View source for Android (operating system)

{{Short description|Operating system for mobile devices}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox OS
| name = Android
| logo = Android 2023 3D logo and wordmark.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| logo caption = Wordmark and logo used since 2023
| logo size = 270px
| logo alt = A flat robot head, a green semicircle with antennas and small holes for eyes
| screenshot = 
| screenshot_size = 
| caption = 
| collapsible = 
| developer = [[Open Handset Alliance]] (led by [[Google]])
| family = [[Unix-like]] (modified [[Linux kernel]])
| working state = Active
| source model = [[Open source software|Open source]], [[freeware]] (most devices include [[proprietary software|proprietary]] components, such as [[Google Mobile Services]])
| released = [[Android 1.0]] / {{Start date and age|2008|9|23}}
| latest preview version = 
| latest preview date = 
| latest release version = [[Android 16]]
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2025|06|10}}
| marketing target = [[Smartphone]]s, [[tablet computer]]s, [[smart TV]]s ([[Android TV]]), cars ([[Android Automotive]]) and [[smartwatch]]es ([[Wear OS]])
| programmed in = [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Kotlin (programming language)|Kotlin]] (UI), [[C (programming language)|C]] (core), [[C++]], [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://security.googleblog.com/2022/12/memory-safe-languages-in-android-13.html | title=Memory Safe Languages in Android 13 | access-date=April 5, 2024 | archive-date=March 30, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330020553/https://security.googleblog.com/2022/12/memory-safe-languages-in-android-13.html | url-status=live }}</ref> and others
| language = <!-- Supported human languages (English, French, Italian, Arabic, ...) -->
| language count = 100+ <!--7.0 has "100 new languages", so 170? or just 100[+]? -->
| update model = [[Over-the-air update|Over-the-air]]
| package manager = [[apk (file format)|APK]]-based
| supported platforms = [[ARM architecture family#32-bit architecture|ARMv7]], [[ARM64]], [[x86]], [[x86-64]]

No longer supported:

[[ARM architecture family#32-bit architecture|ARMv5]], [[ARM architecture family#32-bit architecture|ARMv6]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Android ABIs |url=https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/abis |website=Android Developers |access-date=October 12, 2025}}</ref>
| kernel type = [[Monolithic kernel|Monolithic]] ([[Linux kernel]])
| userland = [[Bionic (software)|Bionic libc]], [[KornShell|mksh]] shell, [[Toybox]] as core utilities <!-- Toybox in all currently supported, i.e. not in 6.0 and earlier: previously native core utilities with a few from [[NetBSD]] -->
| ui = [[Graphical user interface|Graphical]] ([[multi-touch]])
| license = {{unbulleted list|[[Apache License]] 2.0 for userspace software|[[GNU GPL]] v2 for the [[Linux kernel]] modifications}}
| website = {{url|https://www.android.com/|android.com}}
| support_status = [[Android 13]] and later supported
| other articles = [[Android version history]]
}}

'''Android''' is an [[operating system]] based on a modified version of the [[Linux kernel]] and other [[open-source software]], designed primarily for [[touchscreen]]-based mobile devices such as [[smartphone]]s and [[tablet computer]]s. Android has historically been developed by a [[consortium]] of [[software development|developers]] known as the [[Open Handset Alliance]], but its most widely used version is primarily developed by [[Google]]. First released in 2008, Android is the world's [[Usage share of operating systems|most widely used operating system]]; it is the most used operating system for smartphones, and [[#Platform information|also most used for tablets]];<ref name="tablet stats" /> the latest version, released on June 10, 2025, is [[Android 16]].<!--END Brief introduction; do not overload this section-->

<!--Brief info about the OS and structure.-->At its core, the operating system is known as the '''Android Open Source Project''' ('''AOSP''')<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=July 21, 2018 |title=Google's iron grip on Android: Controlling open source by any means necessary |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/07/googles-iron-grip-on-android-controlling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/ |access-date=December 31, 2022 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=July 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719122103/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-on-android-controlling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and is [[free and open-source software]] (FOSS) primarily licensed under the [[Apache License]]. However, most devices run the [[proprietary software|proprietary]] Android version developed by Google, which ships with additional proprietary closed-source software pre-installed,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/android-really-open-source-matter/|title=Is Android Really Open Source? And Does It Even Matter?|website=MakeUseOf|date=March 28, 2016|access-date=October 9, 2019|archive-date=October 9, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009154235/https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/android-really-open-source-matter/|url-status=live}}</ref> most notably [[Google Mobile Services]] (GMS),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.android.com/gms/|title=Android – Google Mobile Services|website=Android|quote=While the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) provides common, device-level functionalities such as email and calling, GMS is not part of AOSP. GMS is only available through a license with Google [..] We ask GMS partners to pass a simple compatibility test and adhere to our compatibility requirements for their Android devices.|access-date=October 21, 2018|archive-date=February 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209174000/https://www.android.com/gms/|url-status=live}}</ref> which includes core apps such as [[Google Chrome]], the [[digital distribution]] platform [[Google Play]], and the associated [[Google Play Services]] development platform. [[Firebase Cloud Messaging]] is used for push notifications. While AOSP is free, the "Android" name and logo are [[Trademark|trademarks]] of Google, who restrict the use of Android branding on "uncertified" products.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://source.android.com/setup/start/faqs |access-date=January 4, 2021 |publisher=Android Open Source Project |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116115413/https://source.android.com/setup/start/faqs |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Simon |first=Michael |date=December 26, 2016 |title=With Cyanogen dead, Google's control over Android is tighter than ever |url=https://www.greenbot.com/article/3153485/with-cyanogen-dead-googles-control-over-android-is-tighter-than-ever.html |access-date=January 4, 2021 |website=www.greenbot.com |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108153457/https://www.greenbot.com/article/3153485/with-cyanogen-dead-googles-control-over-android-is-tighter-than-ever.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority of smartphones based on AOSP run Google's ecosystem—which is known simply as Android—some with [[vendor]]-customized user interfaces and software suites,<ref>{{cite web |last=Hughes |first=Terry |date=July 28, 2014 |title=Google and Android Are Not the Same... and That's a Good Thing |url=https://appdevelopermagazine.com/google-and-android-are-not-the-same...-and-that%27s-a-good-thing/ |access-date=July 29, 2020 |work=App Developer Magazine |archive-date=September 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920212049/https://appdevelopermagazine.com/google-and-android-are-not-the-same...-and-that%27s-a-good-thing/ |url-status=live }}</ref> for example [[One UI]]. Numerous [[List of custom Android distributions|modified distributions]] exist, which include competing [[Fire OS|Amazon Fire OS]], community-developed [[LineageOS]]; the source code has also been used to develop a variety of Android distributions on a range of other devices, such as [[Android TV]] for televisions, [[Wear OS]] for [[Wearable computer|wearables]], and [[Meta Horizon OS]] for [[virtual reality headset|VR headsets]]. <!--END Brief info about the OS and structure.-->

