Untitled #96 is a color photograph made by American visual artist Cindy Sherman in 1981. It is known as part of her Centerfold series of 12 pictures. On 11 May 2011, a print was auctioned for US$3.89 million, the highest price paid for a photographic print at that time, though the price has since been surpassed. Another print was sold by $2,882,500 at Christie's New York, at 8 May 2012. (Full article...)
FrontmanEd Roland has considered Collective Soul the band's true debut album; Hints Allegations and Things Left Unsaid was intended more as a promotional demo and a means of acquiring a publishing contract for Roland who in 1995 noted, "It's so funny for people to compare the two. It's like comparing one band to another band. This record is our first record, flat out." (Full article...)
Untitled (L's), a public sculpture by American artist David Von Schlegell, is located on the Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis campus, which is near downtown Indianapolis, Indiana. The sculpture is located just north of Joseph Taylor Hall in a grassy courtyard adjacent to Michigan Street. Cavanaugh hall frames the courtyard to the west, the library and Business building are east of the courtyard. This sculpture was created in 1978, and installed at IUPUI in 1980. The sculpture is a Minimalist composition of three identical steel L's. The L structures have a vertical beam that is 55 feet (17 m) tall and a horizontal beam of 45 feet (14 m). The beams themselves are 16 inches (410 mm) high and 12 inches (300 mm) wide. (Full article...)
This sculpture consists of five letters. Each of the letters has a height of 7 feet 5 inches and a length of 3 feet 5 inches. The width of each sculpture varies by letter. Widths are the following for each of the letters represented in the sculpture: "I" is 11.5 inches, "U" is 26.125 inches, and the "P" is 25 inches. The fabricator of the letters was ASI Modulex of Indianapolis. They built the sculptures in May 2008 and installed them in June of the same year. (Full article...)
In mid-1968, Rothko suffered an aortic aneurysm and could only work on stretched paper during his recuperation. The edges were secured using gummed tape that left a white margin when removed. Later, Rothko taped the edges of his canvases before painting to produce the same effect. When asked about these paintings, he said they were about death. (Full article...)
Six Feet Under received widespread acclaim, particularly for its writing and acting, and consistently drew high ratings for the HBO network. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time. The show's series finale has also been described as one of the greatest television series finales. The series won numerous awards, including nine Emmy Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Peabody Award. (Full article...)
The untitled fourth studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, commonly known as Led Zeppelin IV, was released on 8 November 1971, by Atlantic Records. Produced by the band's guitarist, Jimmy Page, it was recorded between December 1970 and February 1971, mostly in the country house Headley Grange. The album contains one of the band's most well-known recordings, the eight-minute-long "Stairway to Heaven".
The informal recording environment inspired the band, allowing them to try different arrangements of material and create songs in various styles. After the band's previous album Led Zeppelin III (1970) received lukewarm reviews from critics, they decided their fourth album would officially be untitled and represented instead by four symbols – one chosen by each band member – without featuring the name or any other details on the cover. Unlike the prior two albums, the band was joined by guest musicians: the singer Sandy Denny on "The Battle of Evermore", and the pianist Ian Stewart on "Rock and Roll". As with prior albums, most of the material was written by the band, though there was one cover song, a hard rock re-interpretation of the Memphis Minnieblues song "When the Levee Breaks".
Led Zeppelin IV was an immediate critical and commercial success and is Led Zeppelin's best-selling album, having sold over 37 million copies worldwide. It is one of the best-selling albums in the United States and of all time, while critics have regularly placed it high on lists of the greatest albums of all time. (Full article...)
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[Untitled] is the seventh and final studio album by American indie rock band mewithoutYou.
On August 13, 2018, mewithoutYou released the first single off of the not-yet-announced [Untitled], "Julia (or, 'Holy to the LORD' on the Bells of Horses)". At the same time of the single's release, the band tweeted a link to a page on their website containing only a countdown timer. The timer finished at 12:00 am Eastern time (05:00 UTC) on August 17, 2018, and the band announced they would be releasing their seventh studio album, [Untitled], on October 5, 2018. In addition to the full-length album announcement, mewithoutYou digitally released a "partner" EP also titled [untitled].
40 Days is the debut full-length album from Canadian folk trio The Wailin' Jennys. The lineup of the group at the time was Ruth Moody, Nicky Mehta, and Cara Luft. This was the last recording to feature Luft, who left the group the following year.
Although the title, 40 Days appears as a line in the song "Something to Hold Onto", and traditionally has religious significance it was chosen for another reason. The title is actually the number of days it took the Jennys to record and refine the album and is a tribute to the experiences encountered during that time.
The album features three tracks contributed by each of the band's three songwriters and covers of Neil Young's "Old Man" and John Hiatt's "Take It Down". The group rounds out the collection with the traditional farewell, "The Parting Glass".
The album received the 2005 Juno Award for "Roots & Traditional Album of the Year by a Group".
Donald Judd's progression sculptures are a series of wall sculptures created between 1964 and the 1970s. Each work is similar in form, with Judd's choice of material varying depending on the date of production. Judd based each work on a simple mathematical sequence such as the Fibonacci Sequence. He typically called the works Untitled, sometimes adding the word progression to the title. Judd, along with fellow artists, Dan Flavin and Mel Bochner, was interested in the minimalist notion of seriality or serial progression rather than the more classical relational method of composition. (Full article...)
"Johnny, Have You Seen Her?" peaked at No. 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, but unlike the duo's previous and subsequent albums, Untitled failed to chart in the U.S. (Full article...)
"Untitled" (Perfect Lovers) is the title of two different artworks created by Félix González-Torres (or Felix Gonzalez-Torres). Each of the artworks consists of two identical wall clocks hung side-by-side so that they are touching. When installed the clocks are initially set to the same time but may fall out of sync over the course of an exhibition. “Untitled” (Perfect Lovers) (1987-1990) consists of two wall clocks with black rims; this work is an edition of three, plus one artist's proof. A separate, unique work, “Untitled” (Perfect Lovers) (1991), similarly consists of two identical wall clocks but with white rims instead of black, and includes the option of painting the wall on which the clocks are hung light blue.
One of González-Torres' most famous works, it has appeared in over 75 exhibitions and has inspired multiple homages. When included in exhibitions and similar establishments it must adhere to specific parameters specified by González-Torres such as the clocks having to be the same type/dimensions. (Full article...)
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Bite It is the debut album by ScottishrockbandWhiteout, released in 1995 (see 1995 in music). The album includes two of the overall four previously released singles by the band, namely "No Time" and "Jackie's Racing". Another single, "Detroit", was not part of the original album but added as a bonus track to certain subsequent releases of Bite It, making "Starrclub" the only Whiteout single not released on a proper album (although it was re-released on the JapaneseEPNo Time). The album was available on both CD and vinyl. (Full article...)
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Soul's Aflame is the second album released by O.A.R. in 1999, recorded at Gizmo Recording Company in Silver Spring, Maryland with engineer and producer Gantt Kushner. (Full article...)
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Untitled (Pope) is a circa 1954 oil-on-canvas panel painting by the Irish-born, English artist Francis Bacon, one in a series of many representations of popes he painted after Diego Velázquez's 1650 Portrait of Innocent X. Bacon was a harsh self-critic and destroyed a great many of his own paintings, many of which were created under the influence of drink. This work was long thought lost until it reemerged on the art market in 2016. It is closely related to another one of Bacon's works, the Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X in the Des Moines Art Center, Iowa.
When asked why he was compelled to revisit Velázquez's Portrait so often, Bacon said that he had nothing against popes, but merely sought "an excuse to use these colours, and you can't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false fauve manner". Bacon was in the 1950s coming to terms with the death of a cold, disciplinarian father, his early, illicit sexual encounters, and a very destructive sadomasochistic approach to sex, all of which informed this series of paintings.
Commenting on the freedom with brushwork in this example, Bacon biographer Michael Peppiatt said that Bacon was a gambler by nature and habit, and would often return to paintings late at night, to attack them with a brush to see what would happen. If he disliked the results he would simply have them destroyed. A number of people around Bacon were aware of these traits, and instead hid away the paintings, which have been reemerging since the mid-1990s. (Full article...)
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One was the debut and sole album released by the supergroupThe Panic Channel, who formed in 2004, released via Capitol Records in the US on August 15, 2006, and to the rest of the world on September 4, 2006. There were two singles released: "Why Cry" and "Teahouse of the Spirits." (Full article...)
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Untitled [Senior Thesis] was a work of performance art by Aliza Shvarts which she conducted during 2008, the final year of her visual arts degree at Yale University. During the 9 month performance Shvarts inseminated herself, and on the twenty-eighth day of her menstrual cycle, she took herbal medications meant to induce menses or miscarriage (although she never knew if she was pregnant). The piece generated controversy at the time, and considerable debate revolved around whether or not the project was a "hoax" or "creative fiction". In subsequent years, scholars and critics have described that uncertainty as a core part of the work itself. (Full article...)
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God Shuffled His Feet is the second album by Canadian band Crash Test Dummies, released in 1993. It features their most popular single, "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm". The cover art superimposes the band members' faces over the figures of Titian's painting Bacchus and Ariadne. It was their most successful album commercially, as it sold over eight million copies worldwide. (Full article...)
Sunburn is the debut album by American rock band Fuel, released by 550 Music, an imprint of Epic Records on March 3, 1998. It was produced by Steven Haigler. The songs "Shimmer", "Jesus or a Gun", and "Bittersweet" were issued as commercial singles following its release; the former peaked at number 42 on the Billboard Hot 100. Critically, the album was met with average reviews, and commercially, the album modestly entered the Billboard 200 at number 77. Sunburn received platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) — signifying sales of one million units — on May 24, 2000. (Full article...)
In mid-1968, Rothko suffered an aortic aneurysm and could only work on stretched paper during his recuperation. The edges were secured using gummed tape that left a white margin when removed. Later, Rothko taped the edges of his canvases before painting to produce the same effect. When asked about these paintings, he said they were about death. (Full article...)
The EP was initially proposed to strictly be a remix single for "Dope Hat", but various contributions by engineer and Skinny Puppy producer Dave Ogilvie, Nine Inch Nails live keyboardist Charlie Clouser, and new material by the band resulted in an eclectic and unusual combination of material. All the ideas and tracks for the EP were created and composed throughout the touring cycle in support of the band's 1994 debut Portrait of an American Family, and was the first Marilyn Manson work to feature longtime members Twiggy Ramirez on bass and Ginger Fish on drums.
Dälek (pronounced "dialect") (stylized in all lowercase) is an American experimental hip hop group formed in Newark, New Jersey in 1998. The group's current lineup consists of MC dälek (vocals and producer) and Mike Manteca (aka Mike Mare) (electronics and producer). (Full article...)
On August 13, 2018, mewithoutYou released the first single off of the not-yet-announced [Untitled], "Julia (or, 'Holy to the LORD' on the Bells of Horses)." At the same time of the single's release, the band tweeted a link to a page on their website containing only a countdown timer. The timer finished at 12:00 am Eastern time (05:00 UTC) on August 17, 2018 and the band announced they would be releasing their seventh studio album, [Untitled], on October 5, 2018. In addition to the full length album announcement, mewithoutYou digitally released a "partner" EP named [untitled]. (Full article...)
The CD contains a hidden track called "Spring". The song can be heard by 'rewinding' the first track of the CD, as it is found in the pregap of the first track.
In 2006, Jud Haynes and James Mejia, who did the artwork for the album, were nominated for a Juno in the category of "CD/DVD Artwork Design of the Year". (Full article...)
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Untitled #92 is a color photograph created by Cindy Sherman in 1981. The picture is part of the photographic series Centerfolds, that she created for the magazine Artforum, in 1981, but were never published there. (Full article...)
04 is the fourth album by English indie rock band Six by Seven. It was released in 2004, and the first on their own Saturday Night Sunday Morning Records label after being released from Beggars Banquet Records. It was also their first after bass player Paul Douglas left the band and found them trying to capture their sound – which had been recorded live in the studio on The Way I Feel Today – as a three-piece. (Full article...)
FrontmanEd Roland has considered Collective Soul the band's true debut album; Hints Allegations and Things Left Unsaid was intended more as a promotional demo and a means of acquiring a publishing contract for Roland who in 1995 noted, "It's so funny for people to compare the two. It's like comparing one band to another band. This record is our first record, flat out." (Full article...)
Green is the sixth studio album by American rock band R.E.M., released in the United States on November 8, 1988, by Warner Bros. Records and the following day in the UK and Europe. The second album to be produced by the band and Scott Litt, it continued to explore political issues both in its lyrics and packaging. The band experimented on the album, writing major-key rock songs and incorporating new instruments into their sound including the mandolin, as well as switching their original instruments on other songs.
Deforestation in Brazil is a major issue; the country once had the highest rate of deforestation in the world. By far the most deforestation comes from cattle ranchers that clear rainforest (sometimes illegally, sometimes legally), so as to make room for sowing grass and giving their cattle the ability to graze on this location. An important route taken by cattle ranchers and their cattle is the Trans-Amazonian Highway.
Deforestation has been a significant source of pollution, biodiversity loss, and greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, but deforestation has been Brazil's foremost cause of environmental and ecological degradation. Since 1970, over 600,000 square kilometers of Amazonian rainforest have been destroyed and the level of deforestation in the protected zones of Brazil's Amazon rainforest increased by over 127 percent between 2000 and 2010. Recently, further destruction of the Amazon Rainforest has been promoted by an increased global demand for Brazilian wood, meat, and soybeans. Also, as of 2019, some environmental laws have been weakened and there has been a cut in funding and personnel at key government agencies and a firing of the heads of the agency’s state bodies.
Many tools like remote sensing, GIS and photogrammetry modelling have been developed to improve forest inventory and management planning. Scientific research plays a crucial role in helping forest management. For example, climate modeling, biodiversity research, carbon sequestration research, GIS applications, and long-term monitoring help assess and improve forest management, ensuring its effectiveness and success. (Full article...)
Drywall (also called plasterboard, dry lining, wallboard, sheet rock, gib board, gypsum board, buster board, turtles board, slap board, custard board, gypsum panel and gyprock) is a panel made of calcium sulfatedihydrate (gypsum), with or without additives, typically extruded between thick sheets of facer and backer paper, used in the construction of interior walls and ceilings. The plaster is mixed with fiber (typically paper, glass wool, or a combination of these materials); plasticizer, foaming agent; and additives that can reduce mildew, flammability, and water absorption.
In the mid-20th century, drywall construction became prevalent in North America as a time- and labor-saving alternative to lath and plaster. (Full article...)
However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).
In the Brazilian literature, the term biome is sometimes used as a synonym of biogeographic province, an area based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact. (Full article...)
Agroforestry can be practiced for economic, environmental, and social benefits, and can be part of sustainable agriculture. Apart from production, benefits from agroforestry include improved farm productivity, healthier environments, reduction of risk for farmers, beauty and aesthetics, increased farm profits, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, less pollution, managing animal waste, increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and carbon sequestration.
Agroforestry practices are especially prevalent in the tropics, especially in subsistence smallholdings areas, with particular importance in sub-Saharan Africa. Due to its multiple benefits, for instance in nutrient cycle benefits and potential for mitigating droughts, it has been adopted in the USA and Europe. (Full article...)
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A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable handheld powersaw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar.
Modern chainsaws are typically gasoline or electric and are used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression, harvesting of firewood, for use in chainsaw art and chainsaw mills, for cutting concrete, and cutting ice. Precursors to modern chainsaws were first used in surgery, with patents for wood chainsaws beginning in the late 19th century.
A chainsaw comprises an engine, a drive mechanism, a guide bar, a cutting chain, a tensioning mechanism, and safety features. Various safety practices and working techniques are used with chainsaws. (Full article...)
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Naval stores refers to the industry that produces various chemicals collected from conifers. The term was originally applied to the compounds used in building and maintaining wooden sailing ships. Presently, the naval stores industry are used to manufacture certain kinds of soaps as well as components of paint, varnish, shoe polish, lubricants, linoleum, and roofing materials. (Full article...)
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Carl Alwin Schenck (March 25, 1868 – May 17, 1955) was a German forester and pioneering forestry educator. When Schenck came to the United States to work for George W. Vanderbilt at the Biltmore Estate, he became the third formally trained forester in the United States. He established and operated the Biltmore Forest School, the first forestry school in North America, on Vanderbilt's property.
