries do not require a formal environmental licensing process to construct and operate small hydropower projects.[19]

In India, SHPs under 25 MW do not require an Environmental Impact Assessment and instead have a Detailed Project Report (DPR). These reports provide basic information to policy and decision makers, speeding up timelines for small hydro developments. Planning and approval processes under India's DPRs do not require community engagement nor consultation.[20]

Environmental Impacts

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Environmental effects of small hydro projects are understudied; impacts are dependent upon individual project design. Changes in the hydrologic cycles of an area can result in loss of river cohesion and connectivity, contributing to habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity for fish and macroinvertebrates.[21] Small dams and ensuing water diversion may hinder the movement of fish as well and contribute to methane emissions from decomposed biomass.[22][23]

Multiple small hydropower projects are occasionally placed segmentally on rivers, but little research has been done on the effects of multiple installations in a collective area. In India, cumulative effects of multiple SHP projects are not considered prior to granting hydropower developments.[24] In China, researchers found the effects of river connectivity on a river with 31 small hydro projects to significantly outweigh the impacts associated with a river containing 4 larger-scale projects. [25] With climate change threatening the reliability of seasonal river flows, the efficiency and sustainability of small hydro for energy generation is unknown.[26]

Previous studies on the sustainability of hydropower focus on greenhouse gas emission estimations, which are generally lesser than other conventional or renewable energy systems. Assessments of sustainability often do not consider additional parameters, such as environmental impacts, land use, social costs and cultural effects.[27]



Questions for editor:

  1. Is the "Generation" section necessary for this article? The lead section already links to hydropower, making me feel as though an insight into the generation of hydropower is not needed. What do you feel?
  2. "Project Design" is another section I feel unsure about, though I do not have a mechanical background so I am biased in my "to include, or not to include" perspective. In terms of keeping that section, where is a good organization for it within the article?
  3. Within "Generation" and "Project Design," there are sentences describing economic advantages / incentives to an adoption/ transition of small hydro projects. Could I include this within the "Advantages and Disadvantages" section and omit the need for the information in the two prior sections? Or do you think its better to keep it where is and not highlight it in advantages/disadvantages section
  4. Are additions written in a neutral voice? Its hard for me to tell given my own biases and knowledge over the subject matter, so I would love a second opinion not hat or areas where it could be better.

Added References for personal additions:

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Anderson, Elizabeth P.; Freeman, Mary C.; Pringle, Catherine M. (2006-05). "Ecological consequences of hydropower development in Central America: impacts of small dams and water diversion on neotropical stream fish assemblages". River Research and Applications. 22 (4): 397–411. doi:10.1002/rra.899. ISSN 1535-1459.

Couto, Thiago BA; Olden, Julian D (2018). "Global proliferation of small hydropower plants – science and policy". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 16(2): 91–100.

Erlewein, Alexander (2013-11-01). "Disappearing rivers — The limits of environmental assessment for hydropower in India". Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 43: 135–143. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.07.002. ISSN 0195-9255.

Kibler, Kelly M.; Tullos, Desiree D. (2013). "Cumulative biophysical impact of small and large hydropower development in Nu River, China". Water Resources Research. 49 (6): 3104–3118. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20243. ISSN 1944-7973.



References added for previously missing citations:

"What is small hydro?". IEA Hydropower. Retrieved 2025-02-19.

Commission, California Energy (current-date). "Hydroelectric Power". www.energy.ca.gov. Retrieved 2025-02-19.