<!--Brief description Beyond smartphones and current status-->Software packages on Android, which use the [[apk (file format)|APK]] format, are generally distributed through a proprietary [[application store]]; non-Google platforms include vendor-specific [[Amazon Appstore]], [[Samsung Galaxy Store]], [[Huawei AppGallery]], and third-party companies [[Aptoide]], [[Cafe Bazaar]], [[GetJar]] or open source [[F-Droid]]. Since 2011 Android has been the most used operating system worldwide on smartphones. It has the largest [[installed base]] of any operating system in the world<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cranz |first=Alex |date=May 18, 2021 |title=There are over 3 billion active Android devices |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/5/18/22440813/android-devices-active-number-smartphones-google-2021 |access-date=March 24, 2022 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324154141/https://www.theverge.com/2021/5/18/22440813/android-devices-active-number-smartphones-google-2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> with over three billion [[monthly active users]]{{Efn|As of May 2021}} and accounting for 46% of the global operating system market.{{Efn|As of November 2024.}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-02 |title=Desktop, Mobile & Tablet Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop-mobile-tablet/worldwide/#monthly-202411-202411-bar |access-date=2024-12-02 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref><!--END Brief desc. beyond smartphones and current status--><!--Do not add additional paragraphs; keep the introduction simple and concise.-->

== History<!--Android Inc and Android Inc. redirect here--> ==
{{See also|Android version history}}

=== 2000s ===
'''Android Inc.'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> was founded in [[Palo Alto, California]], in October 2003 by [[Andy Rubin]] and Chris White, with [[Rich Miner]] and Nick Sears<ref>{{cite web |title=Google's Android OS: Past, Present, and Future |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Googles-Android-OS-Past-Present-and-Future_id21273 |website=PhoneArena |date=August 18, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313044444/http://www.phonearena.com/news/Googles-Android-OS-Past-Present-and-Future_id21273 |archive-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Google Buys Android">{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Elgin |title=Google Buys Android for Its Mobile Arsenal |url=http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2005/tc20050817_0949_tc024.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205190729/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2005/tc20050817_0949_tc024.htm |website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]  |date=August 17, 2005 |archive-date=February 5, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017}}</ref> joining later. Rubin had previously been the creator of the [[T-Mobile Sidekick]] under his previous company [[Danger, Inc.]]<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ganapati |first=Priya |title=T-Mobile's G1 Android Phone: Neither Open nor Exciting |url=https://www.wired.com/2008/09/g1-android-phon/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Markoff |first=John |date=2007-11-04 |title=I, Robot: The Man Behind the Google Phone |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/04/technology/04google.html |access-date=2025-05-30 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=July 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722030904/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/04/technology/04google.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Rubin and White started out to build an operating system for [[digital camera]]s viz ''FotoFrame''. The company name was changed to ''Android'' as Rubin already owned the [[domain name]] <code>android.com</code>. After having built a prototype internally known as the "Fadden demo" predominantly by purchasing licensing agreements for most of the software components built around a custom [[JavaScript]] front-end, the company failed to convince investors, and so in April 2004 they pivoted to building an operating system for phones at the suggestion of Nick Sears,<ref name=hasse1>{{cite book |title=Androids: The Team that Built Android Operating System |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qyc9EAAAQBAJ |last=Haase |first=Chet |chapter=Android the... Camera OS? |date=August 13, 2021 |isbn=978-1-7373548-2-6 |publisher=Chet Haase |archive-date=March 4, 2025 |access-date=March 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304222125/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qyc9EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pcworld-camera-os">{{cite web |first=Jay |last=Alabaster |title=Android founder: We aimed to make a camera OS |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2034723/android-founder-we-aimed-to-make-a-camera-os.html |website=[[PC World]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=May 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510103305/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2034723/android-founder-we-aimed-to-make-a-camera-os.html |archive-date=May 10, 2017 }}</ref> as a rival to [[Symbian]] and Microsoft [[Windows Mobile]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Welch |title=Before it took over smartphones, Android was originally destined for cameras |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/4/16/4230468/android-originally-designed-for-cameras-before-smartphones |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=May 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429062213/http://www.theverge.com/2013/4/16/4230468/android-originally-designed-for-cameras-before-smartphones |archive-date=April 29, 2017 }}</ref> Rubin pitched the Android project as having "tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are more aware of its owner's location and preferences".<ref name="Google Buys Android" /> Due to difficulty attracting investors early on, Android faced potential eviction from its office space. [[Steve Perlman (entrepreneur)|Steve Perlman]], a close friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope, and shortly thereafter wired an undisclosed amount as seed funding. Perlman refused a stake in the company, and has stated "I did it because I believed in the thing, and I wanted to help Andy."<ref>{{cite web |first=Lisa |last=Eadicicco |title=THE RISE OF ANDROID: How a flailing startup became the world's biggest computing platform |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/how-android-was-created-2015-3 |website=[[Business Insider]] |publisher=[[Axel Springer SE]] |date=March 27, 2015 |access-date=May 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520025143/http://www.businessinsider.com/how-android-was-created-2015-3 |archive-date=May 20, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ashlee |last=Vance |author-link=Ashlee Vance |title=Steve Perlman's Wireless Fix |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-07-27/steve-perlmans-wireless-fix |url-access=subscription |website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]  |date=July 29, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319032000/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-07-27/steve-perlmans-wireless-fix |archive-date=March 19, 2017 }}</ref>

In 2005, Rubin tried to negotiate deals with [[Samsung]]<ref name="MPC">{{Cite book|last1=McAfee|first1=Andrew|last2=Brynjolfsson|first2=Erik |publisher=W.W. Norton |title=Machine, Platform, Crowd : Harnessing Our Digital Future |date=2017|isbn=978-0-393-25429-7|location=New York|oclc=987909505 |page=166}}</ref> and [[HTC]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Haase|first=Chet|date=August 13, 2021|title=Excerpt: How Google bought Android—according to folks in the room|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2021/08/excerpt-the-history-of-android-as-written-by-a-longtime-android-developer/|access-date=August 13, 2021|website=[[Ars Technica]]|language=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813112821/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2021/08/excerpt-the-history-of-android-as-written-by-a-longtime-android-developer/ |archive-date=August 13, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, [[Google]] acquired the company in July of that year for at least $50&nbsp;million;<ref name="Google Buys Android" /><ref name="Murky road despite dominance">{{cite web |first=Farhad |last=Manjoo |title=A Murky Road Ahead for Android, Despite Market Dominance |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/technology/personaltech/a-murky-road-ahead-for-android-despite-market-dominance.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=May 27, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706094446/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/technology/personaltech/a-murky-road-ahead-for-android-despite-market-dominance.html |archive-date=July 6, 2017 }}</ref> this was Google's "best deal ever" according to Google's then-vice president of corporate development, [[David Lawee]], in 2010.<ref name="MPC"/> Android's key employees, including Rubin, Miner, Sears, and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition.<ref name="Google Buys Android" /> Not much was known about the secretive Android Inc. at the time, with the company having provided few details other than that it was making software for mobile phones.<ref name="Google Buys Android" /> At Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the [[Linux kernel]]. Google marketed the platform to [[Original equipment manufacturer|handset makers]] and [[Mobile network operator|carriers]] on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Block |title=Google is working on a mobile OS, and it's due out shortly |url=https://www.engadget.com/2007/08/28/google-is-working-on-a-mobile-os-and-its-due-out-shortly/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 28, 2007 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063351/https://www.engadget.com/2007/08/28/google-is-working-on-a-mobile-os-and-its-due-out-shortly/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Google had "lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation".{{attribution needed|date=April 2018}}<ref>{{cite web |first1=Amol |last1=Sharma |first2=Kevin J. |last2=Delaney |title=Google Pushes Tailored Phones To Win Lucrative Ad Market |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118602176520985718 |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=August 2, 2007 |access-date=July 24, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729160919/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118602176520985718 |archive-date=July 29, 2017 }}</ref>