Schenck also helped create the forestry school at Sewanee: The University of the South, taught at the University of Montana in Missoula and the University of Giessen, and wrote textbooks. His teachings comprise the foundation of forestry education in the United States. However, Schenck's contributions were rarely recognized in histories of forestry, in part, because he was German during an era when the United States fought two wars against Germany. The New York Times described him as "the most influential person in making forestry in this country a science and a profession." (Full article...)
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Forestry is one of the main economic sectors of Chile, representing 14% of the value of the country's total exports. This places the forestry sector in Chile as the second largest export sector behind copper mining. From 1970 to 2005 planted forest surface in Chile grew from 300,000 ha to more than 2.07 million ha. In 2019 Chile had slightly more than 2,3 million ha of forest plantations of which 1,3 million ha were Pinus radiata and 0,9 million ha were of Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens. In 2006 70% of Chile's forestry production went to export, and the industry employed more than 150,000 workers. By 2020 people employed in the sector were down to 112,200.
The wave of forest plantations that begun in the 1970s was initially a response to severe soil erosion that affected much of the country. There was a broad support for plantations when these were first implemented but by the 1980s a conservationist critique had grown exposing the adverse effects of plantations on certain plant and animal species, on biodiversity and on water resources. In many cases the establishment of plantations meant not reforestation but the replacement of existing forests with plantations.
The growth of the forestry sector since the 1980s is the consequence of growth of the export-oriented economy in Chile. Critics argue it has created an enclave economy. In the area of Cañete and Tirúa forestry companies have been accused of contributing to the displacement of indigenous Mapuche communities. In the last decades the communities of Temucuicui have had a conflict, at times physically violent, with the forestry company Forestal Mininco, leading to the detention and imprisonment of community members in the prisons of Angol and Cañete. (Full article...)
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A volume table is a chart to aid in the estimation of standing timber volume. These tables are based on volume equations and use correlations between certain aspects of a tree to estimate the volume to a degree of certainty. The diameter at breast height (DBH) and the merchantable height are used to determine the total volume. Difficulties occur when estimating the form class of the tree in question. The Mesavage and Girard form classes used to classify the trees to decide which volume table should be used. These volume tables are also based on different log rules such a Scribner, Doyle, and International 1⁄4 in (6.4 mm) scale. In order to be effective, the proper form class must be selected as well as accurate DBH and height measurements. (Full article...)
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A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms. Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the Forestry Commission in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as Weyerhaeuser, Rayonier and Sierra Pacific Industries in the United States or Asia Pulp & Paper in Indonesia). Christmas trees are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in the case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material.
Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare annually; a Grand Fir plantation in Scotland has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year, and Monterey Pine plantations in southern Australia can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood.
The highest share of plantation forest is in South America, where this forest type represents 99 percent of the total planted-forest area and 2 percent of the total forest area. The lowest share of plantation forest is in Europe, where it represents 6 percent of the planted forest estate and 0.4 percent of the total forest area. Globally, 44 percent of plantation forests are composed mainly of introduced species. There are large differences between regions: for example, plantation forests in North and Central America mostly comprise native species and those in South America consist almost entirely of introduced species. (Full article...)
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A hand compass (also hand bearing compass or sighting compass) is a compact magnetic compass capable of one-hand use and fitted with a sighting device to record a precise bearing or azimuth to a given target or to determine a location. Hand or sighting compasses include instruments with simple notch-and-post alignment ("gunsights"), prismatic sights, direct or lensatic sights, and mirror/vee (reflected-image) sights. With the additional precision offered by the sighting arrangement, and depending upon construction, sighting compasses provide increased accuracy when measuring precise bearings to an objective.
The term hand compass is used by some in the forestry and surveying professions to refer to a certain type of hand compass optimized for use in those fields, also known as a forester or cruiser compass. A hand compass may also include the various one-hand or 'pocket' versions of the surveyor's or geologist's transit. (Full article...)
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The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts implemented under the British Raj. The most famous one was the Indian Forest Act of 1878. Both the 1878 Act and the 1927 Act sought to consolidate and reserve the areas having forest cover, or significant wildlife, to regulate movement and transit of forest produce, and duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. It also defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area to be a Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest. It defines what is a forest offence, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act. (Full article...)
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Continuous cover forestry (commonly referred to as "CCF") is an approach to the sustainable management of forests whereby forest stands are maintained in a permanently irregular structure, which is created and sustained through the selection and harvesting of individual trees. The term "continuous cover forestry" does not equate exactly to any one particular silvicultural system, but is typified by selection systems. For example, coppice with standards and Reiniger's target diameter harvesting are also continuous cover forestry. Different existing forest stands may require different silvicultural interventions to achieve a continuously productive irregular structure. Crucially, clearcutting and other rotational forest management systems are avoided. (Full article...)
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Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). Lumber has many uses beyond home building. Lumber is referred to as timber in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, while in other parts of the world (mainly the United States and Canada) the term timber refers specifically to unprocessed wood fiber, such as cut logs or standing trees that have yet to be cut.
Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making, and manufacture of other items requiring cutting and shaping. It is available in many species, including hardwoods and softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost.
Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry – primarily softwood, from coniferous species, including pine, fir and spruce (collectively spruce-pine-fir), cedar, and hemlock, but also some hardwood, for high-grade flooring. It is more commonly made from softwood than hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood. (Full article...)
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A fire lookout (sometimes also called a fire watcher) is a person assigned the duty to look for fire from atop a building known as a fire lookout tower. These towers are used in remote areas, normally on mountain tops with high elevation and a good view of the surrounding terrain, to spot smoke caused by a wildfire.
Once a possible fire is spotted, "Smoke Reports", or "Lookout Shots" are relayed to the local Emergency Communications Center (ECC), often by radio or phone. A fire lookout can use a device known as an Osborne Fire Finder to obtain the radial in degrees off the tower, and the estimated distance from the tower to the fire.
Part of the lookout's duties include taking weather readings and reporting the findings to the Emergency Communications Center throughout the day. Often several lookouts will overlap in coverage areas and each will “cross” the same smoke, allowing the ECC to use triangulation from the radials to achieve an accurate location of the fire.
Once ground crews and fire suppressionaircraft are active in fire suppression, the lookout personnel continue to search for new smoke plumes which may indicate spotting and alterations that pose risks to ground crews.
Working in a fire lookout tower in the middle of a wilderness area takes a hardy type of person, one who can work with no supervision, and is able to survive without any other human interaction. Some towers are accessible by automobile, but others are so remote a lookout must hike in, or be lifted in by helicopter. In many locations, even modern fire lookout towers do not have electricity or running water.
Most fire lookout jobs are seasonal through the fire season. Fire lookouts can be paid staff or volunteer staff. Some volunteer organizations in the United States have started to rebuild, restore and operate aging fire lookout towers.
Although it was considered as “man’s work” in the United States, women have been doing the job almost from its beginnings. (Full article...)
precision seeding, where seed is placed at a precise spacing and depth;
hydroseeding, where a slurry of seed, mulch and water is sprayed over prepared ground in a uniform layer.
Broadcast seeding is of particular use in establishing dense plant spacing, as for cover crops and lawns. In comparison to traditional drill planting, broadcast seeding will require 10–20% more seed. It is simpler, faster, and easier than traditional row sowing. Broadcast seeding works best for plants that do not require singular spacing or that are more easily thinned later. After broadcasting, seed is often lightly buried with some type of raking action, often done using vertical tillage tools. Utilizing these tools increases the success rate of germination by increasing seed-to-soil contact.
Seeds sown in this manner are distributed unevenly, which may result in overcrowding. This method may not ensure that all seeds are sown at the correct depth. Incorrect depth, if too deep, would result in germination that would not allow the young plant to break the surface of the soil and prevent sprouting. If they are not sown evenly then there would be a lack of various nutrients from sunlight, oxygen, et cetera, in many crops or plants.
Not all seeds are good candidates for broadcast seeding. Often, only smaller seeds will sprout and continue to grow successfully when planted by way of broadcasting. In general, the larger the seed, the deeper it can be planted.[citation needed] Broadcasting is used in areas of low rainfall and low soil fertility. It is a seeding method often used in areas that are too heavily sloped or wet to use mechanical seeding methods. Broadcast seeding may be suited for seeding smaller plots that are less than 1 acre (0.4047 hectares) in area. It has the potential for loss of seeds and the yield can be low, so it is typically recommended to double the seeding rate when broadcasting to ensure a viable stand. It is a prevalent method of seeding in areas where labor is costly and expensive. (Full article...)
This is a list of notable secondary, tertiary, technical schools, and practical training institutes around the world offering one- or two-year forestry technician degrees, along with related diplomas or certificates, grouped by continent and country. (Full article...)
Aerial seeding is considered a broadcast method of seeding. It is often used to spread different grasses and legumes to large areas of land that are in need of vegetative cover after fires. Large wildfires can destroy large areas of plant life resulting in erosion hazards. Aerial seeding may quickly and effectively reduce erosion hazards and suppress growth of invasive plant species. Aerial seeding is an alternative to other seeding methods where terrain is extremely rocky or at high elevations or otherwise inaccessible. Problems with direct broadcast include germination, pests and seed predation by rodents or other wild animals. Transplanting seedlings from a plant nursery to the field is a more effective sowing technique. Aerial seeding has a low yield and require 25% to 50% more seeds than drilled seeding to achieve the same results.
Aerial seeding is also often used to plant cover crops. Some plants often seeded by this method are perennial rye (Timothy, Red Fescue, Red Top, Bluegrass), Sudan grass, soy beans, buckwheat, hairy vetch, corn, cereal rye, winter wheat, oats, mammoth or medium red clover, sweet clover, berseem clover and crimson clover (Timothy). (Full article...)
Many migratory birds and butterflies spend winter in tropical and subtropical conifer forests. This biome features a thick, closed canopy which blocks light to the floor and allows little underbrush. As a result, the ground is often covered with fungi and ferns. Shrubs and small trees compose a diverse understory. (Full article...)
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Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δένδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξύλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
In the past, dendrology included the study of the natural history of woody species in specific regions, but this aspect is now considered part of ecology. The field also plays a role in conserving rare or endangered species. (Full article...)
The Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) is a non-profit initiative to promote the conservation and responsible management of the Congo Basin's tropical forests. The project aims to improve the techniques and information sharing of involved organizations. It is led by the United States and sponsored by more than 40 international governments and investors. (Full article...)
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Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed. In 2001, the Amazon was approximately 5,400,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), which is only 87% of the Amazon's original size. According to official data, about 729,000 km² have already been deforested in the Amazon biome, which corresponds to 17% of the total. 300,000 km² have been deforested in the last 20 years.
Rainforests have decreased in size primarily due to deforestation. Between May 2000 and August 2006, Brazil lost nearly 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi) of forest, an area larger than Greece. According to the Living Planet Report 2010, deforestation continues at an alarming rate. At the Convention on Biological Diversity's 9th Conference, 67 ministers signed up to help achieve zero net deforestation by 2020. Due to deforestation the Amazon was a net emitter of greenhouse gas in the 2010s.
The effects include "severe financial losses, social setbacks, and biodiversity loss". Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. In 2023 the World Bank, published a report named: "A Balancing Act for Brazil’s Amazonian States: An Economic Memorandum" proposing non-deforestation based economic program in the region of the Amazon rainforest. (Full article...)
This is a list of notable secondary, tertiary, technical schools, and practical training institutes around the world offering one- or two-year forestry technician degrees, along with related diplomas or certificates, grouped by continent and country. (Full article...)
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Avoided Deforestation Partners, or AD Partners, is a non-profit organization under the auspices of the Center for International Policy in Washington, D.C. AD Partners is involved in the global effort to solve climate change by working to end deforestation in tropical rainforest countries. By avoiding the practice of deforestation, i.e., clearing forests to provide inexpensive farmland (also known as "slash-and-burn agriculture"), potential carbon emissions are prevented. In addition, avoiding deforestation also allows forests to sequester carbon and scrub the air of pollutants. Beyond protecting the Earth's air quality, tropical forests facilitate conditions for rain, replenish water sources, provide habitats for myriad plant and animal species, and sustain the livelihoods of 1.6 billion people globally. Leading scientists and economists say that ending deforestation is the most cost effective and scalable method of reducing greenhouse gases. In fact, they believe that ending deforestation will cut the timeframe for solving the climate crisis in half.
AD Partners' focus is advocacy for U.S. and international forest protection policies. A large part of their efforts go toward convening global leaders from government, civil society and the business world at the international United National Climate summits, also known as the UNFCCC COP meetings.
Most recently, AD Partners has joined television and movie climate change projects to help raise awareness about the critical link between climate change and the massive deforestation that continues to occur in rainforest countries such as Brazil and Indonesia. For most of the world, the link between preventing deforestation and solving the climate crisis is still underappreciated. (Full article...)
Foresters work for the timber industry, government agencies, conservation groups, local authorities, urban parks boards, citizens' associations, and private landowners. The forestry profession includes a wide diversity of jobs, with educational requirements ranging from college bachelor's degrees to PhDs for highly specialized work.
Industrial foresters plan forest regeneration starting with careful harvesting. Urban foresters manage trees in urban green spaces. Foresters work in tree nurseries growing seedlings for woodland creation or regeneration projects. Foresters improve tree genetics. Forest engineers develop new building systems. Professional foresters measure and model the growth of forests with tools like geographic information systems. Foresters may combat insect infestation, disease, forest and grasslandwildfire, but increasingly allow these natural aspects of forest ecosystems to run their course when the likelihood of epidemics or risk of life or property are low. Increasingly, foresters participate in wildlife conservation planning and watershed protection. Foresters have been mainly concerned with timber management, especially reforestation, forests at prime conditions, and fire control.
Many people confuse the role of the forester with that of the logger, but most foresters are concerned not only with the harvest of timber, but also with the sustainable management of forests. The forester Jack C. Westoby remarked that "forestry is concerned not with trees, but with how trees can serve people". (Full article...)
These episodes can have disastrous consequences such as reduced resiliency of the ecosystem, disappearing important symbiotic relationships and thresholds. Some tipping points for major climate change forecast in the next century are directly related to forest diebacks. (Full article...)
Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million ha of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains. (Full article...)
Forest inventory is the systematic collection of data and forest information for assessment or analysis. An estimate of the value and possible uses of timber is an important part of the broader information required to sustain ecosystems. When taking forest inventory the following are important things to measure and note: species, diameter at breast height (DBH), height, site quality, age, and defects. From the data collected one can calculate the number of trees per acre, the basal area, the volume of trees in an area, and the value of the timber. Inventories can be done for other reasons than just calculating the value. A forest can be cruised to visually assess timber and determine potential fire hazards and the risk of fire. The results of this type of inventory can be used in preventive actions and also awareness. Wildlife surveys can be undertaken in conjunction with timber inventory to determine the number and type of wildlife within a forest. The aim of the statistical forest inventory is to provide comprehensive information about the state and dynamics of forests for strategic and management planning. Merely looking at the forest for assessment is called taxation. (Full article...)
A tilt sensor can measure the tilting in often two axes of a reference plane in two axes. In contrast, a full motion would use at least three axes and often additional sensors. One way to measure tilt angle with reference to the earth's ground plane, is to use an accelerometer. Typical applications can be found in the industry and in game controllers. In aircraft, the "ball" in turn coordinators or turn and bank indicators is sometimes referred to as an inclinometer. (Full article...)
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Silviculture is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, as well as quality of forests to meet values and needs, specifically timber production.
The name comes from the Latin silvi- ('forest') and culture ('growing'). The study of forests and woods is termed silvology. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment(s) of forest stands are used to conserve and improve their productivity.
Generally, silviculture is the science and art of growing and cultivating forest crops based on a knowledge of silvics, the study of the life history and general characteristics of forest trees and stands, with reference to local/regional factors. The focus of silviculture is the control, establishment and management of forest stands. The distinction between forestry and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the stand-level, while forestry is a broader concept. Adaptive management is common in silviculture, while forestry can include natural/conserved land without stand-level management and treatments being applied. (Full article...)
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Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long period of time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and time. Sustainability usually has three dimensions (or pillars): environmental, economic, and social. Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension. This can include addressing key environmental problems, including climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels. A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."
Details around the economic dimension of sustainability are controversial. Scholars have discussed this under the concept of weak and strong sustainability. For example, there will always be tension between the ideas of "welfare and prosperity for all" and environmental conservation, so trade-offs are necessary. It would be desirable to find ways that separate economic growth from harming the environment. This means using fewer resources per unit of output even while growing the economy. This decoupling reduces the environmental impact of economic growth, such as pollution. Doing this is difficult. Some experts say there is no evidence that such a decoupling is happening at the required scale.
