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Betawi, also known as Batavian[1][2][3][4], Jakartanese[5][6], Betawi Malay, Jakarta Malay, or Batavian Malay, is the spoken language of the Betawi people (Batavians) in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the native language of roughly 5 million people—a precise number is difficult to determine. This number is still decreasing due to the shift to Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian, a vernacular form of Indonesian that has spread from Jakarta into large areas of Java and replaced existing Malay dialects.

Betawi (or Batavian) is a popular informal language in contemporary Indonesia, which has become the basis of Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian. People often confuse Batavian with Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian due to the vast features of the Batavian language in Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian.[7] According to Uri Tadmor, there is no clear border distinguishing Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian from Betawi.[8]

The older generation still speaks Betawi (Batavian) in some locations on the outskirts of Jakarta, such as Kampung Melayu, Pasar Rebo, Pondok Gede, Ulujami, and Jagakarsa.[9]

There is a significant Chinese community residing in Tangerang, called Cina Benteng, who has stopped speaking Chinese and now speak Batavian with a noticeable influence of Chinese (mostly Hokkien) loanwords.

Classification

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External relationships

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Batavian is a Malayic variety spoken in the Greater Jakarta area, Jabodetabek, which comprises Jakarta and its neighboring cities, i.e. Bekasi, Depok, some parts of Northern Bogor, South Tangerang, Tangerang, and a tiny part of the northern coast of Tangerang Regency. Linguists debate the origin of this language. From the phonological comparative perspective, this language is considered a continuation of Proto-Malayic as the ancestor of all Malayic isolects.[10][11] This is indicated by the retention of /ə/ in the final closed syllable which traces back to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, while this feature lost in Standard Malay and many other Malayic isolects, e.g.: *qatəp (Proto-Malayic) > atep [atəp] (in Standard Malay hatap or atap).[12][13][14] However, from socio-historical perspective, there is no evidence supporting the existence of Malayic-speaking community in Jakarta area during the pre-Batavia era.[15] The usage of a Malay-based first language was developed from the creolized lingua franca Malay previously spoken as a second language by multiple ethnicities residing in Batavia, that later formed the Batavian ethnic identity, and became a stable language at the third quarter of the 19th century.[16][17] This lingua franca Malay gradually replaced the native tongue of those ethnicities, including the other lingua franca that gradually disappeared by the 18th century, i.e. Batavian Portuguese Creole.[18][19] According to Tadmor, this creole later became decreolized by the incorporation of a vast number of Javanese and Sundanese elements into this language.[20]

However, some other linguists classify it as a Malay dialect. Ikranagara (1980) considers Batavian as a Malay dialect on the basis of core vocabulary and sound correspondences, while in syntax, Batavian shares specific similarities to Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese without being inclined to any of them.[21] Muhadjir regards Batavian as a Malay dialect belonging to "Eastern Malay dialects", alongside with Ambonese Malay and Manado Malay, because these dialects share many similar features.[22][23] Chaer also considers Batavian as a Malay dialect and rejects the idea of Batavian emerging from creolization process.[24]

Although most linguists agree upon the Malayic root of the Batavian language, a few took different positions on this topic. Homan, in his study on Batavian, which was among the first studies on this language, stated that Batavian was a dialect of Sundanese.[25] However, this statement was countered by Van der Tuuk, a Dutch linguist specialising in the studies of several Indonesian languages, including Toba Batak, Balinese, Old Javanese, and Malay, who deemed that Batavian arose from a Balinese dialect which later has been influenced strongly by Javanese (especially of Banten dialect), Sundanese, and Malay.[26]

Alongside Batavian, Batavians also use Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian when speaking with non-Batavians or non-Batavian speakers and Standard Indonesian (in Batavian: Melayu Tinggi, lit. 'High Malay') in formal contexts.

  • Multiglossia in Malayic speaking area
  • Batavian vs CJI

Dialect

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  • Concentric division associated with the commonly used cultural typology
  • Regional division based on linguistic features
    • Chaer 1985, Grijns 1991
    • Linguistic features and examples from the proposed dialects

There is no absolute consensus among linguists regarding the classification of the varieties of the Batavian language. The most popular classification divides Batavian into two varieties (dialects or subdialects)[27], i.e.:

  • Middle Batavian or Urban Batavian dialect (Betawi Tengah or Betawi Kota): originally spoken within the Urban Jakarta region, which is mainly characterized by an obvious realization of final [a] to [ɛ], e.g.: ada [ada] (Malay) 'to be (existence)' → adè [adɛ].
  • Suburban Batavian or Ora Batavian dialect (Betawi Pinggiran or Betawi Ora): originally spoken in suburban Jakarta, Tangerang in Banten, Depok, Bogor, and Bekasi in West Java, which is characterized by the retention of final [a] or a change into [ah], e.g. gua [gua] or guah [guah] 'I, me' instead of guè [guɛ], and the use of ora 'no, not' as a negation particle instead of kaga' which is used in the Middle dialect.