Speculation about Google's intention to enter the mobile communications market continued to build through December 2006.<ref>{{cite news |last=McKay |first=Martha |url=http://record-bergen.vlex.com/vid/iphone-phone-linksys-versatile-cordless-62885923 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530153006/http://record-bergen.vlex.com/vid/iphone-phone-linksys-versatile-cordless-62885923 |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |title=Can iPhone become your phone?; Linksys introduces versatile line for cordless service |work=[[The Record (Bergen County)]] |page=L9 |date=December 21, 2006 |access-date=February 21, 2012 |quote=And don't hold your breath, but the same cell phone-obsessed tech watchers say it won't be long before Google jumps headfirst into the phone biz. Phone, anyone? }}</ref> An early [[prototype]] had a close resemblance to a [[BlackBerry]] phone, with no touchscreen and a physical [[QWERTY]] [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]], but the arrival of [[Apple Inc.|Apple's]] 2007 [[iPhone]] meant that Android "had to go back to the drawing board".<ref>{{cite web |first=Daniel |last=Ionescu |title=Original Android Prototype Revealed During Google, Oracle Trial |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/254539/original_android_prototype_revealed_during_google_oracle_trial.html |website=[[PC World]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=April 26, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211210905/http://www.pcworld.com/article/254539/original_android_prototype_revealed_during_google_oracle_trial.html |archive-date=February 11, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Ziegler |title=This was the original 'Google Phone' presented in 2006 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/4/25/2974676/this-was-the-original-google-phone-presented-in-2006 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=April 25, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325035619/http://www.theverge.com/2012/4/25/2974676/this-was-the-original-google-phone-presented-in-2006 |archive-date=March 25, 2017 }}</ref> Google later changed its Android specification documents to state that "Touchscreens will be supported", although "the Product was designed with the presence of discrete physical buttons as an assumption, therefore a touchscreen cannot completely replace physical buttons".<ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Ziegler |title=Google in 2007: 'a touchscreen cannot completely replace physical buttons' |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/4/25/2974843/google-in-2007-a-touchscreen-cannot-completely-replace-physical/in/2731667 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=April 25, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623190711/https://www.theverge.com/2012/4/25/2974843/google-in-2007-a-touchscreen-cannot-completely-replace-physical/in/2731667 |archive-date=June 23, 2017 }}</ref> By 2008, both [[Nokia]] and BlackBerry announced touch-based smartphones to rival the [[iPhone 3G]], and Android's focus eventually switched to just touchscreens. The first commercially available smartphone running Android was the [[HTC Dream]], also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23, 2008.<ref>{{cite web |first=Doug |last=Aamoth |title=T-Mobile officially announces the G1 Android phone |url=https://techcrunch.com/2008/09/23/t-mobile-officially-announces-the-g1-android-phone/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=September 23, 2008 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042152/https://techcrunch.com/2008/09/23/t-mobile-officially-announces-the-g1-android-phone/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Gao |title=Android and its first purchasable product, the T-Mobile G1, celebrate their 8th birthdays today |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2016/09/23/android-first-purchasable-product-t-mobile-g1-celebrate-8th-birthdays-today/ |website=Android Police |date=September 23, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313045236/http://www.androidpolice.com/2016/09/23/android-first-purchasable-product-t-mobile-g1-celebrate-8th-birthdays-today/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref>

[[File:HTC Android T-Mobile G1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[HTC Dream]] or T-Mobile G1, the first commercially released device running Android (2008)]]

On November 5, 2007, the [[Open Handset Alliance]], a [[consortium]] of technology companies including Google, device manufacturers such as HTC, [[Motorola Mobility|Motorola]] and Samsung, wireless carriers such as [[Sprint Corporation|Sprint]] and [[T-Mobile US|T-Mobile]], and chipset makers such as [[Qualcomm]] and [[Texas Instruments]], unveiled itself, with a goal to develop "the first truly open and comprehensive platform for mobile devices".<ref name="Announcement of OHA">{{cite web |title=Industry Leaders Announce Open Platform for Mobile Devices |url=http://www.openhandsetalliance.com/press_110507.html |website=[[Open Handset Alliance]] |date=November 5, 2007 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309171729/http://www.openhandsetalliance.com/press_110507.html |archive-date=March 9, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Erick |last=Schonfeld |title=Breaking: Google Announces Android and Open Handset Alliance |url=https://techcrunch.com/2007/11/05/breaking-google-announces-android-and-open-handset-alliance/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=November 5, 2007 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622140334/https://techcrunch.com/2007/11/05/breaking-google-announces-android-and-open-handset-alliance/ |archive-date=June 22, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Andy |last=Rubin |title=Where's my Gphone? |url=https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2007/11/wheres-my-gphone.html |website=Official Google Blog |date=November 5, 2007 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313040638/https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2007/11/wheres-my-gphone.html |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> Within a year, the Open Handset Alliance faced two other [[Open-source software|open source]] competitors, the [[Symbian Foundation]] and the [[LiMo Foundation]], the latter also developing a [[Linux]]-based mobile operating system like Google. In September 2007, Google had filed several [[patent]] applications in the area of mobile telephony.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://techcrunch.com/2007/09/04/google-rumors-gpay-and-gphone/ | title=Google Rumors: GPay and GPhone | work=[[TechCrunch]] | date=September 4, 2007 | archive-date=December 11, 2024 | access-date=December 10, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211193408/https://techcrunch.com/2007/09/04/google-rumors-gpay-and-gphone/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.cnet.com/culture/in-search-of-the-google-phone/ | title=In search of the Google phone | last=Mills | work=[[CNET]] | date=October 24, 2007 | archive-date=December 10, 2024 | access-date=December 10, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210074512/https://www.cnet.com/culture/in-search-of-the-google-phone/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/11/29/175273/googles-growing-patent-stockpile/ | title=Google's Growing Patent Stockpile | first=Antonio | last=Regalado | work=[[MIT Technology Review]] | date=November 29, 2013 | archive-date=December 10, 2024 | access-date=December 10, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210074512/https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/11/29/175273/googles-growing-patent-stockpile/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

On September 23, 2008, Android was introduced by Andy Rubin, Larry Page, Sergey Brin, Cole Brodman, Christopher Schlaeffer and Peter Chou at a press conference in a [[New York City]] [[subway station]].<ref>{{Citation |title=T-Mobile launches G1, first Google Android phone – Video |url=https://www.cnet.com/videos/t-mobile-launches-g1-first-google-android-phone/ |access-date=November 21, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=November 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109124330/https://www.cnet.com/videos/t-mobile-launches-g1-first-google-android-phone/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 2008, Android has seen [[Android version history|numerous updates]] which have incrementally improved the operating system, adding new features and fixing [[Software bug|bugs]] in previous releases. The first two Android versions were internally codenamed [[Astro Boy]] and [[Bender (Futurama)|Bender]] but licensing issues meant subsequent releases were named after dessert or sugary treat in an alphabetical order, with the first few Android versions being called "[[Petit Four]]", "[[Cupcake]]", "[[Donut]]", "[[Eclair]]",<ref name=hasse27>{{cite book |title=Androids: The Team that Built Android Operating System |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qyc9EAAAQBAJ |last=Haase |first=Chet |chapter=Managing All the Things |date=August 13, 2021 |isbn=978-1-7373548-2-6 |publisher=Chet Haase |archive-date=March 4, 2025 |access-date=March 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304222125/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qyc9EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and "[[Frozen yogurt|Froyo]]", in that order. During its announcement of [[Android KitKat]] in 2013, Google explained that "Since these devices make our lives so sweet, each Android version is named after a dessert", although a Google spokesperson told [[CNN]] in an interview that "It's kind of like an internal team thing, and we prefer to be a little bit—how should I say—a bit inscrutable in the matter, I'll say".<ref>{{cite web |first=Murali K. |last=Menon |title=Android Nougat: Here's why Google names the OS after sweets |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/from-donut-to-nougat-why-are-android-versions-named-after-sweets-2887237/ |website=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=July 3, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313044156/http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/from-donut-to-nougat-why-are-android-versions-named-after-sweets-2887237/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref>