It is necessary to address many barriers to sustainability to achieve a sustainability transition or sustainability transformation. Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity while others are extrinsic to the concept of sustainability. For example, they can result from the dominant institutional frameworks in countries.
Global issues of sustainability are difficult to tackle as they need global solutions. Existing global organizations such as the UN and WTO are seen as inefficient in enforcing current global regulations. One reason for this is the lack of suitable sanctioning mechanisms. Governments are not the only sources of action for sustainability. For example, business groups have tried to integrate ecological concerns with economic activity, seeking sustainable business. Religious leaders have stressed the need for caring for nature and environmental stability. Individuals can also live more sustainably.
Some people have criticized the idea of sustainability. One point of criticism is that the concept is vague and only a buzzword. Another is that sustainability might be an impossible goal. Some experts have pointed out that "no country is delivering what its citizens need without transgressing the biophysical planetary boundaries". (Full article...)
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A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres; 15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.
Forests form distinctly different biomes at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration rates. These biomes include boreal forests in subarctic climates, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Forests form in areas of the Earth with high rainfall, while drier conditions produce a transition to savanna. However, in areas with intermediate rainfall levels, forest transitions to savanna rapidly when the percentage of land that is covered by trees drops below 40 to 45 percent. Research conducted in the Amazon rainforest shows that trees can alter rainfall rates across a region, releasing water from their leaves in anticipation of seasonal rains to trigger the wet season early. Because of this, seasonal rainfall in the Amazon begins two to three months earlier than the climate would otherwise allow. Deforestation in the Amazon and anthropogenic climate change hold the potential to interfere with this process, causing the forest to pass a threshold where it transitions into savanna.
Deforestation threatens many forest ecosystems. Deforestation occurs when humans remove trees from a forested area by cutting or burning, either to harvest timber or to make way for farming. Most deforestation today occurs in tropical forests. The vast majority of this deforestation is because of the production of four commodities: wood, beef, soy, and palm oil. Over the past 2,000 years, the area of land covered by forest in Europe has been reduced from 80% to 34%. Large areas of forest have also been cleared in China and in the eastern United States, in which only 0.1% of land was left undisturbed. Almost half of Earth's forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres). The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in size.
Human society and forests can affect one another positively or negatively. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. (Full article...)
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Stocking is a quantitative measure of the area occupied by trees, usually measured in terms of well-spaced trees or basal area per hectare, relative to an optimum or desired level of density. It is also used as a measure of the growth potential of a site that may be affected by vegetation in the area along with other nearby trees. Stocking can be shown as a ratio of the current stand density to the stand density of a maximally-occupied site. Stocking measures account for three things: the cover type and species mixture in the stand, the basal area per acre, and the number of trees per acre.
Stocking allows for comparing stands that may have diverse ecology. Stocking is a major part of forest management, both in commercial applications and for restoration or preservation. A desirable level of stocking is often considered that which maximizes timber production, or other management objectives. (Full article...)
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A timber slide is a device for moving timber past rapids and waterfalls. Their use in Canada was widespread in the 18th and 19th century timber trade. At this time, cut timber would be floated down rivers in large timber rafts from logging camps to ports such as Montreal and Saint John, New Brunswick. Rapids and waterfalls would, however, damage the wood and could potentially cause log jams. Thus at these locations timber slides were constructed. These were thin water filled chutes that would run parallel to the river. They would usually only be wide enough for a single log and one at a time the logs would be directed down it. The idea is attributed to Ruggles Wright who introduced the first one in 1829 not far from what is today down-town Hull, Quebec, Canada. Later, the slides could often be up to a kilometre in length. They were most commonly found on the Ottawa River system. The Bonnechere River in Eastern Ontario had five chutes along the waterway before emptying into the Ottawa River.
In some areas the timber slide became a tourist attraction, the most notable being the 1.2 km chute bypassing the Chaudière Falls on the Ottawa River in Ottawa. Its most notable visitors are the Duke of York, who later became King George V, and his wife, the Duchess of YorkMary of Teck.
Timber slides disappeared after the construction of canal networks and the decline of the timber trade. They were almost all out of service by the First World War. (Full article...)
(NB: The terms "old growth" and "virgin" may have various definitions and meanings throughout the world. See old-growth forest for more information.) (Full article...)
The nervous shark (Carcharhinus cautus) is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, so named because of its timid behavior in regard to humans. It is common in shallow, coastal waters off northern Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. A small brownish or grayish shark typically measuring 1.0–1.3 m (3.3–4.3 ft) long, this species has a short, blunt snout, oval eyes, and a relatively large second dorsal fin. The leading margins of most fins are finely edged with black, and the lower caudal fin lobe is black-tipped.
The shortnose demon catshark (Apristurus internatus) is a shark of the familyPentanchidae, the deepwater catsharks. This species is found only in deep water in the East China Sea. Its length is up to 40 cm. A. internatus is known only from the holotype (a 49.1-cm-total length female) and a paratype (a 40.3-cm male), both caught in the East China Sea, probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. The reproduction of this catshark is oviparous. (Full article...)
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The leafscale gulper shark (Centrophorus squamosus) is a dogfish of the familyCentrophoridae. C. squamosus is reported to have a lifespan of approximately 70 years, based on otolith ring counts. It was the first described species in the genus Centrophorus, which now contains 13 species. (Full article...)
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The speckled catshark (Halaelurus boesemani) is a species of shark belonging to the familyPentanchidae, the deepwater catsharks. It is found in the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of Somalia. It occurs at depths of between 37 and 250 m (120 and 820 ft). Its length is up to 48 cm. (Full article...)
The spatulasnout catshark (Apristurus platyrhynchus), also known as the Borneo catshark or flatnose catshark, is a species of shark belonging to the familyPentanchidae, the deepwater catshark. This shark is found in the western Pacific between 35°N and 1° N. Its length is up to 80 cm (31 in). (Full article...)
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The whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, and the only member of its genus. A small shark that does not usually exceed 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in length, this species is easily recognizable by its slender body and short but broad head, as well as tubular skin flaps beside the nostrils, oval eyes with vertical pupils, and white-tipped dorsal and caudal fins. One of the most common sharks found on Indo-Pacificcoral reefs, the whitetip reef shark occurs as far west as South Africa and as far east as Central America. It is typically found on or near the bottom in clear water, at a depth of 8–40 m (26–131 ft).
During the day, whitetip reef sharks spend much of their time resting inside caves. Unlike other requiem sharks, which rely on ram ventilation and must constantly swim to breathe, this shark can pump water over its gills and lie still on the bottom. At night, whitetip reef sharks emerge to hunt bony fishes, crustaceans, and octopus in groups, their elongate bodies allowing them to force their way into crevices and holes to extract hidden prey. Individuals may stay within a particular area of the reef for months or years, frequently returning to the same shelter. This species is viviparous, in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection to their mother.
Whitetip reef sharks are rarely aggressive towards humans, though they may investigate swimmers closely. However, spear fishers are at risk of being bitten by one attempting to steal their catch. This species is caught for food, though ciguatera poisoning resulting from its consumption has been reported. The IUCN has assessed the whitetip reef shark as Vulnerable, noting its numbers are dwindling due to increasing levels of unregulated fishing activity across its range. The slow reproductive rate and limited habitat preferences of this species renders its populations vulnerable to overfishing. (Full article...)
This is a small species; the maximum known length is 85 cm (33 in) for females and 63 cm (25 in) for males (although no mature males have yet been examined). The body is slender with a circular cross-section, and depressed forward of the gill slits. The elongated, saw-like snout tapers evenly to its tip, and bears very slender lateral teeth of variable length and a pair of filamentous, dorsoventrally flattened barbels. The eyes are large and oval in shape. Its nostrils about one-third the distance from the corner of the mouth to the barbel attachment on the rostrum. The mouth is large and broadly arched; there are 47 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 37 in the lower. The teeth have flattened, oval bases and a single narrow, pointed cusp. The pectoral fins are large with narrowed rounded tips and weakly concave rear margins. The two dorsal fins are well-separated, the first longer and broader than the second. The caudal fin is short, with the lower lobe absent.
The coloration is medium brown above and white below; there are pronounced white rear margins on the dorsal and caudal fins. The paired fins are mostly pale with brownish basal portions clearly demarcated from the rest of the fin. Very little is known of the biology of the tropical sawshark; its small size may indicate that it is reproductively productive. There is little fishing pressure within its range, and so it is classified as of Least Concern by the World Conservation Union. (Full article...)
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The whitespotted bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) is a species of carpet shark with an adult size that approaches one metre in length. This small, mostly nocturnal species is harmless to humans. The whitespotted bamboo shark is occasionally kept as a pet in larger home aquaria. It can grow up to 93 centimetres (37 in) long. (Full article...)
The mosaic gulper shark has no anal fin, two dorsal fins with large spines (the second dorsal is relatively high, almost as high as the first), large eyes, angular extended free tips on the pectoral fins, and a moderately notched caudal fin. It has a maximum length of 89 cm (35 in). The mosaic gulper shark features a moderately long, parabolic snout with a width that is slightly greater than that of its mouth. Its mouth includes sets of sharp, unicuspid teeth in both its upper and lower jaws, with the lower sets being larger than the top. The mosaic gulper shark is ovoviviparous and produces liters of 1 to 2 pups.
Being found at depths between 260 and 728 m, the mosaic gulper shark is rare enough that it has no significance to fisheries, contrary to others of the genus Cemtrophorus.
The mosaic gulper shark's conservation status is currently classified as endangered.
The mosaic gulper shark seems to be harmless to humans. (Full article...)
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Ginglymostoma unami, also known as the Pacific nurse shark is a nurse shark of the family Ginglymostomatidae. It is found in southeastern coast of Baja California, Mexico to Costa Rica including Gulf of California. It is 2.8 meters long. This species differs from Ginglymostoma cirratum between posterior end of the second dorsal fin and the beginning of the caudal lobe, both being shorter; the new species also differs by the position of the insertion of the first dorsal fin with regard to the pelvic fins and in the form and number of keels on the dermal denticles and teethmorphology. The Ginglymostoma unami was previously recognized as G.cirratum exhibiting a divided distribution of a species in the northern half of the Atlantic Ocean. However, that species is now considered to be restricted to just the Atlantic Ocean.
Nurse sharks remain still during the day, resting in caves or under ledges, often in groups. At night, they become active and hunt fish, rays, and invertebrates. (Full article...)
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The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) is the second-largest living shark and fish, after the whale shark. It is one of three plankton-eating shark species, along with the whale shark and megamouth shark. Typically, basking sharks reach 7.9 m (26 ft) in length. It is usually greyish-brown, with mottled skin, with the inside of the mouth being white in colour. The caudal fin has a strong lateral keel and a crescent shape. Other common names include bone shark, elephant shark, sailfish, and sunfish.
The basking shark is a cosmopolitanmigratory species found in all the world's temperate oceans. A slow-moving filter feeder, its common name derives from its habit of feeding at the surface, appearing to be basking in the warmer water there. It has anatomical adaptations for filter-feeding, such as a greatly enlarged mouth and highly developed gill rakers. Its snout is conical, and the gill slits extend around the top and bottom of its head. The gill rakers, dark and bristle-like, are used to catch plankton as water filters through the mouth and over the gills. The teeth are numerous and very small and often number 100 per row. The teeth have a single conical cusp, are curved backwards and are the same on both the upper and lower jaws. This species has the smallest weight-for-weight brain size of any shark, reflecting its relatively passive lifestyle.
Basking sharks have been shown from satellite tracking to overwinter in both continental shelf (less than 200 m or 660 ft) and deeper waters. They may be found in either small shoals or alone. Despite their large size and threatening appearance, basking sharks are not aggressive and are harmless to humans.
The lizard catshark (Schroederichthys saurisqualus) is a small shark species of the catsharkfamily, Scyliorhinidae, found off the coast of southern Brazil on the upper continental shelf at depths of between 250 and 500 metres (820 and 1,640 ft). (Full article...)
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The leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata) is a species of houndshark, in the familyTriakidae. It is found along the Pacific coast of North America, from the U.S. state of Oregon to Mazatlán in Mexico. Typically measuring 1.2–1.5 m (3.9–4.9 ft) long, this slender-bodied shark is immediately identifiable by the striking pattern of black saddle-like markings and large spots over its back, from which it derives its common name. Large schools of leopard sharks are a common sight in bays and estuaries, swimming over sandy or muddy flats or rock-strewn areas near kelp beds and reefs. They are most common near the coast, in water less than 4 m (13 ft) deep.
Active-swimming predators, groups of leopard sharks often follow the tide onto intertidal mudflats to forage for food, mainly clams, spoon worms, crabs, shrimp, bony fish, and fish eggs. Most leopard sharks tend to remain within a particular area rather than undertaking long movements elsewhere, which has led to genetic divergence between populations of sharks living in different regions. This species is aplacental viviparous, meaning that the young hatch inside the uterus and are nourished by yolk. From March to June, the female gives birth to as many as 37 young after a gestation period of 10–12 months. It is relatively slow-growing and takes many years to mature.
Harmless to humans, the leopard shark is caught by commercial and recreational fisheries for food and the aquarium trade. This species is mostly fished in the waters off California where, after a period of population decline in the 1980s, new fishing regulations in the early 1990s reduced harvesting to sustainable levels. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as of Least Concern, while noting that local stocks may easily become overfished because of the shark's slow growth and limited migratory habits. (Full article...)
Little is known about the whitespotted bullhead shark. It is found on the outer continental shelf and is thought to feed on crabs, based on the gut contents of two specimen. As a member of the genus Heterodontus, it is thought to be oviparous, but egg case of this species have never been seen. (Full article...)
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The bigeyed sixgill shark (Hexanchus nakamurai) is a cow shark of the familyHexanchidae. Its dorsal surface has a brownish-gray color, and is sharply separated from the light coloring of its ventral surface. The eyes are a fluorescent green while the shark is alive. The body of this shark is small, slim, and fusiform in shape. As the name suggests, this shark has six gill slits, unusual among most shark species. The head is narrow and somewhat flattened, and the mouth contains 5 rows of large, comb-shaped teeth. This shark's single dorsal fin is pushed back towards the caudal fin, and is behind the pelvic fins. The upper caudal fin is much longer than the lower, with a deep notch near the tip. All fins have thin white margins on the edge. In juveniles, the upper caudal fin has a black tip. (Full article...)
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The Carolina hammerhead (Sphyrna gilberti) is a species of hammerhead shark, and part of the familySphyrnidae, found in the western Atlantic Ocean. Their pupping grounds are in nearshore waters off the southeastern U.S. with the highest concentrations found in Bulls Bay, South Carolina. The Carolina hammerhead has also been found in nearshore waters off of Brazil. It was formally described in 2013. It is currently classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List due to overfishing and habitat degradation.
Little is known about the habits of the species. It is a sister species to S. lewini. As of 2013 This species has been a relatively new addition to the hammerhead shark genus. The species possesses a major genetic difference from their cousins, most notable differences is the lower vertebral number and a lighter outer tone. The Carolina hammerhead is named in honor of Carter Gilbert, who unknowingly recorded the first known specimen of the shark off Charleston, South Carolina, in 1967. Dr. Gilbert, who was the curator of the Florida Museum of Natural History from 1961 to 1998, caught what he believed was an anomalous scalloped hammerhead shark with 10 fewer vertebrae than a typical scalloped hammerhead. It was not confirmed to be a different species altogether until Quattro's discovery in 2013. The general diet of the Carolina hammerheads consists of bony fishes and cephalopods such as squids, octopuses, and cuttlefishes. They also feed on shrimps, lobsters, crabs, and other smaller sharks and rays. (Full article...)
While these common names may apply to several species, Squalus acanthias is distinguished by two spines (one anterior to each dorsal fin) and no anal fin. It lives in shallow waters and further offshore in most parts of the world, especially in temperate waters. Those in the northern Pacific Ocean were reevaluated in 2010 and found to constitute a separate species, now called the Pacific spiny dogfish (Squalus suckleyi). (Full article...)