Chaer (1982) divided the language into four subdialects, which are based mainly on—but not limited to—phonological realization variations[28], i.e.:

  • Meester subdialect, spread across Jatinegara, Kampung Melayu, and the surrounding areas.
  • Tanah Abang subdialect, spread across Tanah Abang, Petamburan, and the surrounding areas.
  • Karet subdialect, spread across Karet, Senayan, Kuningan, Menteng and the surrounding areas.
  • Kebayoran subdialect, spread across suburban and rural areas of the Batavian-speaking region.

The table below briefly describes the final sound realization variations between the subdialects drawn by Chaer (1982):

Indonesian Batavian
Meester Tanah Abang Karet Kebayoran
[ah] rumah [rumah] 'house' [ɛ] rumè [rumɛ] [ɤː] rume [rumɤː] [a] ruma [ruma] [ah] rumah [rumah]
[a] bawa [bawa] 'to bring' [ɛ] bawè [bawɛ] [ɤː] bawe [bawɤː] [ɛʔ] bawè' [bawɛʔ] [aʔ] bawa' [bawaʔ]
saya [saja] 'I, me' [ɛ] sayè [sajɛ] [ɤː] saye [sajɤː] [ɛ] sayè [sajɛ] [ah] sayah [sajah]
[ai̯] satai [satai̯] 'satay' [e] saté [sate] [e] saté [sate] [eʔ] saté' [sateʔ] [ɛʔ] satè' [satɛʔ]
ramai [ramai̯] 'crowded' [ɛ] ramè [ramɛ] [ɛ] ramè [ramɛ] [ɛ] ramè [ramɛ] [ɛ] ramè [ramɛ]
[ɛh] boleh [bolɛh] 'may, might' [ɛ] bolè [bɔlɛ] [e] bolé [bɔle] or [bole] [e] bolé [bɔle] or [bole] [eh] or [ɛh] boléh [bɔleh] or bolèh [bɔlɛh]
[oh] bodoh [bodoh] 'fool' [ɔ] or [o] bodo [bɔdɔ] or [bodo] [ɔ] or [o] bodo [bɔdɔ] or [bodo] [ɔ] or [o] bodo [bɔdɔ] or [bodo] [ɔʔ] bodo' [bɔdɔʔ]
[uh] bunuh [bunuh] 'to kill' [u] bunu [bunu] [u] bunu [bunu] [u] bunu [bunu] [uh] bunuh [bunuh]
[u] minggu [miŋɡu] 'week' [u] minggu [miŋɡu] [u] minggu [miŋɡu] [uʔ] minggu' [miŋɡuʔ] [uʔ] minggu' [miŋɡuʔ]

However, Chaer (2015) also made a classification of dialectal variations based on the typology of Batavian subgroups, which is divided into three dialectal variations[29], i.e.:

  • Urban variation (Betawi Kota or Betawi Tengah)
  • Sububrban variation
  • Rural variation (Betawi Ora')

Apart from a geographical basis, this typology is also based on final phoneme realization variations. This table describes the differences between these variations as cited in Chaer (2015).[30]

Indonesian Batavian
Urban Suburban Rural
[a] apa [apa] 'what' [ɛ] apè [apɛ] [ɛ] apè [apɛ] [ah] apah [apah]
[ah] salah [salah] 'mistaken' [ɛ] salè [salɛ] [a] sala [sala] [ah] salah [salah]

Meanwhile, Grijns (1991) drew the classification into 7 distinct dialects (or dialect clusters).[31] These dialectal differences are drawn not only based on phonological realization variations—unlike other classifications that are mainly focused only on these phonological realization variations of final sounds—but also based on morphological and lexical differences (including lexical compatibility with other languages, such as Balinese, Javanese, Malay, and Sundanese). This is the classification of the dialects:

  • Urban Jakarta Malay dialect: spoken mainly within the urban area of Jakarta. The most conspicuous feature of this dialect is the occurrence of è [ɛ] as the realization of the final diaphoneme a [a], e.g.: berapa [bərapa] 'how many, how much' → berapè [bərapɛ]. From a lexical compatibility aspect, this language has a high lexical compatibility with Malay and Indonesian. Javanese and Sundanese influences are roughly almost equal while Balinese is not dominant.
  • Cengkareng-Grogol Petamburan-Kebayoran Baru dialect: spoken in several parts of West Jakarta and Senayan. From a lexical compatibility aspect, Javanese and Sundanese influences are roughly equal. However, lexical compatibility with Malay is lower, while Balinese influence is insignificant. Another typical feature of this dialect is the realization of the final diaphoneme a [a] with e [ə] (schwa) in several places belonging to this dialect, e.g.: {dia [dia] 'how many, how much' → die [diə].
  • Pasar Rebo dialect: spoken in several parts of East Jakarta, especially in the Pasar Rebo, Pulo Gadung and the surrounding areas. Lexically, this dialect has roughly almost equal Javanese and Sundanese influences with a few Malay influences.
  • Ciputat dialect: spoken across the western part of the Batavian-speaking region, comprising the Ciputat, South Tangerang, Depok, and several parts of Northern Bogor. Lexically, Javanese influence is higher than Sundanese influence, although the difference is not significant.
  • Gunung Sindur dialect: spoken in the southwestern part of the Batavian-speaking region, especially in the Gunung Sindur region. The Sundanese influence is dominant in this dialect, followed by Javanese influence.
  • Pebayuran dialect: spoken in the eastern part of the Batavian-speaking region, mainly in Bekasi region. The main distinct feature of this dialect is a strong Sundanese influence, both lexically and morphologically. Javanese influence is less prevalent than Sundanese, while Malay influence is insignificant.
  • Mauk-Sepatan dialect: spoken in the northeastern part of the Batavian-speaking region, precisely in the Mauk and Sepatan which are located on the northern coast of Tangerang Regency. Despite high Banten Javanese and Sundanese influences, the lexical compatibility with Malay/Indonesian is also high.

However, Von de Wall (1909) also noted a dialect of the Batavian language, which has the visible feature of the final a [a] realization as ĕ [ə].[32] The usage of this "older" dialect started to fade later and to be replaced gradually with è [ɛ].[33] In 1971, Grijns (1991) could still witness a consistent realization of ĕ [ə] in Kebon Pala.[33] Here is an example of this dialect usage:

Batavian of the ĕ [ə] dialect[34] English translation
Njòء‎lĕ, naèk, kitĕ pĕlĕsiran. Poelang-poelang… malĕm; pedoeli apĕ, tĕrèm bĕdjalan hampé tĕngĕ malĕm boetĕ. Goewĕ rasĕ hampé poekoel hatoe.[a] Come on! Get in! Let's have fun. It will be late at night once we get home. Who cares? The tram operates until midnight. I think it's until 1 o'clock.
  1. ^ Von Dewall used ĕ to represent [ə]. Besides, his spelling is mainly based on Dutch orthography that uses oe for [u].

Even though the Urban Jakarta dialect with its final è [ɛ] realization stereotypes the Batavian language throughout Indonesia,[35] there is no concept of a certain regional dialect being considered as "higher" or "more prestigious" than the other dialects among Batavians.[36] However, dialect-mixing is also found in some cases, especially on social media posts.[37]

History

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  • Written records
  • Attestation

Status

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  • not official anywhere
  • endangered

Phonology

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Morphosyntax

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Pronouns

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Nouns

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  • Possession
  • Nominal phrase

Verbs

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  • Bare verbs
  • Active/passive
  • Verbal phrase

Clauses

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  • Basic clauses
  • Negative, interrogative
  • Relative