=== 2010s ===
In 2010, Google launched its [[Google Nexus|Nexus]] series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions. The series was described as having "played a pivotal role in Android's history by introducing new software iterations and hardware standards across the board", and became known for its "[[Software bloat|bloat-free]]" software with "timely&nbsp;... updates".<ref>{{cite web |first=Florence |last=Ion |title=From Nexus One to Nexus 10: a brief history of Google's flagship devices |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/05/from-the-nexus-one-to-the-nexus-10-a-brief-history-of-nexus-devices/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 15, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624004245/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/05/from-the-nexus-one-to-the-nexus-10-a-brief-history-of-nexus-devices/ |archive-date=June 24, 2017 }}</ref> At its [[Google I/O|developer conference]] in May 2013, Google announced a special version of the [[Samsung Galaxy S4]], where, instead of using Samsung's own Android customization, the phone ran "stock Android" and was promised to receive new system updates fast.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sean |last=Hollister |title=Google turns the Samsung Galaxy S4 into a Nexus phone, coming June 26th for $649 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/5/15/4333716/galaxy-s4-stock-android-google-io-2013 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=May 15, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226220255/http://www.theverge.com/2013/5/15/4333716/galaxy-s4-stock-android-google-io-2013 |archive-date=December 26, 2016 }}</ref> The device would become the start of the [[List of Google Play edition devices|Google Play edition]] program, and was followed by other devices, including the [[HTC One (M7)|HTC One]] Google Play edition,<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Review: The HTC One Google Play edition offers the best of both worlds |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/07/review-the-htc-one-google-play-edition-offers-the-best-of-both-worlds/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=July 4, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043321/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/07/review-the-htc-one-google-play-edition-offers-the-best-of-both-worlds/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> and [[Moto G (1st generation)|Moto G]] Google Play edition.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Moto G Google Play edition replaces near-stock Android with stock Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/01/moto-g-google-play-edition-replaces-near-stock-android-with-stock-android/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=January 14, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042911/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/01/moto-g-google-play-edition-replaces-near-stock-android-with-stock-android/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> In 2015, ''[[Ars Technica]]'' wrote that "Earlier this week, the last of the Google Play edition Android phones in Google's online storefront were listed as "no longer available for sale" and that "Now they're all gone, and it looks a whole lot like the program has wrapped up".<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Don't cry for the Google Play edition program; it was already dead |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/01/dont-cry-for-the-google-play-edition-program-it-was-already-dead/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=January 25, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313124209/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/01/dont-cry-for-the-google-play-edition-program-it-was-already-dead/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Chavez |title=Google kills off the last remaining Google Play Edition device in the Play Store |url=http://phandroid.com/2015/01/21/google-kills-htc-one-m8-google-play-edition/ |website=Phandroid |date=January 21, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129102958/http://phandroid.com/2015/01/21/google-kills-htc-one-m8-google-play-edition/ |archive-date=November 29, 2016 }}</ref>

[[File:A Press Conference for the Launch of Nexus 7 on September 27, 2012 in Seoul from acrofan 3.JPG|thumb|[[Eric Schmidt]], [[Andy Rubin]] and [[Hugo Barra]] at a 2012 press conference announcing Google's Nexus 7 tablet]]

From 2008 to 2013, [[Hugo Barra]] served as product spokesperson, representing Android at press conferences and [[Google I/O]], Google's annual developer-focused conference. He left Google in August 2013 to join Chinese phone maker [[Xiaomi]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Mat |last=Smith |title=Android VP Hugo Barra leaves Google, joins Chinese phone maker Xiaomi (updated) |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/08/28/android-vp-hugo-barra-report-leaves-google-xiaomi/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 28, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041804/https://www.engadget.com/2013/08/28/android-vp-hugo-barra-report-leaves-google-xiaomi/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Egan |last=Orion |title=Google's Android VP Hugo Barra joins Chinese phone maker Xiaomi |url=http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/2291600/googles-android-vp-hugo-barra-joins-chinese-phone-maker-xiaomi |website=[[The Inquirer]] |publisher=[[Incisive Media]] |date=August 28, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041606/http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/2291600/googles-android-vp-hugo-barra-joins-chinese-phone-maker-xiaomi |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> Less than six months earlier, Google's then-[[CEO]] [[Larry Page]] announced in a blog post that Andy Rubin had moved from the Android division to take on new projects at Google, and that [[Sundar Pichai]] would become the new Android lead.<ref>{{cite web |first=Larry |last=Page |title=Update from the CEO |url=https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2013/03/update-from-ceo.html |website=Official Google Blog |date=March 13, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043456/https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2013/03/update-from-ceo.html |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Charles |last=Arthur |title=Andy Rubin moved from Android to take on 'moonshots' at Google |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/mar/13/andy-rubin-google-move |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=March 13, 2013 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312004957/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/mar/13/andy-rubin-google-move |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Pichai himself would eventually switch positions, becoming the new CEO of Google in August 2015 following the company's restructure into the [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]] conglomerate,<ref>{{cite web |first=Russell |last=Brandom |title=Google is reorganizing and Sundar Pichai will become new CEO |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/8/10/9128083/sundar-pichai-ceo-google-larry-page-sergey-brin |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=August 10, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042225/http://www.theverge.com/2015/8/10/9128083/sundar-pichai-ceo-google-larry-page-sergey-brin |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jessica |last=Conditt |title=Google gets an overhaul and a new CEO: Sundar Pichai |url=https://www.engadget.com/2015/08/10/google-gets-an-overhaul-and-a-new-ceo-sundar-pichai/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 10, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041506/https://www.engadget.com/2015/08/10/google-gets-an-overhaul-and-a-new-ceo-sundar-pichai/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> making [[Hiroshi Lockheimer]] the new head of Android.<ref>{{cite web |first=Mark |last=Bergen |title=New Google CEO Sundar Pichai Makes First Major Executive Picks |url=http://www.recode.net/2015/10/9/11619448/new-google-ceo-sundar-pichai-makes-first-major-executive-picks |website=[[Recode]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 9, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114190148/http://www.recode.net/2015/10/9/11619448/new-google-ceo-sundar-pichai-makes-first-major-executive-picks |archive-date=January 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Martonik |title=Sundar Pichai promotes Hiroshi Lockheimer to oversee Android, Chrome OS and Chromecast |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/sundar-pichai-promotes-hiroshi-lockheimer-oversee-android-chrome-os-and-chromecast |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=October 9, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223132142/http://www.androidcentral.com/sundar-pichai-promotes-hiroshi-lockheimer-oversee-android-chrome-os-and-chromecast |archive-date=February 23, 2017 }}</ref>