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The spined pygmy shark (Squaliolus laticaudus) is a species of squaliform shark in the familyDalatiidae found widely in all oceans. Growing no larger than roughly 28 cm (11 in), it is one of the smallest sharks alive, with this record beaten by the dwarf lanternshark. This shark has a slender, cigar-shaped body with a sizable conical snout, a long but low second dorsal fin, and an almost symmetrical caudal fin. Its sister speciesS. aliae and it are the only sharks with a spine on the first dorsal fin and not the second. Spined pygmy sharks are dark brown to black, with numerous bioluminescent organs called photophores on their ventral surface. The shark is believed to use these photophores to match ambient light conditions, which break up its silhouette and help the shark to avoid being seen by predators below.
The sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus), grey/gray nurse shark (in Australia), spotted ragged-tooth shark (in South Africa), or blue-nurse sand tiger, is a species of shark that inhabits subtropical and temperate waters worldwide. It inhabits the continental shelf, from sandy shorelines (hence the name sand tiger shark) and submerged reefs to a depth of around 191 m (627 ft). They dwell in the waters of Japan, Australia, South Africa, and the east coasts of North and South America. The sand tiger shark also inhabited the Mediterranean, however it was last seen there in 2003 and is presumed extinct in the region. Despite its common names, it is not closely related to either the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) or the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum).
Despite its fearsome appearance and strong swimming ability, it is a relatively placid and slow-moving shark with no confirmed human fatalities. This species has a sharp, pointy head, and a bulky body. The sand tiger's length can reach 3.2 m (10.5 ft) but is normally 2.2–2.5 m in length. They are grey with reddish-brown spots on their backs. Shivers (groups) have been observed to hunt large schools of fish. Their diet consists of bony fish, crustaceans, squid, skates and other sharks. Unlike other sharks, the sand tiger can gulp air from the surface, allowing it to be suspended in the water column with minimal effort. During pregnancy, the most developed embryo will feed on its siblings, a reproductive strategy known as intrauterine cannibalism i.e. "embryophagy" or, more colorfully, adelphophagy—literally "eating one's brother". The sand tiger is categorized as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. It is the most widely kept large shark in public aquariums owing to its tolerance for captivity. (Full article...)
It is found widely along coastlines in the Indo-Pacific, preferring reefs, sandy flats, and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m (230 ft). With a cylindrical body and a broad, flattened head, the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) of the Atlantic and East Pacific, from which it can be distinguished by its pointed-tipped dorsal fins and narrow, sickle-shaped pectoral fins. The maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3.2 m (10 ft).
Nocturnal in habits, the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges. At night, it is an active-swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices. The diet of this species consists mainly of octopus, though they also take other invertebrates, small bony fishes, and rarely sea snakes. It is aplacental viviparous, meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother. It is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous, feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus. The litter size may be as small as one or two, based on the large size of near-term embryos.
Compared to the nurse shark, the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it. However, it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth. This species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat, fins, liver oil, leather, and fishmeal. It is also esteemed as a game fish off Queensland, Australia, and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as Vulnerable, with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated. (Full article...)
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The great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran) is the largest species of hammerhead shark, belonging to the family Sphyrnidae, attaining an average length of 4.6 m (15 ft) and reaching a maximum length of 6.2 m (20 ft). It is found in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide, inhabiting coastal areas and the continental shelf. The great hammerhead can be distinguished from other hammerheads by the shape of its "hammer" (called the "cephalofoil"), which is wide with an almost straight front margin, and by its tall, sickle-shaped first dorsal fin. A solitary, strong-swimming apex predator, the great hammerhead feeds on a wide variety of prey ranging from crustaceans and cephalopods, to bony fish, to smaller sharks. Observations of this species in the wild suggest that the cephalofoil functions to immobilize stingrays, a favored prey. This species has a viviparous mode of reproduction, bearing litters of up to 50 pups every two years.
Although potentially dangerous, the great hammerhead rarely attacks humans and can sometimes behave inquisitively toward divers. This shark is heavily fished for its large fins, which are valuable on the Chinese market as the main ingredient of shark fin soup. As a result, great hammerhead populations are declining substantially worldwide, and it has been assessed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of 2019. (Full article...)
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The reticulated swellshark (Cephaloscyllium fasciatum) is a catshark of the familyScyliorhinidae. The Reticulated swellshark is found in the western Pacific Ocean between latitudes21° N and 28° S, at depths between 220 and 450 m. It is a blunt snouted shark with an inflatable stomach, narrow eye slits and a pattern of spots and lines covering its body. It can grow up to 80 cm in length. (Full article...)
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The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) is the second-largest living shark and fish, after the whale shark. It is one of three plankton-eating shark species, along with the whale shark and megamouth shark. Typically, basking sharks reach 7.9 m (26 ft) in length. It is usually greyish-brown, with mottled skin, with the inside of the mouth being white in colour. The caudal fin has a strong lateral keel and a crescent shape. Other common names include bone shark, elephant shark, sailfish, and sunfish.
The basking shark is a cosmopolitanmigratory species found in all the world's temperate oceans. A slow-moving filter feeder, its common name derives from its habit of feeding at the surface, appearing to be basking in the warmer water there. It has anatomical adaptations for filter-feeding, such as a greatly enlarged mouth and highly developed gill rakers. Its snout is conical, and the gill slits extend around the top and bottom of its head. The gill rakers, dark and bristle-like, are used to catch plankton as water filters through the mouth and over the gills. The teeth are numerous and very small and often number 100 per row. The teeth have a single conical cusp, are curved backwards and are the same on both the upper and lower jaws. This species has the smallest weight-for-weight brain size of any shark, reflecting its relatively passive lifestyle.
Basking sharks have been shown from satellite tracking to overwinter in both continental shelf (less than 200 m or 660 ft) and deeper waters. They may be found in either small shoals or alone. Despite their large size and threatening appearance, basking sharks are not aggressive and are harmless to humans.
The white ghost catshark (Apristurus aphyodes) is a shark of the catshark familyPentanchidae, the deepwater catsharks. This shark is found in deep water in the northeast Atlantic between latitudes57°N and 58°N. A deep-water catshark known from the eastern North Atlantic from depths of 1,014 to 1,800 m, it is known from only a limited number of specimens. It reaches a maximum of 54 cm or 1.7 ft total length which is a medium size for the Apristurus genus. (Full article...)
Members of the order have two dorsal fins, which usually possess spines, they usually have a sharp head, no anal fin or nictitating membrane, and five to seven gill slits. In most other respects, however, they are quite variable in form and size. Most species of the squaliform order live in saltwater or brackish water. They are found worldwide, from northern to tropical waters, and from shallow coastal seas to the open ocean.
All members of the family Etmoperidae and Dalatiidae and Zameus squamulosus possess photophores, luminous organs, and exhibit intrinsic bioluminescence. Bioluminescence evolved once in Squaliformes, approximately 111–153 million years ago, and helped the Squaliformes radiate and adapt to the deep sea. The common ancestor of Dalatiidae, Etmopteridae, Somniosidae, and Oxynotidae possessed a luminous organ and used bioluminescence for camouflage by counterillumination. Counterillumination is an active form of camouflage in which an organism emits light to match the intensity of downwelling light to hide from predators below. Currently, bioluminescence provides different functions for Squaliformes based on the family. Dalatiidae and Zameus squamulosus possess simple photophores and use bioluminescence for ventral counter-illumination. Etmopteridae possess more complex photophores and utilize bioluminescence for ventral counter illumination as well as species recognition.
Many squaliforms have a spine in front of each of the two dorsal fins, likely a trait of the common ancestor of this clade. The clade likely originated in the post-Jurassic shallow waters of the northern Tethyal margin. (Full article...)
Orectolobus hutchinsi, the western wobbegong, is a species of carpet shark in the familyOrectolobidae. The western wobbegong shark is a moderate sized marine shark found off the coast of Western Australia. Its scientific name is Orectolobus hutchinsi, and it was first identified in 1983 by Dr. Barry Hutchins, but was only recently classified, described, and published in 2006. O. hutchinsi is found on the shallow continental shelf in Western Australia from Coral Bay to Groper Bluff. This species is distinct from other wobbegong sharks because the western wobbegong shark has a yellowish brown upper body and darker brown saddles on their backs. Unlike other wobbegong sharks from the same area, the western wobbegong shark does not have white rings or blotches on their backs. (Full article...)
The Sulu gollumshark derives its name from the Sulu Sea in the Philippines. They can grow to sizes of 58.5 cm (1.92 ft) in length, and feature darker coloration and a wider head relative to the closely related slender smooth-hound, another species of gollumshark. (Full article...)
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The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is a slow-moving, filter-feedingcarpet shark and the largest known extantfishspecies. The largest confirmed individual had a length of 18.8 m (61.7 ft). The whale shark holds many records for size in the animal kingdom, most notably being by far the most massive living non-cetacean animal. It is the sole member of the genus Rhincodon and the only extant member of the family Rhincodontidae, which belongs to the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. Before 1984 it was classified as Rhiniodon into Rhinodontidae.
Whale sharks inhabit the open waters of all tropical oceans. They are rarely found in water below 21 °C (70 °F). Whale sharks' lifespans are estimated to be between 80 and 130 years, based on studies of their vertebral growth bands and the growth rates of free-swimming sharks. Whale sharks have very large mouths and are filter feeders, which is a feeding mode that occurs in only two other sharks, the megamouth shark and the basking shark. They feed almost exclusively on plankton and small fishes, and do not pose any threat to humans.
The species was distinguished in April 1828 after the harpooning of a 4.6 m (15 ft) specimen in Table Bay, South Africa. Andrew Smith, a military doctor associated with British troops stationed in Cape Town, described it the following year. The name "whale shark" refers to the animal's appearance and large size; it is a fish, not a mammal, and (like all sharks) is not closely related to whales. (Full article...)
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The sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus), grey/gray nurse shark (in Australia), spotted ragged-tooth shark (in South Africa), or blue-nurse sand tiger, is a species of shark that inhabits subtropical and temperate waters worldwide. It inhabits the continental shelf, from sandy shorelines (hence the name sand tiger shark) and submerged reefs to a depth of around 191 m (627 ft). They dwell in the waters of Japan, Australia, South Africa, and the east coasts of North and South America. The sand tiger shark also inhabited the Mediterranean, however it was last seen there in 2003 and is presumed extinct in the region. Despite its common names, it is not closely related to either the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) or the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum).
Despite its fearsome appearance and strong swimming ability, it is a relatively placid and slow-moving shark with no confirmed human fatalities. This species has a sharp, pointy head, and a bulky body. The sand tiger's length can reach 3.2 m (10.5 ft) but is normally 2.2–2.5 m in length. They are grey with reddish-brown spots on their backs. Shivers (groups) have been observed to hunt large schools of fish. Their diet consists of bony fish, crustaceans, squid, skates and other sharks. Unlike other sharks, the sand tiger can gulp air from the surface, allowing it to be suspended in the water column with minimal effort. During pregnancy, the most developed embryo will feed on its siblings, a reproductive strategy known as intrauterine cannibalism i.e. "embryophagy" or, more colorfully, adelphophagy—literally "eating one's brother". The sand tiger is categorized as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. It is the most widely kept large shark in public aquariums owing to its tolerance for captivity. (Full article...)
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Squalus montalbani, the Philippine spurdog or Indonesian greeneye spurdog, is a relatively large species of dogfish shark native to waters off the coast of Australia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The species was identified in 1912 from a specimen caught off the coast of Luzon Island, and has been both bycatch and a targeted species in fisheries since. Its taxonomy is complex, having been renamed in 1931, being misidentified as a type of shortspine spurdog, then being revived as a species in 2007.
It is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to past and present threats from fisheries. It is morphologically similar to several other species, which makes identification difficult. The species is identified as a member of the mitsukurii group, a species complex The similarity to other species has posed problems in identifying trends in the species, and thus, in its conservation. (Full article...)
The longsnout dogfish (Deania quadrispinosa) is a little-known deepwater dogfish, found in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans from Namibia to Mozambique and in the South Pacific off southern Australia and New Zealand.The longsnout dogfish has an extremely long, angular snout, no anal fin, dorsal fins of similar size with the first placed high on the back and the second having a longer rear free tip, and pitchfork-shaped dermal denticles. It is dark brown and grows to about 114 cm.
This shark lives at depths between 150 and 732 m. It eats bony fish. (Full article...)
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The flapnose houndshark (Scylliogaleus quecketti) is a houndshark of the family Triakidae, and the only member of the genus Scylliogaleus. It is found in the waters off subtropicalSouth Africa, in the western Indian Ocean between latitudes27 and 33°S. This shark is estimated to be 2 to 3 feet in length. They are gray with a white underside, and they have a blunt nose with large fused nasal flaps. They have small pebble like teeth and their first and second dorsal fin are the same size. They feed primarily on crustaceans such as crabs, shrimps, lobsters and some molluscs like squid. Flapnose houndsharks are viviparous and have low fecundity having just two to four pups in a litter. After gestating for nine to ten months, females give birth to pups that are about 34 cm long. Newborn flapnose houndsharks have white coloured edges on their dorsal, anal and caudal fin. There have only been 30 recorded specimens. Not seen by biologists since 1902, one was captured in 2020 on the show Extinct or Alive. It was tagged with a pop-up tracking sensor and released. (Full article...)
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The hardnose shark (Carcharhinus macloti) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, so named because of the heavily calcifiedcartilages in its snout. A small bronze-coloured shark reaching a length of 1.1 m (3.6 ft), it has a slender body and a long, pointed snout. Its two modestly sized dorsal fins have distinctively elongated rear tips. The hardnose shark is widely distributed in the western Indo-Pacific, from Kenya to southern China and northern Australia. It inhabits warm, shallow waters close to shore.
The spined pygmy shark (Squaliolus laticaudus) is a species of squaliform shark in the familyDalatiidae found widely in all oceans. Growing no larger than roughly 28 cm (11 in), it is one of the smallest sharks alive, with this record beaten by the dwarf lanternshark. This shark has a slender, cigar-shaped body with a sizable conical snout, a long but low second dorsal fin, and an almost symmetrical caudal fin. Its sister speciesS. aliae and it are the only sharks with a spine on the first dorsal fin and not the second. Spined pygmy sharks are dark brown to black, with numerous bioluminescent organs called photophores on their ventral surface. The shark is believed to use these photophores to match ambient light conditions, which break up its silhouette and help the shark to avoid being seen by predators below.
The brown lanternshark or bristled lanternshark (Etmopterus unicolor) is a little-known species of deep-sea dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae. It is found off Japan and New Zealand, and possibly also South Africa and Australia, typically deeper than 300 m (980 ft). This species can be distinguished from other lanternsharks by its coloration, which is a uniform dark gray or brown without the ventral surface being much darker and clearly delineated from the rest of the body. The brown lanternshark feeds on small bony fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with females giving birth to 9–18 young. An unusually high proportion of individuals in Suruga Bay are hermaphrodites, with both male and female characteristics. (Full article...)
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The roughskin catshark (Apristurus ampliceps) is a species of catshark in the family Pentanchidae, the deepwater catsharks. This species is found near Australia and New Zealand. Its natural habitat is the open seas. This species belongs to a genus of poorly known deep-water catsharks.
Very little is known of its biology. This species is known to occur in deep water (840 to 1,380 m) off New Zealand, sporadic sites around Tasmania, and a small area of Western Australia. Some concern exists for this species, as its distribution includes some heavily fished areas. Deep-water demersal trawl fisheries are expanding in the region, and assuming its biology is like other deep-water shark species, it may not be sufficiently fecund to withstand the exploitation pressure. (Full article...)
Scyliorhinus meadi, the blotched catshark, is a little-known species of catshark, and part of the family Scyliorhinidae, found in the western central Atlantic Ocean. It inhabits banks of deep-sea coral at depths of 329–548 m (1,079–1,798 ft), feeding on cephalopods, shrimp, and bony fishes. This species can be identified by its wide body and head, and the dark saddle-like markings on its back. It also has small spots that fluoresce yellow under a blue light. Adult blotched catsharks have not been observed; the largest immature specimen is 49 cm (19 in) long. Like other catsharks, it is believed to be oviparous. This species is not dangerous to humans and has no commercial significance. (Full article...)
Jatiluhur Dam was designed by Coyne et Bellier and was constructed between 1957 and 1965 while the power station became operational in 1967. The dam serves several purposes including the provision of hydroelectric power generation, water supply, flood control, irrigation, and aquaculture. The power station has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW which feeds into the Java grid managed by the state-owned electricity company Perusahaan Listrik Negara. The Jatiluhur reservoir helps irrigate 240,000 ha (593,053 acres) of rice fields. The earth-fill dam is 105 m (344 ft) high and withholds a reservoir of 3,000,000,000 m3 (2,432,140 acre⋅ft), the largest in the country.
