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Declined by Jlwoodwa 4 days ago. Last edited by Jlwoodwa 4 days ago. Reviewer: Inform author.

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Kashmir Sapphire Belt (Corundum)

The Kashmir Sapphire Belt (Corundum) is a geologically significant section of the western Himalayas located in northern Pakistan. This region forms part of the greater Himalayan orogenic belt and includes portions of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan. The belt is known for occurrences of gem-quality sapphire associated with metamorphic and tectonic processes linked to the India–Eurasia collision zone.

Tectonic and geological framework

The Kashmir Sapphire Belt lies within the Hazara–Kashmir syntaxis, a prominent structural feature marking the western edge of the Himalayan orogeny. This syntaxis represents a zone of intense crustal deformation, bounded by major thrusts such as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), the Main Central Thrust (MCT), and the Jhelum Fault. These thrust systems have accommodated significant convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates since the Eocene epoch, resulting in crustal shortening, uplift, and folding across the region.^[1]^[2]

Stratigraphically, the region contains rocks from the Indian Plate margin, including Proterozoic metamorphic complexes, Paleozoic sediments, and younger Miocene–Pliocene molasse deposits. The orogenic activity has produced antiformal structures, overturned folds, and duplexes observable in the Kashmir Valley and surrounding regions.^[3]

Seismic activity remains high in this belt, including the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (Mw 7.6), which originated within the active thrust system. The ongoing convergence (~38 mm/year) results in continuous deformation, uplift, and seismic hazard.^[4]

Sapphire genesis and host lithologies

Sapphire mineralisation in this belt is primarily associated with high-grade metamorphic rocks, including sillimanite-bearing gneisses, schists, and marbles. These rocks formed under amphibolite to granulite facies conditions during regional metamorphism and crustal thickening. Corundum crystallisation is typically linked to aluminum-rich protoliths undergoing metamorphic reactions that expel silica and favour the stability of sapphire.^[5]

In Pakistan-administered Kashmir, including Batakundi, Jaglot, and the Neelum and Shounter valleys, gem-quality sapphires have been reported. Although these occurrences are relatively understudied compared to the historical Kashmir sapphires from Indian-administered Kashmir (Zanskar range), field surveys and gemological reports have confirmed that stones from these Pakistani regions exhibit similar visual and inclusion characteristics.^[6]

Studies using Raman spectroscopy, UV-Vis-NIR, and inclusion analysis have identified zircon, rutile, apatite, and negative crystal cavities within stones from these regions—indicative of formation under metamorphic conditions with high internal pressures.^[7]

Comparison with other Himalayan sapphire localities

Sapphires of Himalayan origin have been found in several localities including:

Indian Kashmir (Sumjam and Doda districts)
Pakistan-administered Kashmir (Batakundi, Shounter–Domel, Ratti Gali)
Nepal (Ganesh Himal)
Afghanistan (Kunar, Laghman)

While Indian Kashmir sapphires remain the most documented, scientific literature increasingly recognises the geochemical and geological continuity of the orogenic belt across modern political boundaries.^[8]

Economic and scientific significance

Gem mining in the Pakistan-controlled portion of the Kashmir Sapphire Belt remains artisanal and intermittent, with few formal exploration programs. However, increased academic and gemological interest may lead to more systematic study of the region’s sapphire potential. These deposits are also valuable for tectonic studies, offering insight into the metamorphic evolution of the northwest Himalaya and the exhumation of lower crustal rocks.

References

^ Jaume, S. C., & Lillie, R. J. (1988). Mechanics of the Hazara–Kashmir syntaxis: Insights from balanced structural cross-sections. Tectonics, 7(4), 669–685.
^ Treloar, P. J., Petterson, M. G., Qasim Jan, M. A., & Sullivan, M. A. (1996). Arc–continent collision in the NW Himalaya: Suture-zone evolution and terrane displacement along the Karakoram Fault system. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 105(1), 201–216.
^ Kazmi, A. H., & Jan, M. Q. (1997). Geology and tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic Publishers.
^ Avouac, J. P., et al. (2006). The 2005, Mw 7.6 Kashmir earthquake: Subsurface rupture of an active fault in the Himalayas. Science, 312(5785), 191–194.
^ Giuliani, G., et al. (2007). Geographic origin determination of ruby and sapphire using inclusions, trace elements, and isotopes: A review. Gems & Gemology, 43(3), 232–247.
^ Hänni, H. A. (2013). Kashmir-type sapphires from the Pakistani side of the Himalayas. Journal of Gemmology, 33(1), 27–33.
^ Halicki, P. (2013). Chemical characterisation of gem-quality sapphires from northern Pakistan. Master's thesis, University of Basel.
^ Giuliani, G., et al. (2014). Metamorphic gem corundum: A review. Earth-Science Reviews, 130, 1–23.