On [[Android 4.4]], ''KitKat''<!-- For future reference, Android 4.4 is referred to by "KitKat", not "Kit Kat" -->, shared writing access to [[MicroSD]] memory cards has been locked for user-installed applications, to which only the dedicated directories with respective package names, located inside <code>Android/data/</code>, remained writeable. Writing access has been reinstated with [[Android 5]] ''Lollipop'' through the [[backwards compatibility|backwards-incompatible]] ''Google Storage Access Framework'' [[API|interface]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Android 5.0 Lollipop Brings Full SD Card Access for Third-Party Apps |url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/android-50-lollipop-brings-full-sd-card-access-for-third-party-apps-616420 |website=NDTV Gadgets 360 |date=November 5, 2014 |access-date=February 12, 2021 |archive-date=September 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928033737/https://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/android-50-lollipop-brings-full-sd-card-access-for-third-party-apps-616420 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2014, Google announced [[Android One]], a set of "hardware reference models" that would "allow [device makers] to easily create high-quality phones at low costs", designed for consumers in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Kastrenakes |title=Android One will help manufacturers build low-cost phones for developing markets |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/6/25/5841976/android-one-hardware-reference-program |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042536/http://www.theverge.com/2014/6/25/5841976/android-one-hardware-reference-program |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Dan |last=Seifert |title=With Android One, Google is poised to own the entire world |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/6/26/5845562/android-one-google-the-next-billion |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=June 26, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042129/http://www.theverge.com/2014/6/26/5845562/android-one-google-the-next-billion |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Woods |title=Google announces 'Android One' standard for affordable devices, arriving first in India at under $100 |url=https://thenextweb.com/google/2014/06/25/google-announces-android-one-standard-affordable-devices-arriving-first-india-100/ |website=The Next Web |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042912/https://thenextweb.com/google/2014/06/25/google-announces-android-one-standard-affordable-devices-arriving-first-india-100/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> In September, Google announced the first set of Android One phones for release in India.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sundar |last=Pichai |title=For the next five billion: Android One |url=https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2014/09/for-next-five-billion-android-one.html |website=Official Google Blog |date=September 15, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313044048/https://googleblog.blogspot.no/2014/09/for-next-five-billion-android-one.html |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Android One smartphones released in India |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-29209103 |website=[[BBC News]] |date=September 15, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043427/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-29209103 |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> However, ''[[Recode]]'' reported in June 2015 that the project was "a disappointment", citing "reluctant consumers and manufacturing partners" and "misfires from the search company that has never quite cracked hardware".<ref>{{cite web |first=Mark |last=Bergen |title=Beset With Failures, Google Tries to Breathe New Life Into Android One |url=http://www.recode.net/2015/6/11/11563484/beset-with-failures-google-tries-to-breathe-new-life-into-android-one |website=[[Recode]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=June 11, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042711/http://www.recode.net/2015/6/11/11563484/beset-with-failures-google-tries-to-breathe-new-life-into-android-one |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> Plans to relaunch Android One surfaced in August 2015,<ref>{{cite web |first=Dante |last=D'Orazio |title=Google will take another shot at low-cost Android One initiative |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/8/9/9123151/google-will-take-another-shot-at-low-cost-android-one-initiative |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=August 9, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313042727/http://www.theverge.com/2015/8/9/9123151/google-will-take-another-shot-at-low-cost-android-one-initiative |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> with Africa announced as the next location for the program a week later.<ref>{{cite web |first=Natasha |last=Lomas |title=Google Pushes Android One To Africa |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/08/18/google-pushes-android-one-to-africa/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041807/https://techcrunch.com/2015/08/18/google-pushes-android-one-to-africa/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Daniel |last=Cooper |title=Google brings Android One devices to Africa |url=https://www.engadget.com/2015/08/18/google-android-one-africa/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041909/https://www.engadget.com/2015/08/18/google-android-one-africa/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> A report from ''The Information'' in January 2017 stated that Google is expanding its low-cost Android One program into the United States, although ''The Verge'' notes that the company will presumably not produce the actual devices itself.<ref>{{cite web |first=Amir |last=Efrati |title=Google's New Stab at Boosting Android Brand in U.S. |url=https://www.theinformation.com/googles-new-stab-at-boosting-android-brand-in-u-s |website=The Information |date=January 17, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171101064303/https://www.theinformation.com/googles-new-stab-at-boosting-android-brand-in-u-s |archive-date=November 1, 2017 }} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Dieter |last=Bohn |title=Low-cost Android One phones reportedly coming to the US |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/17/14305288/google-android-one-us-low-cost-report |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 17, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103203735/https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/17/14305288/google-android-one-us-low-cost-report |archive-date=November 3, 2017 }}</ref> Google introduced the [[Pixel (smartphone)|Pixel and Pixel XL smartphones]] in October 2016, marketed as being the first phones made by Google,<ref>{{cite web |first=Vlad |last=Savov |title=Pixel 'phone by Google' announced |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/10/4/13161028/google-phone-announced-pixel-xl-price-release-date-specs |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005081521/http://www.theverge.com/2016/10/4/13161028/google-phone-announced-pixel-xl-price-release-date-specs |archive-date=October 5, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Lawler |title=Google's Pixel phones make their debut |url=https://www.engadget.com/2016/10/04/made-by-google-pixel-pixel-xl/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313214402/https://www.engadget.com/2016/10/04/made-by-google-pixel-pixel-xl/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> and exclusively featured certain software features, such as the [[Google Assistant]], before wider rollout.<ref>{{cite web |first=Dan |last=Seifert |title=Google's new Pixel phones come with Android 7.1 Nougat |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/10/4/13098314/google-android-update-7-1-nougat-new-features |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511092758/https://www.theverge.com/2016/10/4/13098314/google-android-update-7-1-nougat-new-features |archive-date=May 11, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Alfred |last=Ng |title=Pixel won't share Google Assistant with other Android phones |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-pixel-android-7-1-assistant-now/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=October 6, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313221308/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-pixel-android-7-1-assistant-now/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> The Pixel phones replaced the Nexus series,<ref>{{cite web |first=Dieter |last=Bohn |title=The Google Phone |url=https://www.theverge.com/a/google-pixel-phone-new-hardware-interview-2016 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106213353/http://www.theverge.com/a/google-pixel-phone-new-hardware-interview-2016 |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |date=October 4, 2016 }}</ref> with a new generation of Pixel phones launched in October 2017.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Kastrenakes |title=Google Pixel 2 and 2 XL announced with water resistance, 'dual-pixel' camera, and always-on display |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/10/4/16408962/new-google-pixel-2-phone-announced-price-release-date-features |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 4, 2017 |access-date=October 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011074252/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/10/4/16408962/new-google-pixel-2-phone-announced-price-release-date-features |archive-date=October 11, 2017 }}</ref>