The dam's reservoir and morning glory looking towards the south and the spillway.
It uses water provided by five reservoirs high up in the Papenoo Valley, above the commune. Each reservoir is created on the Papenoo River or a tributary by an embankment dam. From highest in elevation to lowest; Vaitapaa Dam at , which lies at an elevation of 411 m (1,348 ft) above sea level, is 15 m (49 ft) tall. It withholds a reservoir of 8,000 m3 (6.5 acre⋅ft). Next, at an elevation of 400 m (1,300 ft), Tahinu Dam, at is 33 m (108 ft) high and withholds a larger reservoir of 1,500,000 m3 (1,200 acre⋅ft). It is the tallest dam in Tahiti. Moving down is Vainavenave Dam at which lies at 399 m (1,309 ft) above sea level, is 29 m (95 ft) tall, and withholds a reservoir of 150,000 m3 (120 acre⋅ft). Fourth down the valley is the Vaituoru Dam at an elevation of 200 m (660 ft) with a reservoir capacity of 100,000 m3 (81 acre⋅ft). It is located at . Finally is the Tevaiohiro Dam at 85 m (279 ft) above sea level with a reservoir volume of 150,000 m3 (120 acre⋅ft). It is located at .
Water from the reservoirs is sent to three separate power stations via 25.5 km (15.8 mi) of penstock. The power station highest in elevation, Papenoo 1 contains four 4 MW Pelton-turbine-generators and is located at . Next downstream is Papenoo 2 at which contains one 4 MW Pelton turbine-generators. Lastly, Papenoo 3 contains two 4 MW Pelton turbine-generators and is located at . (Full article...)
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The Péligre Dam is a gravity dam located off the Centredepartment on the Artibonite River of Haiti. At 72 m (236 ft) it is the tallest dam in Haiti. The dam was created as a flood-control and an energy-providing measure in the Artibonite River Valley during the 1950s, as part of the Artibonite Valley Agricultural Project. This dam impounds Lake Péligre.
Despite its purpose of providing energy throughout Haiti, many contend that the energy provided by the dam is not distributed equitably. Furthermore, the dam has had significant environmental, social, and health consequences on the local people, who were forced to relocate as a result of the dam's completion. These are points of concern to academics, journalists, and human rights activists who, noting heavy North American involvement in the planning and construction of the dam, believe that neoliberal influences may be at play. (Full article...)
The Varaždin Hydroelectric Power Plant is a multipurpose hydroelectric plant harnessing the Drava water power on a 28.5 km long stretch, providing flood and erosion control for the land and settlements, enabling water supply, draining excessive soil moisture content and offering the possibilities for gravity drainage of the valley and gravity land irrigation. Installed power at generator terminals is 86 MW, and the possible average annual output is 476 GWh.
The Kariba Dam is a double curvature concrete arch dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The dam stands 128 metres (420 ft) tall and 579 metres (1,900 ft) long. The dam forms Lake Kariba, which extends for 280 kilometres (170 mi) and holds 185 cubic kilometres (150,000,000 acre⋅ft) of water. (Full article...)
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Ulla-Førre is a hydropower complex in Southern Norway. It is situated along the borders of the municipalities of Suldal and Hjelmeland (in Rogaland county) and Bykle (in Agder county), Norway. It has an installed capacity of approximately 2,100 megawatts (2,800,000 hp), and the annual average production is 4.45 TWh (16.0 PJ) (1987–2006), while its reservoir capacity is about 7.8 TWh (28 PJ); at full production, it can last seven to eight months. The complex includes the artificial lake Blåsjø, which is made by dams around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above the sea level. The hydroelectric power stations in the complex are Saurdal, Kvilldal, Hylen and Stølsdal, operated by Statkraft. (Full article...)
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Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant (Latvian: Rīgas hidroelektrostacija, shortened Rīgas HES) is located just beyond Riga's southern border. It is geographically located in the town of Salaspils. Total installed power generating capacity is 402 MW. There are six generators, two transformers and two 330 kV power lines (to Salaspils and Bišuciems). (Full article...)
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Weija Dam is a dam on the Densu River which supports the main water treatment plant for Accra. It is operated by the Ghana Water Company. The dam supplies about 80 percent of the potable water for the entire city of Accra and its surrounding environs. Its construction began in 1974 and was completed in 1978 by Messrs Tahi, an Italian Company. (Full article...)
The station uses water from two sets of reservoirs. Hardeland H is a 400 m vertical fall from Løkjelsvatnet, while Hardeland K uses Grindheimsvatnet, Ilsvatnet, Basurde-/Krokavatnet and Hjørnås via a 305 m fall from the Hjørnås lake.
Hardeland is connected to the grid with a 22 kV line to Litledalen. The site uses three pelton wheels with 14 MW generators, and average yearly output is 123 GWh. (Full article...)
The Bayano Dam is a dam on the Bayano River in Darién Province, Panama. The dam was built in 1976; its construction flooded approximately 350 square kilometers of rainforest, displacing thousands of indigenous residents. The flooded area is now Bayano Lake. The dam is the second-largest power source in Panama. (Full article...)
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Hua Na Dam (Thai: เขื่อนหัวนา, RTGS: Khuean Hua Na, pronounced[kʰɯ̀a̯nhǔa̯nāː]), in Kanthararom District, Sisaket Province, is the biggest dam in the Khong-Chi-Mun project in Thailand. It is close to the Rasi Salai Dam, which has been inoperable for over 10 years because of extreme salinity. Hua Na sits atop the same salt dome as Rasi Salai and may face the same fate if the gates are ever closed. Its height is 17 metres (56 ft), while its length is 207 metres (679 ft). It has 14 gates and a catchment area of 115,000,000 cubic metres (93,000 acre⋅ft). The reservoir stretches for 90 kilometres (56 mi), while its surface area is unknown. The reservoir has a manageable storage capacity of 64.98 million cubic metres.
It exceeded its budget of 1.5 billion baht, costing 2.5 billion.
Opponents note that no Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was completed before construction, leaving concerns about flooding and salinity unresolved. Clay resources, which provide a primary occupation for many villagers, would be endangered if the dam gates were closed. (Full article...)
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The Kandadji Dam, is a large multipurpose dam under construction on the Niger River. The site is situated near the small town of Kandadji, Tillabéri Department, Tillabéri Region, Niger, 180 km northwest of the capital Niamey. It is being built by the Haut Commissariat à l'Aménagement de la Vallée du Niger (High Commission for Niger Valley), a public body under the Primer Minister's Office.
The dam will generate hydropower and is control the flow of the Niger River, holding water during the dry season to maintain a minimum flow and making downstream irrigation possible. The project is formally named the Kandadji Programme for Ecosystem Regeneration and Niger River Development (Programme Kandadji de Régénération des Ecosystèmes et de Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Niger). (Full article...)
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The Mazar Dam is a concrete-face rock-fill dam on the Paute RiverCañar Province, Ecuador. The purpose of the dam is hydroelectric power generation and it is located directly upstream of the Paute Dam as part of the Amaluza-Molino project. The dam's power station has an installed capacity of 170 megawatts (230,000 hp). Construction on the dam began in 2004; the generators were commissioned in 2010 and the remaining works were completed in 2011. (Full article...)
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The Monasavu Dam is a rock-fill embankment dam on the Nanuku River about 60 kilometres (37 mi) northwest of Suva in Naitasiri Province, Fiji. It is located just above the Monasavu Falls and is both the tallest and largest dam, which also withholds the largest reservoir in the country. The primary purpose of the dam is to produce hydroelectric power and it supports an 80 megawatts (110,000 hp) power station. To offset fossil fuel imports for power production on the island, the Monasavu-Wailoa Hydroelectric Project was authorized by the Fiji Electricity Authority in 1977 and construction began in May 1978. The dam was complete and power station commissioned in 1983. About US$15 million of the project's total US$234 million cost was supplied by the World Bank, the rest by the host government and loans.
The dam, protection of its catchment and rainforest contribute to its national significance as outlined in Fiji's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. (Full article...)
The Idriss I Dam, also known as the Idriss the First Dam, is a gravity dam on the Inaouen River, a tributary of the Sebou River. The dam is situated in the Gharb Basin and is located 27 kilometres (17 mi) northeast of Fes in Taza and Taounate Province, Morocco. The dam serves to provide irrigation water for 72,300 hectares (179,000 acres) of land and its power plant generates 66 GWh of electricity annually. It is named after Idriss I. It has faced criticism since it failed to deliver irrigation to the projected number of acres and it has also denied water use to historical downstream agricultural and residential users. (Full article...)
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The Ubol Ratana Dam (pronounced: Ubon Rat), formerly known as the "Phong Neeb Dam", is a multi-purpose dam in tambon Khok Sung, Ubolratana district, approximately 50 km (31 mi) north of Khon Kaen, Khon Kaen province, Thailand. It was the first hydroelectric power project developed in Thailand's northeastern area of Isan. The dam impounds the Nam Phong, which flows into the Chi River and thence to the Mun River, a tributary of the Mekong River. The dam was given its current name by royal permission in 1966, in honour of princess Ubol Ratana, the eldest child of King Bhumibol Adulyadej. (Full article...)
The dam impounds a reservoir with a surface area of about 12.8 square kilometers extending North into the municipality of Itogon in Benguet. A gated spillway protects the dam from overtopping. Each wet season, the run-off is stored for later release via water turbines to generate power and irrigate crops.
Agno River is the third largest river in the Philippines with a total length of 221 kilometers and a drainage basin at the Project site of 1,225 square kilometers. The river originates in the Cordillera Mountains, initially flows from north to south, divides into several channels in the flat central plain of Luzon and meanders westerly through the provinces of Pangasinan and Tarlac before emptying into Lingayen Gulf. The dam and its immediate river basin are protected as a forest reserve known as the Lower Agno Watershed Forest Reserve.
San Roque Power Corporation (SRPC) financed and constructed the SRMP under a power purchase agreement (PPA) with the National Power Corporation (NPC) on a Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) basis. SRPC substantially completed the SRMP at midnight, February 14, 2003, at which time its peaking power, irrigation, flood control and enhanced water quality benefits became available to the surrounding regions, which include the Northwest Luzon Economic Growth Quadrangle. In reality, all but its power benefits have been available since mid-2002 when the dam and spillway were completed.
Ownership of the dam and spillway was transferred to NPC upon construction completion, as it contributed funds for the non-power components on behalf of several agencies. SRPC will own and operate the power generating facilities for 25 years, after which their ownership transfers to NPC. (Full article...)
The Diama Dam, sometimes referred to as the Maka–Diama Dam (French: Barrage de Maka-Diama) is a gravity dam on the Senegal River, spanning the border of Senegal and Mauritania. It is located next to the town of Diama, Senegal and about 22 km (14 mi) north of Saint-Louis, Senegal. The purpose of the dam is to prevent saltwater intrusion upstream, supply water for the irrigation of about 45,000 ha (110,000 acres) of crops and create a road crossing for the road between St. Louis and Nouakchott in Mauritania. Additionally, a ship lock built within the dam provides for navigation upstream. Plans for the dam were first drawn in 1970 when the riparian states within the Senegal River Basin Development Authority agreed to develop the Senegal River. The Diama Dam was to be constructed in conjunction with the Manantali Dam which was to be located further upstream in Mali. Construction on the Diama Dam began on 15 September 1981 and was completed on 12 August 1986. The Manantali Dam was completed in 1988. The Diama project was funded by a US$149.5 million loan from the African Development Bank. The main section of the dam with ship lock and spillway is 170 m (560 ft) long while a 440 m (1,440 ft) long embankment dam section extends north to the edge of the river. A dike further extends the dam to the north. The dam is 18 m (59 ft) tall and its spillway has a maximum discharge of 6,500 m3/s (230,000 cu ft/s).
The small town of Diama is known as a border crossing to and from Mauritania, as the dam is the only land bridge between the two countries. (Full article...)
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Velebit Pumped Storage Power Plant (Croatian: Reverzibilna hidroelektrana Velebit) is a pumped-storage power plant in Croatia that has two turbines with a nominal capacity of 138 megawatts (185,000 hp) each, having a total capacity of 276 megawatts (370,000 hp). As of 2015[update], it was one of three operational pumped-storage power plants in Croatia.
The Alpe Gera Dam is a gravity dam on the Cormor River in a lateral valley of Valmalenco 17 km (11 mi) northeast of Sondrio in the Lombardy region of Italy. It is 174 m (571 ft) tall and supports a 35 MW hydroelectric power station.
The dam was constructed between 1958 and 1964 and is best known for the concrete placement techniques used during its construction. Instead of concrete being poured into conventional monoliths, it was poured in layers with a lean mix. Next, the concrete was settled with immersed vibrators and then contraction joints were cut into the layer. These methods were not only cost-saving but instrumental in the development of roller-compacted concrete in dam construction. (Full article...)
With a power of 977 MW, it is the largest hydroelectric power station in Sweden, and also the fourth largest in the Nordic countries. The name means "Hare Run" in Swedish. This was also the name of the mighty rapids there, and the name was related to the sharp turns in the rapids, a little similar to the ones a hare does when fleeing. Normal year production is around 2131 GWh. Total fall height is around 107 m. (Full article...)
The Tisza Dam, also known as the Kisköre Dam is a gravity dam on the Tisza River near Kisköre in Heves county, Hungary. It is the tallest dam in the country and also creates the largest reservoir in the country, Lake Tisza. It is a multi-purpose dam its purpose includes flood control and recreation. With a ship lock, it provides for navigation. Additionally, it supports a 28 MW hydroelectric power station, the largest in the country. Construction on the dam began in 1968 and it along with the power station were completed in 1973. (Full article...)
The Paute Dam, also known as the Daniel Palacios Dam and the Amaluza Dam, is a hydroelectric dam in Ecuador. It is located on the Paute River, 125 kilometres (78 mi) from Cuenca. After the privatization of power generation that began in 1996 under the government of Sixto Durán Ballén, the dam passed into the hands of the company Hidropaute SA and then returned to state ownership during the government of Rafael Correa when Hidropaute became part of the Ecuador Electricity Corporation (Corporación Eléctrica del Ecuador, CELEC).
Paute was constructed between 1976 and 1983 by Thyssenkrupp AG on the Paute River and designed on the premise that it would be erected downstream of the Mazar Dam. The Paute Dam's supports the 1,075 megawatts (1,442,000 hp) Molina Power Station. In late 2009, low water levels at the dam were the primary cause of an electricity crisis in Ecuador. (Full article...)
{{ Transclude list item excerpts as random slideshow | List of mountain ranges | section=Mountain ranges on Earth }} Select from Earth section, avoiding Moon
The Blue Ridge Mountains are known for having a bluish color when seen from a distance. Trees put the "blue" in Blue Ridge, from the isoprene released into the atmosphere. This contributes to the characteristic haze on the mountains and their perceived color.
The Cascade Range or Cascades is a major mountain range of western North America, extending from southern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to Northern California. It includes both non-volcanic mountains, such as many of those in the North Cascades, and the notable volcanoes known as the High Cascades. The small part of the range in British Columbia is referred to as the Canadian Cascades or, locally, as the Cascade Mountains. The highest peak in the range is Mount Rainier in Washington at 14,411 feet (4,392 m). The Cascades are part of the Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire, the ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Ocean. All of the eruptions in the contiguous United States over the last 200 years have been from the Cascade Volcanoes. The two most recent were Lassen Peak from 1914 to 1921 and a major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980. Minor eruptions of Mount St. Helens have also occurred since, most recently from 2004 to 2008. The Cascade Range is a part of the American Cordillera, a nearly continuous chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that form the western "backbone" of North, Central, and South America.
The term "arfak" came from arfk the language of the coastal Biak people, meaning "people who sleep over fire", to refer to how the Arfak warm their houses by putting hot ember below their Rumah Kaki Seribu. Locally the mountain is called "Gunung Indon" or "Indonga" meaning "big mountain" in Hatam language. Located in the east and central regions of the Bird's Head Peninsula, these mountains rise steeply from the sea, with little or no coastal plain surrounding them. Mount Arfak, at 2,955 m (9,695 ft), can be viewed from the provincial capital, Manokwari, and is the highest point in West Papua and the Bird's Head Peninsula.