  1. ^ "What is small hydro?". IEA Hydropower. Retrieved 2025-02-19.
  2. ^ UNIDO; Power, International Center on Small Hydro (2022). "World Small Hydropower Development Report 2022 :: global overview /: United Nations Industrial Development Organization". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ Kelly-Richards, Sarah; Silber-Coats, Noah; Crootof, Arica; Tecklin, David; Bauer, Carl (2017-02-01). "Governing the transition to renewable energy: A review of impacts and policy issues in the small hydropower boom". Energy Policy. 101: 251–264. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.11.035. ISSN 0301-4215.
  4. ^ Couto, Thiago BA; Olden, Julian D (2018). "Global proliferation of small hydropower plants – science and policy". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 16 (2): 91–100. doi:10.1002/fee.1746. ISSN 1540-9309.
  5. ^ "Small Hydro | Ministry of New & Renewable Energy | Government of India". web.archive.org. 2018-02-20. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
  6. ^ Commission, California Energy (current-date). "Hydroelectric Power". www.energy.ca.gov. Retrieved 2025-02-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ UNIDO; Power, International Center on Small Hydro (2022). "World Small Hydropower Development Report 2022 :: global overview /: United Nations Industrial Development Organization". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "World Small Hydropower Development Report 2022". UNIDO. Retrieved 2025-03-20.
  9. ^ "ENERGO-PRO Enters Brazil with the Acquisition of Seven Small Hydropower Plants | Energo pro". www.energo-pro.com. Retrieved 2025-03-19.
  10. ^ "Beles Hydroelectric Power Plant: Background and Construction | PDF | Hydroelectricity | Power (Physics)". Scribd. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
  11. ^ Diduck, Alan P.; Patel, Kirit; Malik, Aruna Kumar (2021-07-21). Advancing Environmental Justice for Marginalized Communities in India: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities (1 ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003141228. ISBN 978-1-003-14122-8.
  12. ^ Erlewein, Alexander (2013-11-01). "Disappearing rivers — The limits of environmental assessment for hydropower in India". Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 43: 135–143. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.07.002. ISSN 0195-9255.
  13. ^ Diduck, Alan P.; Patel, Kirit; Malik, Aruna Kumar (2021-07-21). Advancing Environmental Justice for Marginalized Communities in India: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities (1 ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003141228. ISBN 978-1-003-14122-8.
  14. ^ "World Small Hydropower Development Report 2022". UNIDO. Retrieved 2025-03-19.
  15. ^ Radwin, Maxwell (2022-11-16). "Dam construction ignites Indigenous youth movement in southern Chile". Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved 2025-03-20.
  16. ^ Hernando-Arrese, Maite; Rasch, Elisabet Dueholm (2022-01-01). "The micropolitical life of energy projects: A collaborative exploration of injustice and resistance to small hydropower projects in the Wallmapu, Southern Chile". Energy Research & Social Science. 83: 102332. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102332. ISSN 2214-6296.
  17. ^ Alam, Zafar; Watanabe, Yoshinobu; Hanif, Shazia; Sato, Tatsuro; Fujimoto, Tokihiko (2021-06-07). "Community-Based Business on Small Hydropower (SHP) in Rural Japan: A Case Study on a Community Owned SHP Model of Ohito Agricultural Cooperative". Energies. 14 (11): 3349. doi:10.3390/en14113349. ISSN 1996-1073.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  18. ^ Kurtic, Azem (2022-06-07). "Bosnia's Federation to Ban Small Hydropower Plants". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 2025-03-14.
  19. ^ Couto, Thiago BA; Olden, Julian D (2018). "Global proliferation of small hydropower plants – science and policy". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 16 (2): 91–100. doi:10.1002/fee.1746. ISSN 1540-9309.
  20. ^ Jumani, Suman; Rao, Shishir; Machado, Siddarth; Prakash, Anup (2017-05). "Big concerns with small projects: Evaluating the socio-ecological impacts of small hydropower projects in India". Ambio. 46 (4): 500–511. doi:10.1007/s13280-016-0855-9. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 5385668. PMID 28074405. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Feio, Maria João; Hughes, Robert M.; Serra, Sónia R. Q.; Nichols, Susan J.; Kefford, Ben J.; Lintermans, Mark; Robinson, Wayne; Odume, Oghenekaro N.; Callisto, Marcos; Macedo, Diego R.; Harding, Jon S.; Yates, Adam G.; Monk, Wendy; Nakamura, Keigo; Mori, Terutaka (2023). "Fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages reveal extensive degradation of the world's rivers". Global Change Biology. 29 (2): 355–374. doi:10.1111/gcb.16439. ISSN 1365-2486. PMC 10091732. PMID 36131677.
  22. ^ Anderson, Elizabeth P.; Freeman, Mary C.; Pringle, Catherine M. (2006-05). "Ecological consequences of hydropower development in Central America: impacts of small dams and water diversion on neotropical stream fish assemblages". River Research and Applications. 22 (4): 397–411. doi:10.1002/rra.899. ISSN 1535-1459. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Nautiyal, Himanshu; Goel, Varun (2020-08-20). "Sustainability assessment of hydropower projects". Journal of Cleaner Production. 265: 121661. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121661. ISSN 0959-6526.
  24. ^ Erlewein, Alexander (2013-11-01). "Disappearing rivers — The limits of environmental assessment for hydropower in India". Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 43: 135–143. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.07.002. ISSN 0195-9255.
  25. ^ Kibler, Kelly M.; Tullos, Desiree D. (2013). "Cumulative biophysical impact of small and large hydropower development in Nu River, China". Water Resources Research. 49 (6): 3104–3118. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20243. ISSN 1944-7973.
  26. ^ UNIDO; Power, International Center on Small Hydro (2022). "World Small Hydropower Development Report 2022 :: global overview /: United Nations Industrial Development Organization". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ^ Nautiyal, Himanshu; Goel, Varun (2020-08-20). "Sustainability assessment of hydropower projects". Journal of Cleaner Production. 265: 121661. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121661. ISSN 0959-6526.
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