In May 2019, the operating system became entangled in the [[China–United States trade war|trade war between China and the United States]] involving [[Huawei]], which, like many other tech firms, had become dependent on access to the Android platform.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/19/18631558/google-huawei-android-suspension|title=Google pulls Huawei's Android license, forcing it to use open source version|last1=Sottek|first1=T.C.|date=May 19, 2019|work=[[The Verge]]|access-date=July 20, 2019|publisher=[[VOX Media]]|quote=A dramatic escalation in the US war on Chinese tech firms|archive-date=May 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520153127/https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/19/18631558/google-huawei-android-suspension|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2019/05/20/google-restricts-huawei-using-android-could-mean/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2019/05/20/google-restricts-huawei-using-android-could-mean/ |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Google restricts Huawei from using Android: Here's what that could mean for you|last1=Cook|first1=James|date=May 20, 2019|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|access-date=July 20, 2019|department=Technology Intelligence|quote=Huawei, which is the world's second largest seller of smartphones after Samsung, has long relied on Google's Android operating system to run its smartphones and tablets. The ban means that new Huawei phones will no longer be able to access certain apps, such as Google Maps and YouTube, and existing phones will not be able to update their Android operating systems. }}{{cbignore}}</ref> In the summer of 2019, Huawei announced it would create an alternative operating system to Android<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reichert |first1=Corinne |date=June 14, 2019 |title=Huawei moves to trademark its own OS while objecting to US ban |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-files-trademark-for-hongmeng-os-while-objecting-to-us-ban-reports-say/ |department=Tech News |publisher=[[CNET]] |access-date=August 10, 2019 |quote=Huawei is moving to trademark the name of its operating system, "Hongmeng," in Peru. |archive-date=August 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811043943/https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-files-trademark-for-hongmeng-os-while-objecting-to-us-ban-reports-say/ |url-status=live }}</ref> known as [[Harmony OS]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sohail |first1=Omar |date=May 20, 2019 |title=Huawei's Own Smartphone Operating System Reportedly Named HongMeng OS, According to Foreign Sources |url=https://wccftech.com/huawei-hongmeng-os-for-smartphones/ |department=Mobile tech |agency=Where Consumers Come First (Wccf) |access-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-date=June 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624175424/https://wccftech.com/huawei-hongmeng-os-for-smartphones/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and has filed for intellectual property rights across major global markets.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jie |first1=Yang |last2=Strumpf |first2=Dan |date=May 24, 2019 |title=Who Needs Google's Android? Huawei Trademarks Its Own Smartphone OS |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-needs-googles-android-huawei-trademarks-its-own-smartphone-os-11558693195 |department=Tech |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=August 10, 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Chinese tech giant plans to launch its own operating system this year as access to U.S. software is hit by export ban |archive-date=June 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613064055/https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-needs-googles-android-huawei-trademarks-its-own-smartphone-os-11558693195 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=England |first1=Jason |date=June 14, 2019 |title=Huawei begins trademarking its Android replacement OS—HongMeng |url=https://www.androidcentral.com/huawei-begins-trademarking-its-android-replacement-os-several-countries |agency=[[Android Central]] |access-date=August 10, 2019 |quote=The trademark's been filed in Canada, the European Union, Mexico, and more.}}</ref> Under such sanctions Huawei has long-term plans to replace Android in 2022 with the new operating system, as Harmony OS was originally designed for [[internet of things]] devices, rather than for smartphones and tablets.<ref name="verge-harmony">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/8/9/20798251/huawei-harmonyos-hongmengos-smartphones-internet-of-things-operating-system-android|title=Huawei's new operating system is called HarmonyOS|last=Porter|first=Jon|date=August 9, 2019|website=The Verge|access-date=August 9, 2019|archive-date=June 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611191021/https://www.theverge.com/2019/8/9/20798251/huawei-harmonyos-hongmengos-smartphones-internet-of-things-operating-system-android|url-status=live}}</ref>

On August 22, 2019, it was announced that Android "Q" would officially be branded as Android 10, ending the historic practice of naming major versions after desserts. Google stated that these names were not "inclusive" to international users (due either to the aforementioned foods not being internationally known, or being difficult to pronounce in some languages).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/8/22/20827231/android-10-q-google-name-officially-announced-new-logo-wordmark-desserts|title=Google deserts desserts: Android 10 is the official name for Android Q|last=Bohn|first=Dieter|date=August 22, 2019|website=The Verge|access-date=August 22, 2019|archive-date=August 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827153915/https://www.theverge.com/2019/8/22/20827231/android-10-q-google-name-officially-announced-new-logo-wordmark-desserts|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/08/unsweetened-android-swaps-sugary-codenames-for-boring-numbers/|title=Unsweetened: Android swaps sugary codenames for boring numbers|last=Amadeo|first=Ron|date=August 22, 2019|website=Ars Technica|access-date=August 22, 2019|archive-date=August 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825214733/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/08/unsweetened-android-swaps-sugary-codenames-for-boring-numbers/|url-status=live}}</ref> On the same day, ''Android Police'' reported that Google had commissioned a statue of a giant number "10" to be installed in the lobby of the developers' new office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/08/22/androids-iconic-dessert-names-are-going-away-starting-with-android-10/|title=Android's iconic dessert names are going away, starting with Android 10|date=August 22, 2019|website=Android Police|access-date=August 22, 2019|archive-date=August 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823011922/https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/08/22/androids-iconic-dessert-names-are-going-away-starting-with-android-10/|url-status=live}}</ref> Android 10 was released on September 3, 2019, to [[Google Pixel]] phones first.

=== 2020s ===
In late 2021, some users reported that they were unable to dial emergency services.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shakir |first=Umar |date=December 10, 2021 |title=Go read this story explaining in detail the scary Teams bug that blocked a 911 call |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/12/10/22828234/microsoft-teams-android-bug-blocked-911-call-go-read-this |access-date=December 7, 2022 |website=The Verge |language=en-US |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207224033/https://www.theverge.com/2021/12/10/22828234/microsoft-teams-android-bug-blocked-911-call-go-read-this |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=This important Microsoft Teams for Android update fixes the strange 911 calling bug |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/this-important-microsoft-teams-for-android-update-fixes-the-strange-911-calling-bug/ |access-date=December 7, 2022 |website=ZDNET |language=en |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207224034/https://www.zdnet.com/article/this-important-microsoft-teams-for-android-update-fixes-the-strange-911-calling-bug/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The problem was caused by a combination of bugs in Android and in the [[Microsoft Teams]] app; both companies released updates addressing the issue.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=January 5, 2022 |title=Google fixes nightmare Android bug that stopped user from calling 911 |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/01/google-fixes-nightmare-android-bug-that-stopped-user-from-calling-911/ |access-date=December 7, 2022 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207224223/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/01/google-fixes-nightmare-android-bug-that-stopped-user-from-calling-911/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On December 12, 2024 [[Google]] announced [[Android XR]]. It is a new operating system developed by Google, designed for [[virtual reality]] and [[augmented reality]] devices, such as VR headsets and smart glasses. It was built in collaboration with [[Samsung]] and [[Qualcomm]]. The platform is also focused on supporting developers with tools like [[ARCore]] and Unity to build applications for upcoming XR devices.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-12 |title=Android XR: The Gemini era comes to headsets and glasses |url=https://blog.google/products/android/android-xr/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Google |language=en-us |archive-date=December 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213050225/https://blog.google/products/android/android-xr/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2025, Google announced it would consolidate Android development to internal sources. This will prevent public contributions, but the Android source will still be published.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rahman |first=Mishaal |date=2025-03-26 |title=Exclusive: Google will develop the Android OS fully in private, and here's why |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/google-android-development-aosp-3538503/ |access-date=2025-06-12 |website=Android Authority |language=en |archive-date=June 11, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250611033556/https://www.androidauthority.com/google-android-development-aosp-3538503/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Features ==
{{Main article|List of features in Android}}