Since Dutch colonial times the range has been one of the most frequently explored and best known regions of West Papua for bird watching. Along with the Tamrau Mountains in the north, the two ranges have been divided by the grassy Kebar Valley, which is the heartland of many indigenous people, with a variety of backgrounds. Found near the town of Manokwari, the mountains are an important and threatened site of biodiversity, part of the Vogelkop montane rain forestsecoregion. Multiple tribes of indigenous peoples, many who speak mutually unintelligible languages such as Hatam, Meyah and Sougb, all call the Arfak Mountains their home. They ultimately are the guardians of the future of the exquisite, yet increasingly threatened bird species found throughout this rugged region. (Full article...)
The Highlands are surrounded by water with the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Cabot Strait to the north and east, the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the north and west, and Bras d'Or Lake to the south. Elevations average 350 metres at the edges of the plateau (at the above-mentioned water bodies), and rise to more than 500 metres at the centre, including the highest elevation point in the province at White Hill, at 533 metres.
The plateau consists of numerous broad, gently rolling hills bisected with deep valleys and steep-walled river canyons. The southern and the western edges of the plateau give way to broad valleys with soils resulting from glaciation and provide some of Cape Breton's best agricultural lands. Most of the interior and southern edges of the plateau are covered with damp, cool deciduous forests which makes for spectacular colours during autumn foliage. Southward facing slopes above 300 metres in elevation generally only support Balsam Fir, as a result of the short growing season and harsh winter climate. The northern and western edges of the plateau, particularly at high elevations, resemble arctic tundra.
The west coast of the Highlands meets the Gulf of St. Lawrence in steep cliffs whereas the east coast borders the Atlantic Ocean with a gently-sloping coastal plain, low headlands, and several beaches.
In 1936 the federal government established the Cape Breton Highlands National Park covering 950 km2 across the northern third of the Highlands. The Cabot Trail scenic highway also encircles the coastal perimeter of the plateau. While the coastal areas of Inverness and Victoria counties along the plateau are home to several dozen small fishing and tourism-related communities, the interior of the plateau has no public roads and very little human presence, making it one of Nova Scotia's largest wilderness areas.
Wreck Cove Hydroelectric System is the largest hydroelectric plant in Nova Scotia with a generating capacity of 215.8 MW. Constructed from 1975 to 1978, south of the Cape Breton Highlands National Park, Wreck Cove collects drainage water from 216 square kilometres (83 sq mi) of the Cape Breton Highlands plateau to generate renewable electricity. (Full article...)
The Kurze Mountains were discovered and plotted from aerial photographs taken by the Third German Antarctic Expedition under Alfred Ritscher, 1938–39, who named them for the director of the Naval Division of the former Marineleitung (German Admiralty). They were remapped by the Norsk Polarinstitutt from surveys and aerial photos taken by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition, 1956–60, and given the name "Holtedahlfjella." The correlation of the prior name (Kurze) with this feature is quite definite and is recommended for the sake of international uniformity and historical continuity. (Full article...)
The Homathko Icefield is an icefield in British Columbia, Canada. Officially named the Homathko Snowfield from 1950 until the current name was adopted in 1976, it is one of the largest icefields in the southern half of the Coast Mountains, with an area of over 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi). It is located between Chilko Lake and the Homathko River, and lies across the Great Canyon of that river to the east of the Waddington Range. Although adjacent to Mount Queen Bess, the Homathko Icefield is largely an expanse of ice, about 30 km (19 mi) across, ringed by relatively minor peaks and distinguished, relative to the other Coast Mountains icefields, by lack of any major ones. The Lillooet Icecap and the Compton Névé, both similar in size to the Homathko Icefield but much more peak-studded, lie to the Homathko Icefield's southeast across the Southgate River which bends around the icefield-massif's southern flank to reach the head of Bute Inlet adjacent to the mouth of the Homathko River. The icefield is essentially one large ice-girt montane plateau between these two rivers.
The highest summit of the icefield is Mount Grenville, located at its southern edge. Among its other peaks are Plateau Peak, Cambridge Peak, Cloister Peak, Galleon Peak and, on its northwest overlooking the site of the opening battle of the Chilcotin War, Klattasine Peak, named for the Tsilhqot'in leader of the war. Just northeast of the icefield is Mount Queen Bess, the second-highest summit in the Pacific Ranges, and to the icefield's east is Mount Good Hope; near it, and within the icefield, are peaks whose names continue the Elizabethan theme - Burghley Peak, Howard Peak, and Walsingham Peak, named after soldiers and statesmen of that era.
Homathko is a derivation of Homalco or Homalhco or Homalhko, who are a subgroup of the Mainland Comox whose territory includes Bute and Toba Inlets. (Full article...)
The Dinaric Alps extend for approximately 645 kilometres (401 mi) along the western Balkan Peninsula from the Julian Alps of the northeast Italy, downwards to the Šar and Korabmassif, where their direction changes. The Accursed Mountains are the highest section of the entire Dinaric Alps; this section stretches from Albania to Kosovo and eastern Montenegro. Maja Jezercë, standing at 2,694 metres (8,839 ft) above the Adriatic, is the highest peak and is located in Albania.
The Dinaric Alps are one of the most rugged and extensive mountainous areas of Europe, alongside the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathian Mountains and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoicsedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sandstone and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50 to 100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded and overthrust the rocks in a great arc around the old rigid block of the northeast. The main tectonic phase of the orogenesis in the area of the Dinaric Karst took place in Cenozoic Era (Paleogene) as a result of the Adriatic Microplate (Adria) collision with Europe, and the process is still active. The Dinaric Alps were thrown up in more or less parallel ranges, stretching like necklaces from the Julian Alps as far as northern Albania and Kosovo, where the mountainous terrain subsides to make way for the waters of the Drin River and the plains of Kosovo. (Full article...)
The Julian Alps cover an estimated 4,400 km2 (of which 1,542 km2 lies in Italy). They are located between the Sava Valley and Canale Valley. They are divided into the Eastern and Western Julian Alps. (Full article...)
Traditionally the Western Beskids were considered part of the Beskids, a term that differs according to historical and linguistic heritage. (Full article...)
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The Bernese Alps are a mountain range of the Alps located in western Switzerland. Although the name suggests that they are located in the Berner Oberland region of the canton of Bern, portions of the Bernese Alps are in the adjacent cantons of Valais, Fribourg and Vaud, the latter being usually named Fribourg Alps and Vaud Alps respectively. The highest mountain in the range, the Finsteraarhorn, is also the highest point in the canton of Bern.
The Rhône valley separates them from the Chablais Alps in the west and from the Pennine Alps in the south; the upper Rhône valley separates them from the Lepontine Alps to the southeast; the Grimsel Pass and the Aare valley separates them from the Uri Alps in the east, and from the Emmental Alps in the north; their northwestern edge is not well defined, describing a line roughly from Lake Geneva to Lake Thun. The Bernese Alps are drained by the river Aare and its tributary the Saane in the north, the Rhône in the south, and the Reuss in the east.
The Central Range is a mountain range on the island of Trinidad. It extends diagonally across the island and is a low-lying range rising from swampy areas into rolling hills. The tallest hills in the range are Mount Tamana (307 m), Mount Harris and Brigand Hill; all located in the northeastern portion of the range. The Central Range mountains are biodiverse, and are home to the Tamana Caves - the site of Trinidad's largest bat roost. Howler monkeys can be found here and numerous species of birds as well.
There are numerous streams and clean springs that flow from the Central Range. However there are few waterfalls. The most prominent of these falls are the Brasso Venado falls in Brasso Venado, and Gran Couva falls, or Carmelita falls, located in Gran Couva. To the north of the range are the Northern Lowlands (East–West Corridor and Caroni Plain). (Full article...)
The Chisos Mountains, also known as the Chisos, are a mountain range located in the Big Bend area of the Trans-Pecos region of Texas, United States. The mountain system covers 40 square miles (104 square km) and is contained entirely within the boundaries of Big Bend National Park, making it the only mountain range in the United States fully contained within a national park. The Chisos Mountains are the southernmost mountain range in the mainland United States.
The Chisos Mountains were created by volcanic activity during the Eocene Epoch 35–44 million years ago.
The highest point in the Chisos Mountain range is Emory Peak at 7,825 ft (2,385 m) above sea level. (Full article...)
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The Swan Range is a mountain range in western Montana in the United States. Its peaks typically rise to around 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400 to 2,700 m). The range is bounded by the South Fork Flathead River to the east, the Flathead River to the north and northwest, the Swan River to the west, and lie to the southwest of Glacier National Park, just south of the Canada–US border. It runs about 99 miles (159 km) from north-northwest to south-southeast. Major cities near the Swan Range include Kalispell and Bigfork to the northwest, and Seeley Lake on the south. (Full article...)
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The Wicklow Mountains (Irish: Sléibhte Chill Mhantáin, archaic: Cualu) form the largest continuous upland area in Ireland. They occupy the whole centre of County Wicklow and stretch outside its borders into the counties of Dublin, Wexford and Carlow. Where the mountains extend into County Dublin, they are known locally as the Dublin Mountains (Sléibhte Bhaile Átha Cliath). The highest peak is Lugnaquilla at 925 metres (3,035 feet).
The mountains are primarily composed of granite surrounded by an envelope of mica-schist and much older rocks such as quartzite. They were pushed up during the Caledonian orogeny at the start of the Devonian period and form part of the Leinster Chain, the largest continuous area of granite in Ireland and Britain. The mountains owe much of their present topography to the effects of the last ice age, which deepened the glens and created corrie and ribbon lakes. Copper and lead have been the main metals mined in the mountains and a brief gold rush occurred in the 18th century. Several major river systems have their source in the mountains, such as the Liffey, Dargle, Slaney and Avoca rivers. Powerscourt Waterfall is the second tallest in Ireland at 121 metres (397 feet). A number of these rivers have been harnessed to create reservoirs for drinking water for Dublin and its surroundings.
The mountains have been inhabited since Neolithic times and a number of typical monuments, in particular a series of passage tombs, survive to the present day. The monastery at Glendalough, founded in the late 6th century by Saint Kevin, was an important centre of the Early Church in Ireland. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, the Wicklow Mountains became a stronghold and hiding place for Irish clans opposed to English rule. The O'Byrne and O'Toole families carried out a campaign of harassment against the settlers for almost five centuries. Later the mountains harboured rebels during the 1798 Rising. Rebel activity died out after the construction of the Wicklow Military Road at the start of the 19th century and the mountains began to attract tourists to the ruins at Glendalough and to admire the mountain scenery.
There are 140 glaciers in the mountains covering about 141 square kilometres (54 sq mi) of the Lyngen Peninsula at present. Gamvikblåisen and Strupenbreen are the two largest in the outer part of the peninsula, while in the interior Fornesbreen and the Jiehkkevárri glacial complex are the largest. The bedrock consists of a belt of ophiolitic gabbro that is flanked on both sides by predominantly schistose metasediments. The gabbro belt underlies the rugged mountains of Lyngsalpene. In the lowland areas between Oteren and Koppangen, amphibolites, greenstones, and greenshales predominate. In the lowlands on the eastern side of the Lyngen peninsula, mica schists, phyllites, and dolomites are mainly found. The lowlands on the western side are mainly composed of mica schists and a small amount of quartzites. Except for ice caps at the summits of Jiehkkevárri and Bálggesvárri, cirque glaciers dominate the present glaciation on the Lyngen Peninsula. The Lyngen Alps are sufficiently high as to give rain shadow in the interior lowland areas east of the mountains. The northward heat advection of air and water masses into the Norwegian Sea region produces some of the largest temperature anomalies in the world, with a mean January air temperature about 24 °C warmer in Tromsø than the latitudinal mean.
The Lyngen Alps Landscape Reserve (Norwegian: Lyngsalpan landskapsvernområde) was established by the King of Norway on 20 February 2004 to protect one of Norway's characteristic mountain areas, which includes glaciers, moraines, valleys, and geological deposits, with biodiversity, cultural monuments, and cultural influences that characterize the landscape. The protection of natural resources within the landscape reserve is also important for the Saami culture and economy, and the site must be suitable for reindeer herding. Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway took part in the opening of the landscape reserve on May 22, 2004. The area of the Lyngen Alps landscape reserve is 961.2 square kilometres (371.1 sq mi). The nature reserve extends over four municipalities in Troms county.
There is a public transport connection between Tromsø and Lyngen via express boat to Nord-Lenangen and several bus routes. There are also ferries connecting Svensby and Breivikeidet, as well as the villages of Olderdalen and Lyngseidet. One of the main tourist attractions of Lyngen Alps is the glacier-fed lake Blåvatnet with a distinct turquoise color, located in Strupskardet valley. (Full article...)
The Rockies formed 55 million to 80 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began sliding underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans began inhabiting the mountain range. After explorations of the range by Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Anglo-Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, natural resources such as minerals and fur drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself has never experienced a dense population.
Below is a detailed overview of the major subdivisions and ranges of the Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathians are a "subsystem" of a bigger Alps-Himalaya System that stretches from western Europe all the way to southern Asia, and are further divided into "provinces" and "subprovinces". The last level of the division, i.e. the actual mountain ranges and basins, is usually classified as "units". The main divisions are shown in the map on the right.
To generalize, there are three major provinces (regions): Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians, and the Southern Carpathians. (Full article...)
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The Southern Alps (Māori: Kā Tiritiri o te Moana; officially Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana) are a mountain range extending along much of the length of New Zealand'sSouth Island, reaching its greatest elevations near the range's western side. The name "Southern Alps" generally refers to the entire range, although separate names are given to many of the smaller ranges that form part of it.
The range includes the South Island's Main Divide, which separates the water catchments of the more heavily populated eastern side of the island from those on the west coast. Politically, the Main Divide forms the boundary between the Marlborough, Canterbury and Otagoregions to the southeast and the Tasman and West Coast regions to the northwest. (Full article...)
The Sayan Mountains' towering peaks and cool lakes southwest of Tuva give rise to the tributaries that merge to become one of Siberia's major rivers, the Yenisei River, which flows north over 3,400 kilometres (2000 mi) to the Arctic Ocean. This is a protected and isolated area, having been kept closed by the Soviet Union since 1944. (Full article...)
The Kurze Mountains were discovered and plotted from aerial photographs taken by the Third German Antarctic Expedition under Alfred Ritscher, 1938–39, who named them for the director of the Naval Division of the former Marineleitung (German Admiralty). They were remapped by the Norsk Polarinstitutt from surveys and aerial photos taken by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition, 1956–60, and given the name "Holtedahlfjella." The correlation of the prior name (Kurze) with this feature is quite definite and is recommended for the sake of international uniformity and historical continuity. (Full article...)
The Samnaun Alps are separated from the Sesvenna Alps in the south by the Engadine Valley; from the Silvretta Alps in the west by the Fimber Pass; from the Verwall Alps and the Lechtal Alps in the north by the Paznauntal; from the Ötztal Alps in the east by the Inn valley. All the range is drained by the river Inn, through the Trisanna, Schergenbach, Brancla and Fimbabach. (Full article...)
Because Siberia is a geographic and historic concept and not a political entity, there is no single precise definition of its territorial borders. Traditionally, Siberia spans the entire expanse of land from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the Ural River usually forming the southernmost portion of its western boundary, and includes most of the drainage basin of the Arctic Ocean. It is further defined as stretching from the territories within the Arctic Circle in the north to the northern borders of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China in the south, although the hills of north-central Kazakhstan are also commonly included. The Russian government divides the region into three federal districts (groupings of Russian federal subjects), of which only the central one is officially referred to as "Siberian"; the other two are the Ural and Far Eastern federal districts, named for the Ural and Russian Far East regions that correspond respectively to the western and eastern thirds of Siberia in the broader sense.
Siberia is known for its long, harsh winters, with a January average of −25 °C (−13 °F). Although it is geographically in Asia, Russian sovereignty and colonization since the 16th century has led to perceptions of the region as culturally and ethnically European. Over 85% of its population are of European descent, chiefly Russian (comprising the Siberian sub-ethnic group), and Eastern Slavic cultural influences predominate throughout the region. Nevertheless, there exist sizable ethnic minorities of Asian lineage, including various Turkic communities—many of which, such as the Yakuts, Tuvans, Altai, and Khakas, are Indigenous—along with the MongolicBuryats, ethnic Koreans, and smaller groups of Samoyedic and Tungusic peoples (several of whom are classified as Indigenous small-numbered peoples by the Russian government), among many others. (Full article...)