Vocabulary

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Writing system

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Sample texts

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References

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  1. ^ Batavian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
  2. ^ Krumm, Hans-Jürgen (2004). "Heterogeneity: multilingualism and democracy" (PDF). Utbildning & Demokrati. 13 (3): 5.
  3. ^ Cohen, Matthew Isaac (2013). "Anthologizing Indonesian Popular Theatre". Asian Theatre Journal. 30 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 512.
  4. ^ Sidharta, Myra (2003). "The Role of the Go-Between in Chinese Marriages in Batavia". In Blussé, Leonard; Menghong, Cheng (eds.). The Archives of the Kong Koan of Batavia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. p. 47. doi:10.1163/9789004488557_005. ISBN 978-90-04-48855-7.
  5. ^ Stevens, Alan M.; Schmidgall-Tellings, A. Ed. (2010). A Comprehensive Indonesian English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. p. 131.
  6. ^ Adelaar, K. (1992). Proto-Malayic: The Reconstruction of Its Phonology and Parts of Its Lexicon and Morphology. Canberra: ANU Asia-Pacific Linguistics / Pacific Linguistics Press. p. 4. doi:10.15144/PL-C119.
  7. ^ Sneddon, James N. (2006). Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian. Canberra: ANU Asia-Pacific Linguistics / Pacific Linguistics Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9780858835719.
  8. ^ Kozok, Uli (2016), Indonesian Native Speakers – Myth and Reality (PDF), p. 15
  9. ^ "Documentation of Betawi". Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2021-02-06.
  10. ^ Adelaar 1992.
  11. ^ Nothofer, Bernd (June 1995). "The History of Jakarta Malay". Oceanic Linguistics. 34 (1): 86–97. doi:10.2307/3623113.
  12. ^ Adelaar 1992, p. 205.
  13. ^ Adelaar, K. (1994). "Mise au point sur l'histoire linguistique du malais jakartanais". Archipel (in French). 47: 47. doi:10.3406/arch.1994.2965.
  14. ^ Nothofer 1995, p. 88.
  15. ^ Grijns, C. D. (1991). Jakarta. Vol. 1. Leiden: KITLV Press. p. 5.
  16. ^ Grijns 1991, pp. 2–4.
  17. ^ Tadmor, Uri (2013). "On the Origin of the Betawi and their Language" (PDF). ISMIL 17 conference talk.
  18. ^ Grijns 1991, p. 3.
  19. ^ Knörr, Jacqueline (2014). Creole Identity in Postcolonial Indonesia. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-1-78238-268-3.
  20. ^ Tadmor 2013.
  21. ^ Ikranagara, Kay (1980). Halim, Amran; Poedjosoedarmo, Soepomo; Suharno, I.; Verhaar, John W. M. (eds.). Melayu Betawi Grammar (PDF). Jakarta: Badan Penyelenggara Seri NUSA, Universitas Atma Jaya. p. 142.
  22. ^ Muhadjir (1984). Morfologi Dialek Jakarta: Afiksasi dan Reduplikasi [Morphology of Jakarta Dialect] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Penerbit Djambatan. p. 2.
  23. ^ Muhadjir (2000). Bahasa Betawi: Sejarah dan Perkembangannya [Batavian Language: The History and Development] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. pp. 20–33. ISBN 9794613401.
  24. ^ Chaer, Abdul (2015). Betawi Tempo Doeloe: Menelusuri Sejarah Kebudayaan Betawi [Batavia in the Past: Exploring the History of Batavian Culture] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Penerbit Masup Jakarta. pp. 70–71.
  25. ^ Grijns, C. D. (1996). "Van der Tuuk and the study of Malay". Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde. 152 (3). KITLV Press: 376. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003004.
  26. ^ Grijns 1996, p. 376.
  27. ^ Muhadjir 1984, p. 4.
  28. ^ Chaer, Abdul (1982). Kamus Dialek Jakarta [Dictionary of Jakarta Dialect] (in Indonesian). Ende: Penerbit Nusa Indah. p. xviii–xix.
  29. ^ Chaer 2015, pp. 14–16, 75–78.
  30. ^ Chaer 2015, p. 75-78.
  31. ^ Grijns 1991, pp. 199–246.
  32. ^ von Dewall, A. (1909). "Bataviaasch-Maleische Taalstudiën" [Batavian Malay Language Study] (PDF). Tijdschrift voor Indische taal-, land- en volkenkunde (in Dutch). 51. Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen: 191–221.
  33. ^ a b Grijns 1991, p. 211.
  34. ^ von Dewall 1909, p. 211.
  35. ^ Grijns 1991, p. 204.
  36. ^ Chaer 1982, p. xx.
  37. ^ Nanda, R. A. (2025). Sikap Bahasa dalam Lanskap Linguistik Posting-an Akun Instagram Bertemakan Kebudayaan Betawi [Language Attitude in the Linguistic Landscape of Batavian Culture-related Instagram Accounts' Posts] (Master's thesis). Depok: University of Indonesia. p. 43, 47.
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