=== Interface ===
Android's default user interface is mainly based on [[Direct manipulation interface|direct manipulation]], using touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world actions, like swiping, tapping, pinching, and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects, along with a [[virtual keyboard]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Touch Devices |url=http://source.android.com/tech/input/touch-devices.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061950/http://source.android.com/tech/input/touch-devices.html |website=Android Open Source Project |archive-date=January 25, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017}}</ref> [[Game controller]]s and full-size physical keyboards are supported via [[Bluetooth]] or [[USB]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Handling Controller Actions |url=https://developer.android.com/training/game-controllers/controller-input.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312195206/https://developer.android.com/training/game-controllers/controller-input.html |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Handling Keyboard Input |url=https://developer.android.com/training/keyboard-input/index.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041058/https://developer.android.com/training/keyboard-input/index.html |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> The response to user input is designed to be immediate and provides a fluid touch interface, often using the vibration capabilities of the device to provide [[Haptic technology|haptic feedback]] to the user. Internal hardware, such as [[accelerometer]]s, [[gyroscope]]s and [[proximity sensor]]s are used by some applications to respond to additional user actions, for example adjusting the screen from portrait to landscape depending on how the device is oriented,<ref>{{cite web |title=Sensors Overview |url=https://developer.android.com/guide/topics/sensors/sensors_overview.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216064514/https://developer.android.com/guide/topics/sensors/sensors_overview.html |archive-date=February 16, 2017 }}</ref> or allowing the user to steer a vehicle in a [[racing game]] by rotating the device, simulating control of a [[steering wheel]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Chavez |title=Real Racing 2 Speeds Into The Android Market – Leaves Part 1 In The Dust |url=http://phandroid.com/2011/12/22/real-racing-2-speeds-into-the-android-market-leaves-part-1-in-the-dust/ |website=Phandroid |date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219030819/http://phandroid.com/2011/12/22/real-racing-2-speeds-into-the-android-market-leaves-part-1-in-the-dust/ |archive-date=February 19, 2017 }}</ref>

==== Home screen ====
Android devices boot to the [[home screen]], the primary navigation and information "hub" on Android devices, analogous to the [[desktop metaphor|desktop]] found on personal computers. Android home screens are typically made up of app icons and [[Software widget|widgets]]; app icons launch the associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content, such as a [[weather forecast]], the user's email inbox, or a [[news ticker]] directly on the home screen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Widgets |url=https://developer.android.com/design/patterns/widgets.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312200056/https://developer.android.com/design/patterns/widgets.html |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> A home screen may be made up of several pages, between which the user can swipe back and forth.<ref name="Design info" /> Third-party apps available on [[Google Play]] and other app stores can extensively re-[[Theme (computing)|theme]] the home screen,<ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Hindy |title=15 best Android launcher apps of 2017 |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/best-android-launcher-apps-222408/ |website=Android Authority |date=February 4, 2017 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501192958/http://www.androidauthority.com/best-android-launcher-apps-222408 |archive-date=May 1, 2017 }}</ref> and even mimic the look of other operating systems, such as [[Windows Phone]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Whitson |last=Gordon |title=Launcher 7 Brings Windows Phone's Simple, Attractive Interface to Android |url=http://lifehacker.com/5804091/launcher-7-brings-windows-phones-simple-attractive-interface-to-android |website=[[Lifehacker]] |publisher=[[Univision Communications]] |date=May 20, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108143524/http://lifehacker.com/5804091/launcher-7-brings-windows-phones-simple-attractive-interface-to-android |archive-date=January 8, 2017 }}</ref> Most manufacturers customize the look and features of their Android devices to differentiate themselves from their competitors.<ref>{{cite web |first=Daniel A. |last=Begun |title=Looking at the Android operating system |url=http://www.dummies.com/consumer-electronics/smartphones/droid/looking-at-the-android-operating-system/ |website=[[For Dummies]] |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312195620/http://www.dummies.com/consumer-electronics/smartphones/droid/looking-at-the-android-operating-system/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref>

==== Status bar ====
Along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. This status bar can be pulled (swiped) down from to reveal a notification screen where apps display important information or updates, as well as quick access to system controls and toggles such as display brightness, connectivity settings ([[WiFi]], Bluetooth, cellular data), audio mode, and [[flashlight]].<ref name="Design info">{{cite web |title=Phones & Tablets |url=https://developer.android.com/design/handhelds/index.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331154020/http://developer.android.com/design/handhelds/index.html |archive-date=March 31, 2017 }}</ref> Vendors may implement extended settings such as the ability to adjust the flashlight brightness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nougat Tip: Change the intensity of the flashlight on your Galaxy S7 or S7 edge |url=https://www.sammobile.com/2017/01/25/nougat-tip-change-the-intensity-of-the-flashlight-on-your-galaxy-s7-or-s7-edge/ |website=SamMobile |date=January 25, 2017 |access-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308122623/https://www.sammobile.com/2017/01/25/nougat-tip-change-the-intensity-of-the-flashlight-on-your-galaxy-s7-or-s7-edge/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Notifications ====
Notifications are "short, timely, and relevant information about your app when it's not in use", and when tapped, users are directed to a screen inside the app relating to the notification.<ref>{{cite web |title=Notifications |url=https://material.io/guidelines/patterns/notifications.html |website=Material Design |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322170613/https://material.io/guidelines/patterns/notifications.html |archive-date=March 22, 2017 }}</ref> Beginning with [[Android Jelly Bean|Android 4.1 "Jelly Bean"]], "expandable notifications" allow the user to tap an icon on the notification in order for it to expand and display more information and possible app actions right from the notification.<ref>{{cite news |title=Notifications |url=https://developer.android.com/design/patterns/notifications.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208022602/http://developer.android.com/design/patterns/notifications.html |newspaper=Material Design |archive-date=December 8, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017}}</ref>

==== App lists ====
An "All Apps" screen lists all installed applications, with the ability for users to drag an app from the list onto the home screen. The app list may be accessed using a gesture or a button, depending on the Android version. A "Recents" screen, also known as "Overview", lets users switch between recently used apps.<ref name="Design info" />

The recent list may appear side-by-side or overlapping, depending on the Android version and manufacturer.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to Get Android P's New 'Recent Apps' Layout for Your Samsung Smartphone |url=https://lifehacker.com/how-to-get-android-ps-new-recent-apps-layout-for-your-s-1827113803 |website=Lifehacker |date=June 25, 2018 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-date=June 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620020616/https://lifehacker.com/how-to-get-android-ps-new-recent-apps-layout-for-your-s-1827113803 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Navigation buttons ====
[[File:HTC_Desire_-_optic_navigation.jpeg|thumb|Front buttons (home, menu/options, go back, search) and [[Smartphone#Alternative input methods|optical track pad]] of an [[HTC Desire]], a 2010 smartphone with Android OS]]
Many early Android OS smartphones were equipped with a dedicated search button for quick access to a [[web search engine]] and individual apps' internal search feature. More recent devices typically allow the former through a long press or swipe away from the home button.<ref name=MenuKey />