The Toba Kakar or Toba Kakari (Pashto: توبه کاکړۍ; Urdu: توبہ کاکڑ) are a southern offshoot of the Sulaiman Mountains in the Balochistan province of Pakistan, extending into the Kandahar and Zabul provinces of Afghanistan. The historical route through the mountains is known as the Bolan Pass. The mountains originally received media attention in August 1979; when evidence emerged that Pakistan may be using them as a potential workspace towards development of nuclear weapons. It was an occasional hideout for the Taliban during the Afghanistan conflict.
The Heimefront Range is a range of mountains in three groups trending northeast–southwest for 65 nautical miles (120 km), situated 50 nautical miles (93 km) west-southwest of the Kirwan Escarpment in Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. The range was observed and photographed by the Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition in the course of air reconnaissance from Maudheim Station in January 1952. The name "Heimefrontfjella" (homefront range) was applied by the placename authority in the Norwegian government. This range may include the crudely mapped mountains identified as "Kottas Berge" on the map of the Third German Antarctic Expedition of 1938–39.
The Lillooet Icecap, also called the Lillooet Icefield or the Lillooet Crown, is a large icefield in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is about 90 km (56 mi) northwest of the towns of Pemberton and Whistler, and about 175 km (109 mi) north of Vancouver, British Columbia. The Lillooet Icecap is one of the largest of several large icefields in the Pacific Ranges which are the largest temperate-latitude glacial fields in the world. At its maximum extent including its glacial tongues it measures 30 km (19 mi) east to west and 20 km (12 mi) north to south; its central icefield area is approximately 15 km (9 mi) in diameter.
The Lillooet Icecap is the source of several major rivers which radiate out from it in a wheel pattern. The Lillooet River is fed by the Lillooet Glacier on the icefield's southern flank and runs southeast via Pemberton to Harrison Lake. The Bridge River is fed by the Bridge Glacier on the icefield's eastern flank and runs east to the town of Lillooet. On the icefield's north side are the Taseko River (a tributary of the Chilcotin River), the Lord and Tchaikazan Rivers (tributaries of the Taseko), and the Edmond River which feeds Chilko Lake, the source of the Chilko River, which like the Taseko is a tributary of the Chilcotin River. On the west side of the icecap are the sources of the Southgate River runs to Waddington Harbour at the head of Bute Inlet and shares a common delta with the Homathko River, and the Toba River, which runs to Toba Inlet.
The divide between the Lillooet and Southgate Rivers is on the southwestern flank of the icefield and is named Ring Pass. This was investigated for a possible route for the Canadian Pacific Railway but the survey party led by Stanley Smith was lost and never found. The Stanley Smith Glacier and Frank Smith Glacier in the central area of the Lillooet Icecap are named in their memory. Southwest of Ring Pass is the Compton Névé, another large icecap. The Lillooet Icecap and Compton Névé form one contiguous icemass, but because they are two distinct massifs of the lower elevation and active glacial movement in Ring Pass they have been customarily considered to be separate. (Full article...)
A popular historic site, Garnet Ghost Town, is in the Garnet Range. Situated on Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land, the ghost town is the remnant of a mining settlement that was inhabited from the late 1800s to the 1930s. The town's population reached several thousand during its peak. A visitor center and self-guided tours are available.
Although heavily forested, no portion of the Garnet Range is part of the National Forest system. The BLM owns much of the range, including the 11,580-acre Wales Creek Wilderness Study Area. The Wales Creek WSA is the last major drainage area without a road in the western Garnets, and features dense forests of lodgepole pine, spruce, Douglas fir, larch, aspen, and subalpine fir. Wales Creek WSA also hosts a thriving moose herd, goshawk nesting sites, a native cutthroat trout fishery, and four hot springs used in the past by miners and now by skiers and hunters.
Another BLM Wilderness Study Area is in the eastern Garnets: the 11,380-acre Hoodoo Mountain WSA. This WSA is separated from unprotected BLM land in the Gallagher Creek drainage by a dirt road. Petrified wood is found along streams in the Gallagher Creek area.
On the southern slope of the Garnets near the town of Drummond, the BLM's Rattler Gulch Area of Critical Environmental Concern protects 20 acres of exposed Madison Group limestone cliffs. Parking is provided, as Rattler Gulch is a popular rock-climbing area.
The Port Hills (Māori: Ngā Kohatu Whakarakaraka o Tamatea Pōkai Whenua) are a range of hills in Canterbury Region of New Zealand, so named because they lie between the city of Christchurch and its port at Lyttelton. They are an eroded remnant of the Lyttelton volcano, which erupted millions of years ago.
The hills start at Godley Head, run approximately east–west along the northern side of Lyttelton Harbour, and continue running to the south, dividing the city from the harbour. The range terminates near Gebbies Pass above the head of the harbour. The range includes a number of summits between 300 and 500 metres above sea level. The range is of significant geological, environmental and scenic importance. (Full article...)
The Massif de la Hotte (French pronunciation:[masifdəlaɔt]) is a mountain range in southwestern Haiti, on the Tiburon Peninsula. About 2.5 million years ago, Massif de la Hotte was separated from the Massif de la Selle by a deep, wide sea channel, and formed a separate island. This resulted in a hotbed of endemism in la Hotte's bird, plant, and reptile communities. The Massif de la Hotte is subdivided into the Oriental la Hotte in the East, the central la Hotte, and the Occidental la Hotte on the western tip of the Tiburon peninsula. The Occidental la Hotte is relatively remote and is one of the most biologically diverse and significant areas of all of Hispaniola. It also supports some of the last stands of Haiti's dense cloud forest on its peaks. (Full article...)
The Coast Mountains are approximately 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) long and average 300 kilometres (190 mi) in width. The range's southern and southeastern boundaries are surrounded by the Fraser River and the Interior Plateau while its far northwestern edge is delimited by the Kelsall and Tatshenshini Rivers at the north end of the Alaska Panhandle, beyond which are the Saint Elias Mountains, and by Champagne Pass in the Yukon Territory. Covered in dense temperate rainforest on its western exposures, the range rises to heavily glaciated peaks, including the largest temperate-latitude ice fields in the world. On its eastern flanks, the range tapers to the dry Interior Plateau and the subarctic boreal forests of the Skeena Mountains and Stikine Plateau.
The Coast Mountains are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire—the ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Ocean—and contain some of British Columbia's highest mountains. Mount Waddington is the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains and the highest that lies entirely within British Columbia, located northeast of the head of Knight Inlet with an elevation of 4,019 metres (13,186 ft). (Full article...)
{{ Transclude list item excerpts as random slideshow | List of dams and reservoirs | section=Africa | sectiononly=yes }} Should pick only the international dams
The Tsiazompaniry Dam is a buttress dam on the Varahina-South River, a tributary of the Ikopa River, near Tsiazompaniry in the Analamanga Region of Madagascar. The dam was constructed by a French firm in 1956. It creates Lake Tsiazompaniry, the largest reservoir in the country, which has a surface area of 31 km2 (12 sq mi) and a storage volume of 260,000,000 m3 (210,000 acre⋅ft). A second buttress dam, 1 km (0.62 mi) northwest of the main dam helps withhold the reservoir. Water released from the dam supplies a regulated flow to hydroelectric power station at the Antelomita Dam downstream. Efforts to install a 5.25 MW power station at the base of the dam began in 2011. (Full article...)
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Mohale Dam is a concrete faced rock-filldam in Lesotho. It is the second dam, under Phase 1B of the series of dams of the proposed Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which will eventually include five large dams in remote rural areas of Lesotho and South Africa. The project has been built at a cost of US$1.5 billion.
The Mohale Dam was awarded the 2005 Fulton Awards by the Concrete Society of South Africa as having the "Best Construction Engineering Project and Best Construction Technique." (Full article...)
An assessment of the dam's stability, taken out in the year 2004, revealed 19 stability and safety issues, mainly due to deferred maintenance. However, the main dam structure was in a stable condition at that time. (Full article...)
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Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. Construction of the dam by Impregilo (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) began in 1964 and was completed in 1968. Its total cost was estimated at US$209 million (equivalent to about US$1.5 billion in 2023 dollars), with one-quarter of this amount used to resettle people displaced by the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake. (Full article...)
The Keddara Dam, or Barrage Keddara, is an embankment dam 6 km (4 mi) northwest of Keddara on the Boudouaou River in Boumerdès Province, Algeria. Constructed between 1982 and 1987 by Yugoslav company Hidrotehnika, the primary purpose of the dam is water supply for irrigation and municipal use in Algiers which is located 35 km (22 mi) to the west. The dam's reservoir has a capacity of 146,500,000 m3 (118,769 acre⋅ft) which is collected from drainage and the Hamiz Dam 7.6 km (5 mi) to the west and the Beni Amrane Dam 17 km (11 mi) to the east. (Full article...)
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Lake Mutirikwi, originally known as Lake Kyle or Kyle Dam, lies in south eastern Zimbabwe, south east of Masvingo. It is thought to have been named after Kyle Farm which occupied most of the land required for the lake, which in turn was named after the Kyle district in Scotland from which the pioneer of the Lowveld, Tom Murray MacDougall came originally.
The lake covers about 90 km2 (35 sq mi) and was created in 1960 with the construction of the Kyle Dam on the Mutirikwi River. The dam was built by Concor to provide water to the farming estates on the lowveld to the southwest, around the town of Triangle, where the main crop has been sugar cane.
In the 1980s, drought drastically lowered the water level in the lake, but during the 1990s it recovered. The level fluctuates widely due to irrigation demands and the seasonal rainfall. (Full article...)
The Sidi El Barrak Dam is an embankment dam centred 18 km (11 mi) northeast of Tabarka and 2 km (1 mi) from the Mediterranean Sea on the Oued Zouara River in the Beja Governorate, Tunisia. Constructed between 1994 and 2000, the primary purpose of the dam is water supply. As part of the Sidi el Barrak Development Project, water stored in the dam is pumped to the Seyjame Dam, at a rate of 265,000,000 m3 (214,839 acre⋅ft) annually. This water is supplied to Tunis, Cap Bon and the Sahel including Sfax for municipal use as well as agricultural purposes. The entire project was completed in 2002. (Full article...)
The Gwenoro Dam is located inside Gwenoro Farm, an estate formerly owned by Ian Douglas Smith (1919-2007), a former Prime Minister of Rhodesia. The farm was seized in stages by the Government of Zimbabwe from Ian Smith and his family between 2002 and December 2012. The Gwenoro Dam supplies water to nearby Gweru and Shurugwi in Zimbabwe. The dam is constructed on the Runde River (formerly Lundi River; a medium density suburb in Gweru is named after the river (Lundi Park)). The name Gwenoro is derived from a wild animal found in the area known in the local language of Shona as Nhoro (gweNORO), which means a 'place inhabited by Nhoro'(kudu). The area is very beautiful and picturesque. The dam is full from January to June. Fish co-operatives are sprouting around the banks of this river. ZIMASCO used to run a mine club but has since stopped. What remains are only buildings. (Full article...)
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The Neckartal Dam, nicknamed the Desert Dragon, is a dam in the Berseba Constituency of Namibia's southern ǁKaras Region. It is a curved gravity dam on the Fish River near Berseba, c. 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of the regional capital Keetmanshoop. Construction started in 2013 and was initially expected to finish in 2017. Since its completion in 2018, it is the largest dam in Namibia, more than three times the capacity of the Hardap Dam upstream. The dam's purpose is to support a 5,000 hectares (12,000 acres) irrigation scheme which has yet to be established. (Full article...)
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The Kpong Dam, also known as the Akuse Dam, is a hydroelectric power generating dam on the lower Volta River near Akuse in Ghana. It is owned and operated by Volta River Authority. It was constructed between 1977 and 1982. Its power station has a capacity of 148 megawatts (198,000 hp) with all four units running, though the total nameplate capacity is 160 megawatts (210,000 hp).
The project supplements power production from Akosombo Dam, for the melting of aluminium at VALCO in Tema. The project is located about 24 kilometres (15 mi) downstream of Akosombo Dam, and is about 80 kilometres (50 mi) from the city of Accra.
Because the reservoir upstream of the dam is relatively small, the plant operates as a "run-of-the-river" project, with river flow controlled at Akosombo. The design head of water at the plant is 11.75 metres (38.5 ft); the low head required the use of unusually large turbines for their power rating, with a Francis runner diameter of 8.2 metres (27 ft). The powerhouse is 148 metres (486 ft) long, 40 metres (130 ft) wide and 64 metres (210 ft). The main dam is made of earth with rockfill facing and is 18 metres (59 ft) high and 240 metres (790 ft) long. Dikes on the banks are 2,100 and 3,500 metres (6,900 and 11,500 ft) long. The spillway has a design capacity of 20,000 cubic metres per second (710,000 cu ft/s) and has 15 radial gates, each 11 metres (36 ft) wide by 13.5 metres (44 ft) high, with a total length of 280 metres (920 ft). The civil contractor for the project was Impregilo of Italy. Other components of the project include a 161 kV switchyard and transmission lines, four villages constructed to house people displaced by the project, and road construction.
In addition to power generation, the project provides irrigation water for agriculture, and municipal water supply. Bilharzia is a health hazard in the region which has increased since the construction of the dam. (Full article...)
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The Kapichira Power Station is a hydroelectric power plant at the Kapachira Falls on the Shire River in Malawi. It has an installed capacity of 128 megawatts (172,000 hp), enough to power over 86,000 homes, with four 32 megawatts (43,000 hp) generating sets. The power station was developed in stages, with the first phase involving the installation of the first two 32 megawatts-generating turbines. Phase I of the power station was officially opened in September 2000.
In January 2014, in a ceremony attended by the president of Malawi at that time, Joyce Banda, the second phase of the Kapichira hydropower project was switched on, doubling the hitherto 64 megawatts to the maximum capacity of 128 megawatts. (Full article...)
The Al Massira Dam is a gravity dam located 70 kilometres (43 mi) south of Settat on the Oum Er-Rbia River in Settat Province, Morocco. Completed in 1979, the dam provides water for the irrigation of over 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) of farmland in the Doukkala region. The dam's hydroelectric power plant also generates 221 gigawatt-hours (800 TJ) on average annually. The power station was commissioned in 1980. Just north of the dam is a rip rap saddle dam that supports water elevation in the reservoir. (Full article...)
The dam consisted of a core of earth and rubble faced with mortared blocks of cut stone. The upstream face is vertical, while the downstream side steps down through six courses and then continues vertically for 3.8 m. The thickness at the crest is 4.9 m, and at the base 7.3 m. (Full article...)
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The Garafiri Dam is an embankment dam on the Konkouré River which forms the boundary between the Kindia and Mamou Regions of Guinea. The dam was constructed by Salini Impregilo between 1995 and 1999 for the purpose of hydroelectric power generation and water supply. The power station had a breakdown in 2002 but was repaired shortly afterwards. The power station has an installed capacity of 75 megawatts (101,000 hp). (Full article...)
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Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is a 183.2 megawatts (245,700 hp) hydroelectric power station commissioned on 21 March 2019 in Uganda. Construction of this dam began in April 2015 and was completed in January 2019. Commercial operations began on 21 March 2019. (Full article...)
The Kariba Dam is a double curvature concrete arch dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The dam stands 128 metres (420 ft) tall and 579 metres (1,900 ft) long. The dam forms Lake Kariba, which extends for 280 kilometres (170 mi) and holds 185 cubic kilometres (150,000,000 acre⋅ft) of water. (Full article...)
Dragon Lee, (born August 12, 1958) originally known in South Korea as Keo Ryong (거룡, literally "Giant Dragon") and born Moon Kyoung-seok, is an actor and practitioner of taekwondo and hapkido. He made a name for himself as a martial arts film star in the 1970s and 80s. (Full article...)
Bruce Lee: The Lost Interview is the name given to the 9 December 1971 edition of The Pierre Berton Show, which featured martial artist/actor Bruce Lee in his only English speaking television interview. Its title is derived from its status; it was presumed lost for several years until its rediscovery and airing on 2 November 1994. Over the course of the interview, which was filmed in Hong Kong, Bruce Lee and Pierre Berton discuss Lee's career, various aspects of martial arts philosophy and the inherent problems faced by an Asian in pursuing stardom in Hollywood. A review of the interview by Bill Stockey said that Bruce Lee's "human side is exposed and he is portrayed as more approachable". (Full article...)
Kato is a fictional character from The Green Hornet franchise. This character has appeared with the Green Hornet in radio, film, television, book and comic book versions. Kato is the Green Hornet's crime-fighting sidekick, and Britt Reid's manservant in civilian life, and has been played by a number of actors. On radio, Kato was initially played by Raymond Hayashi, then Roland Parker who had the role for most of the run, and in the later years Mickey Tolan and Paul Carnegie. Keye Luke took the role in the movie serials, and in the television series, he was portrayed by Bruce Lee. Jay Chou played Kato in the 2011 Green Hornet film. (Full article...)
Brandon Bruce Lee (February 1, 1965 – March 31, 1993) was an American actor. Establishing himself as a rising action star in the early 1990s, he landed what was to be his breakthrough role as Eric Draven in the supernatural superhero film The Crow (1994). However, Lee's career and life were cut short by his accidental death during the film's production.
Transitioning to Hollywood productions, Lee first starred in the Warner Brosbuddy cop film Showdown in Little Tokyo (1991), co-starring Dolph Lundgren. While it did not do well with audiences and critics upon its release, it later became a cult film. This was followed by a leading role in Rapid Fire (1992), produced by 20th Century Fox. Lee, alongside Jeff Imada, is also credited for the fight choreography, which contained elements of Jeet Kune Do. Though the film was not well-received, critics praised Lee's onscreen presence. (Full article...)
Announced in July 2017, it is the first (and currently only) Tarantino film not to involve Bob and Harvey Weinstein, as Tarantino ended his partnership with the brothers following the sexual abuse allegations against Harvey Weinstein. After a bidding war, the film was distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing, which met Tarantino's demands, including final cut privilege. Pitt, DiCaprio, Robbie, Zoë Bell, Kurt Russell and others joined the cast between January and June 2018. Principal photography lasted from June through November around Los Angeles. Once Upon a Time in Hollywood is the final film to feature Luke Perry, who died on March 4, 2019, and it is dedicated to his memory.
Once Upon a Time in Hollywood premiered at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival on May 21, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 26, and in the United Kingdom on August 14. It grossed over $392 million worldwide and received acclaim from critics, although historical accuracies and artists were criticized. The National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named Once Upon a Time in Hollywood one of the top-ten films of 2019, and it won the Golden Globe for Best Picture - Comedy. Once Upon a Time in Hollywood was nominated for ten awards at the 92nd Academy Awards, winning two (Best Supporting Actor for Pitt and Best Production Design), and received numerous other accolades. It has since been considered as one of the best films of the 2010s and 21st century. The Writers Guild of America ranked the film's screenplay the 22nd greatest of the 21st century. Tarantino has stated that Once Upon a Time in Hollywood is his favorite film of those he has made. (Full article...)
Chinese Gung Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self-Defense was published in early 1963 by Bruce Lee with the help of friend and fellow martial artist James Yimm Lee of Oakland, California. James had previously published books on the martial arts such as Modern Gung Fu, Karate: Iron, Poison Hand Training and Karate Oriental Self-Defense in 1957. In the book Remembering the Master: Bruce Lee, James Yimm Lee and the Creation of Jeet Kune Do by Sid Campbell and Greglon Yimm Lee (James Lee's son) it is stated the initial run was 1,500 copies. The book was sold through James Lee's company Oriental Book Sales at a price of $5. In addition to the book, a companion Chinese Gung Fu instruction chart was available for $1.
Following Bruce Lee's death, his estate commissioned writer John Little to edit and publish some of Lee's writings. Little included the content of Chinese Gung Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self-Defense as well as additional 1964 writings by Bruce Lee in the book Bruce Lee, The Tao of Gung Fu: Commentaries on the Chinese Martial Arts. (Full article...)
The Way of the Dragon was released in Hong Kong on 30 December 1972, and in the United States in August 1974. The film went on to gross an estimated US$130 million worldwide (equivalent to over $700 million adjusted for inflation), against a tight budget of $130,000, earning a thousand times its budget. It was the highest-grossing Hong Kong film up until Lee's next film Enter the Dragon (1973).
The film is primarily set in a restaurant in Rome. The owners are being harassed by a local crime boss, and request help from a relative in Hong Kong. The help arrives in the form of a young martial artist. The conflict between the restaurant staff and the gangsters soon escalates. (Full article...)
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Bruce Lee is a platform game written by Ron J. Fortier for Atari 8-bit computers and published in 1984 by Datasoft. The graphics are done by Kelly Day and music is done by John A. Fitzpatrick. The player takes the role of Bruce Lee, while a second player controls either Yamo or alternates with player one for control of Bruce Lee.
The Commodore 64 and Apple II versions were released the same year. The game was converted to the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC and published by U.S. Gold. It was the first U.S. Gold release featuring a famous individual. The MSX version was published in 1985 by Comptiq. (Full article...)
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41 Cumberland Road in 2008, operating at that time as a love hotel. 41 Cumberland Road is the address of Bruce Lee's former home in Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, where he spent his last year with his family. The place was affectionately known as "the Crane's Nest".
Chen Zhen (陳真; 陈真; Chén Zhēn; Can4 Zan1) is a fictional character created by Hong Kong writer Ni Kuang. First portrayed by Bruce Lee in the 1972 film Fist of Fury, the character has been the subject of numerous film and television series, including remakes and adaptations of Fist of Fury. Many notable actors, including Jet Li and Donnie Yen, have portrayed Chen Zhen on screen after Bruce Lee. Although Chen Zhen's story varies in the different remakes and adaptations, most have an ending similar to the original Fist of Fury. Chen Zhen is believed to be based on Liu Zhensheng (劉振聲), an apprentice of Huo Yuanjia, a martial artist who lived during the late Qing dynasty of China. (Full article...)
In April 2019, Cinemax renewed the series for a second season which premiered on October 2, 2020. It was Cinemax's final series before ceasing production of original programming. In April 2021, the series was renewed for a third season, along with the announcement that the series would move to HBO Max, later rebranded to Max. The third season premiered on Max on June 29, 2023. In December 2023, the series was canceled after three seasons. (Full article...)
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Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story is a 1993 American biographicaldrama film directed by Rob Cohen. The film stars Jason Scott Lee, with a supporting cast including Lauren Holly, Nancy Kwan, and Robert Wagner. The film follows the life of actor and martial artist Bruce Lee (Jason) from his relocation to the United States from Hong Kong to his career as a martial arts teacher, and then as a television and film actor. It also focuses on the relationship between Bruce and his wife Linda, and the racism to which Bruce was subjected.
The primary source of the screenplay is Cadwell's 1975 biography Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew. Other sources include Robert Clouse's book Bruce Lee: The Biography and research by Cohen, including interviews with Cadwell and Bruce's son, Brandon Lee. Rather than a traditional biographical film, Cohen decided to include elements of mysticism and to dramatise fight scenes to give it the same tone as the films in which Bruce starred. Dragon was filmed primarily in Hong Kong, Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story received generally positive reviews, with critics finding it entertaining despite criticisms of its veneration of Bruce. Jason was widely praised for his performance. The film was a commercial success and its revenue exceeded box office averages for biographical films, which was attributed to its romantic themes and its appeal to people outside the traditional kung fu film audience. A video game adaptation of the same name was released the following year. Dragon is dedicated to Brandon, who died several weeks before its release. (Full article...)
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Martial artist and actor Bruce Lee has been subject to extensive media coverage. (Full article...)
Bruce Lee's Fighting Method is a book of volumes covering Bruce Lee's martial arts abilities of the Jeet Kune Do movement. The book is available as a single hardcover volume or a series of four paperback volumes. The text describes Bruce Lee's Kung Fufighting techniques, philosophy and training methods. This book was originally written in 1966 by Bruce Lee. However, Lee decided not to publish this work as he feared that instructors would use the fighting knowledge in this text to promote themselves. In 1978, after Bruce Lee's death, his widow Linda Lee Cadwell decided to make available the information on her husband's work. Lee's death changed the perspective of releasing the information that Bruce Lee himself had vacillated about. The book was published with the help of Mitoshi Uyehara. Uyehara was the founder and owner of Black Belt Magazine. During the early years of the publication, Uyehara served as the publisher. Bruce Lee contributed many articles to the publication during the 1960s and a friendship ensued between the two men. Uyehara, a martial artist in his own right, was a key personage in arranging Lee's material for publication. (Full article...)
Each issue had comics stories featuring these characters, both single-issue stories and multi-issue story arcs. Most issues also included a review of a recent martial arts film. Other issues had interviews with martial arts instructors, while others had interviews with movie or television celebrities related to martial arts.
Early issues had a martial arts instructional section which described some elementary fighting techniques. These were provided by comics illustrator/martial artist Frank McLaughlin. The magazine was in black-and-white except for the cover. The cost of the magazine was 75 cents for issues #1–14. Issue #15 was a Super Annual (all reprints) issue and cost $1.25. Issues #16–33 were $1.00, as well as the 1974 Kung Fu Special (summer 1974); cover-titled Special Album Edition: The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu. Issue #28 (Sept. 1976) was an all-Bruce Lee special, including a 35-page comic book format biography written by Martin Sands, and drawn by Joe Staton and Tony DeZuniga. (Full article...)
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41 Cumberland Road in 2008, operating at that time as a love hotel. 41 Cumberland Road is the address of Bruce Lee's former home in Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, where he spent his last year with his family. The place was affectionately known as "the Crane's Nest".
The straight blast is a martial arts technique popularized by Bruce Lee and associated with Wing Chun Kung Fu and Jeet Kune Do. It is one of Bruce Lee's most famous signature moves, and an international federation of gyms have been named after the technique.
The technique operates on the principle of using a sustained offense as a means of forcing an opponent to move on the defensive. The move consists of putting both fists perpendicularly above one another and moving them in a circular motion (starting forward and downward) in a tight formation with fists kept facing forward bent at the wrist outward and clenched vertically, compounded with running toward an opponent. This is intended to throw off the opponent while effectively dealing a barrage of centrifugally forced punches toward the center of the opponent's mass. A poorly executed or premature straight blast attack can usually be effectively countered by one or more kicks to the attacker's shin, knee, or groin.
In some of his books, Bruce Lee mentions how boxers would scoff at this 'funny' looking technique, but when they were not expecting it in sparring matches, they would take the brunt of the attack, be thrown off guard and defeated. (Full article...)
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Martial artist and actor Bruce Lee has been subject to extensive media coverage. (Full article...)
Outline of underwater diving § Modes of underwater diving
Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth Saturation diving is a technique used for deep-sea diving that allows divers to stay at great depths for extended periods. It works by bringing all body tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of inert gases in the breathing mixture. This method significantly reduces the number of decompressions required, as divers only undergo decompression once—at the end of the operation—which can last from several days to weeks.
When a diver breathes pressurized gas, inert gases dissolve into the body's tissues. These gases are necessary to dilute oxygen to non-toxic levels, but if they come out of solution too quickly, they can cause decompression sickness ("the bends"), a potentially fatal condition. To prevent this, divers must follow a controlled decompression process, allowing inert gases to be safely eliminated through the lungs. However, once a diver’s tissues reach full saturation, no additional inert gas accumulates, meaning decompression time remains the same regardless of further exposure..
Saturation diving takes advantage of this by having divers remain in that saturated state. When not in the water, the divers live in a sealed environment which maintains their pressurised state; this can be an ambient pressure underwater habitat or a saturation system at the surface, with transfer to and from the pressurised living quarters to the equivalent depth underwater via a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and divers are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, and using a conservative decompression schedule the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the total time spent decompressing is minimized. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, and limit work of breathing, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures.
Most of the physiological and medical aspects of diving to the same depths are much the same in saturation and bell-bounce ambient pressure diving, or are less of a problem, but there are medical and psychological effects of living under saturation for extended periods.
Saturation diving is a specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, 336 were saturation divers. Special training and certification is required, as the activity is inherently hazardous, and a set of standard operating procedures, emergency procedures, and a range of specialised equipment is used to control the risk, that require consistently correct performance by all the members of an extended diving team. The combination of relatively large skilled personnel requirements, complex engineering, and bulky, heavy equipment required to support a saturation diving project make it an expensive diving mode, but it allows direct human intervention at places that would not otherwise be practical, and where it is applied, it is generally more economically viable than other options, if such exist. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, making longer dives feasible. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption. They produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.
Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment for breathing gas security when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.
2nd Reconnaissance Battalion combat diver training with the Dräger LAR V rebreather
Rebreather diving is underwater diving using diving rebreathers, a class of underwater breathing apparatus which recirculate the breathing gas exhaled by the diver after replacing the oxygen used and removing the carbon dioxide metabolic product. Rebreather diving is practiced by recreational, military and scientific divers in applications where it has advantages over open circuit scuba, and surface supply of breathing gas is impracticable. The main advantages of rebreather diving are extended gas endurance, low noise levels, and lack of bubbles.
Rebreathers are generally used for scuba applications, but are also occasionally used for bailout systems for surface-supplied diving. Gas reclaim systems used for deep heliox diving use similar technology to rebreathers, as do saturation divinglife-support systems, but in these applications the gas recycling equipment is not carried by the diver. Atmospheric diving suits also carry rebreather technology to recycle breathing gas as part of the life-support system, but this article covers the procedures of ambient pressure diving using rebreathers carried by the diver.
Rebreathers are generally more complex to use than open circuit scuba, and have more potential points of failure, so acceptably safe use requires a greater level of skill, attention and situational awareness, which is usually derived from understanding the systems, diligent maintenance and overlearning the practical skills of operation and fault recovery. Fault tolerant design can make a rebreather less likely to fail in a way that immediately endangers the user, and reduces the task loading on the diver which in turn may lower the risk of operator error. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace
Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done.
In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans.
The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur.
Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...)
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A freediver on the ocean floor Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving, is a mode of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.
Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Atmospheric diving suit
An atmospheric diving suit (ADS), or single atmosphere diving suit is a small one-person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. An ADS can enable diving at depths of up to 2,300 feet (700 m) for many hours by eliminating the majority of significant physiological dangers associated with deep diving. The occupant of an ADS does not need to decompress, and there is no need for special breathing gas mixtures, so there is little danger of decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis when the ADS is functioning properly. An ADS can permit less skilled swimmers to complete deep dives, albeit at the expense of dexterity.
Atmospheric diving suits in current use include the Newtsuit, Exosuit, Hardsuit and the WASP, all of which are self-contained hard suits that incorporate propulsion units. The Hardsuit is constructed from cast aluminum (forged aluminum in a version constructed for the US Navy for submarine rescue); the upper hull is made from cast aluminum, while the bottom dome is machined aluminum. The WASP is of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body tube construction. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace
Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done.
In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans.
The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur.
Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, making longer dives feasible. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption. They produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.
Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment for breathing gas security when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth Saturation diving is a technique used for deep-sea diving that allows divers to stay at great depths for extended periods. It works by bringing all body tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of inert gases in the breathing mixture. This method significantly reduces the number of decompressions required, as divers only undergo decompression once—at the end of the operation—which can last from several days to weeks.
When a diver breathes pressurized gas, inert gases dissolve into the body's tissues. These gases are necessary to dilute oxygen to non-toxic levels, but if they come out of solution too quickly, they can cause decompression sickness ("the bends"), a potentially fatal condition. To prevent this, divers must follow a controlled decompression process, allowing inert gases to be safely eliminated through the lungs. However, once a diver’s tissues reach full saturation, no additional inert gas accumulates, meaning decompression time remains the same regardless of further exposure..
Saturation diving takes advantage of this by having divers remain in that saturated state. When not in the water, the divers live in a sealed environment which maintains their pressurised state; this can be an ambient pressure underwater habitat or a saturation system at the surface, with transfer to and from the pressurised living quarters to the equivalent depth underwater via a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and divers are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, and using a conservative decompression schedule the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the total time spent decompressing is minimized. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, and limit work of breathing, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures.
Most of the physiological and medical aspects of diving to the same depths are much the same in saturation and bell-bounce ambient pressure diving, or are less of a problem, but there are medical and psychological effects of living under saturation for extended periods.
Saturation diving is a specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, 336 were saturation divers. Special training and certification is required, as the activity is inherently hazardous, and a set of standard operating procedures, emergency procedures, and a range of specialised equipment is used to control the risk, that require consistently correct performance by all the members of an extended diving team. The combination of relatively large skilled personnel requirements, complex engineering, and bulky, heavy equipment required to support a saturation diving project make it an expensive diving mode, but it allows direct human intervention at places that would not otherwise be practical, and where it is applied, it is generally more economically viable than other options, if such exist. (Full article...)
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A freediver on the ocean floor Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving, is a mode of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.
Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
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Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
Image 8
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.
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