The dedicated option key, also known as menu key, and its on-screen simulation, is no longer supported since Android version 10. Google recommends mobile application developers to locate menus within the user interface.<ref name=MenuKey>{{Cite web |date=November 13, 2019 |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |language=en |title=The menu navigation button has finally been retired in Android 10 |author=Corbin Davenport |access-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213003700/https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/11/13/the-menu-navigation-button-has-finally-been-retired-in-android-10/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On more recent phones, its place is occupied by a task key used to access the list of recently used apps when actuated. Depending on device, its long press may simulate a menu button press or engage [[Split screen (computing)|split screen]] view, the latter of which is the default behaviour since stock Android version 7.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to use the Hidden Menu Key in Samsung Galaxy S5 [with Recent Key] |url=http://androidadvices.com/use-menu-key-samsung-galaxy-s5/ |website=Android Advices |date=April 17, 2014 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-date=March 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313203721/http://androidadvices.com/use-menu-key-samsung-galaxy-s5/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Samsung Galaxy S5 still has a menu button, it's just hidden |url=https://www.androidcentral.com/samsung-galaxy-s5-menu-button-hidden |website=Android Central |date=April 12, 2014 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-date=March 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313203713/https://www.androidcentral.com/samsung-galaxy-s5-menu-button-hidden |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=NougatSplit>{{cite web |last1=Ghani |first1=Uzair |title=How To Use And Master Android 7.0 Nougat Split-Screen Multitasking |url=https://wccftech.com/android-7-nougat-split-screen-multitasking/ |website=Wccftech |date=August 29, 2016}}</ref>

==== Split-screen view ====
Native support for split screen view has been added in stock Android version 7.0 ''Nougat''.<ref name=NougatSplit />

The earliest vendor-customized Android-based smartphones known to have featured a split-screen view mode are the 2012 [[Samsung Galaxy S3]] and [[Samsung Galaxy Note II|Note 2]], the former of which received this feature with the ''premium suite'' upgrade delivered in [[TouchWiz]] with Android 4.1 Jelly Bean.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reisinger|first=Don|date=December 7, 2012|title=Samsung's Galaxy S3 to get Premium Suite upgrade|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsungs-galaxy-s3-to-get-premium-suite-upgrade/|access-date=April 3, 2021|website=CNET|archive-date=July 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702135347/https://www.cnet.com/news/samsungs-galaxy-s3-to-get-premium-suite-upgrade/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Charging while powered off ====
When connecting or disconnecting charging power and when shortly actuating the power button or home button, all while the device is powered off, a visual battery meter whose appearance varies among vendors appears on the screen, allowing the user to quickly assess the charge status of a powered-off device without having to boot it up first. Some display the battery percentage.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to change offline charging animation for Android devices |url=https://appuals.com/change-offline-charging-animation-android-devices/ |website=Appuals.com |date=December 10, 2015 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306002334/https://appuals.com/change-offline-charging-animation-android-devices/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Desktop mode ====
{{Empty section|date=February 2025}}

=== Applications ===
{{See also|Android software development|Google Play}}

Most Android devices come with preinstalled Google apps including Gmail, Google Maps, Google Chrome, YouTube, Google Play Movies & TV, and others.

Applications ("[[Mobile app|apps]]"), which extend the functionality of devices, are written using the [[Android software development]] kit (SDK)<ref>{{cite web |first=Alex |last=Mullis |title=How to install the Android SDK (Software Development Kit) |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/how-to-install-android-sdk-software-development-kit-21137/ |website=Android Authority |date=November 21, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503091526/http://www.androidauthority.com/how-to-install-android-sdk-software-development-kit-21137 |archive-date=May 3, 2017 }}</ref> and, often, [[Kotlin (programming language)|Kotlin]] programming language, which replaced [[Java (programming language)|Java]] as Google's preferred language for Android app development in May 2019,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/05/07/kotlin-is-now-googles-preferred-language-for-android-app-development/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200617201052/http://social.techcrunch.com/2019/05/07/kotlin-is-now-googles-preferred-language-for-android-app-development/|url-status=live|archive-date=June 17, 2020|title=Kotlin is now Google's preferred language for Android app development|website=TechCrunch|date=May 7, 2019|access-date=May 8, 2019}}</ref> and was originally announced in May 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Miller|first=Paul|date=May 17, 2017|title=Google is adding Kotlin as an official programming language for Android development|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/17/15654988/google-jet-brains-kotlin-programming-language-android-development-io-2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517201937/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/17/15654988/google-jet-brains-kotlin-programming-language-android-development-io-2017|archive-date=May 17, 2017|access-date=May 22, 2017|website=[[The Verge]]|publisher=[[Vox Media]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lardinois|first=Frederic|date=May 17, 2017|title=Google makes Kotlin a first-class language for writing Android apps|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/17/google-makes-kotlin-a-first-class-language-for-writing-android-apps/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522065631/https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/17/google-makes-kotlin-a-first-class-language-for-writing-android-apps/|archive-date=May 22, 2017|access-date=May 22, 2017|website=[[TechCrunch]]|publisher=[[AOL]]}}</ref> Java is still supported (originally the only option for user-space programs, and is often mixed with Kotlin), as is [[C++]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sinicki |first1=Adam |title=I want to develop Android Apps—What languages should I learn? |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/develop-android-apps-languages-learn-391008/ |website=Android Authority |date=August 10, 2019 |access-date=September 12, 2019 |archive-date=October 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002234246/https://www.androidauthority.com/develop-android-apps-languages-learn-391008/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Java or other JVM languages, such as Kotlin, may be combined with [[C (programming language)|C]]/C++,<ref>{{cite web |title=Android NDK Native APIs |url=https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/stable_apis.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312194146/https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/stable_apis.html |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> together with a choice of non-default [[runtime library|runtimes]] that allow better C++ support.<ref>{{cite web |title=C++ Library Support |url=https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/cpp-support.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312194748/https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/cpp-support.html |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref>

The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools,<ref>{{cite web |url = https://developer.android.com/guide/developing/tools/index.html |title = Tools Overview |work = Android Developers |date = July 21, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120613232535/http://developer.android.com/guide/developing/tools/index.html |archive-date = June 13, 2012 |df = mdy-all }}</ref> including a [[debugger]], [[Software library|software libraries]], a handset [[emulator]] based on [[QEMU]], documentation, sample code, and tutorials. Initially, Google's supported [[integrated development environment]] (IDE) was [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] using the Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin; in December 2014, Google released [[Android Studio]], based on [[IntelliJ IDEA]], as its primary IDE for Android application development. Other development tools are available, including a [[native development kit]] (NDK) for applications or extensions in C or C++, [[Google App Inventor]], a visual environment for novice programmers, and various cross platform mobile web applications frameworks. In January 2014, Google unveiled a framework based on [[Apache Cordova]] for porting [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] [[HTML&nbsp;5]] [[web app]]lications to Android, wrapped in a native application shell.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kwame |last=Opam |title=Chrome Apps are coming to iOS and Android |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/1/28/5355064/chrome-apps-are-coming-to-ios-and-android |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 28, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210034633/http://www.theverge.com/2014/1/28/5355064/chrome-apps-are-coming-to-ios-and-android |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref> Additionally, [[Firebase]] was acquired by Google in 2014 that provides helpful tools for app and web developers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/21/google-acquires-firebase-to-help-developers-build-better-realtime-apps/|title=Google Acquires Firebase To Help Developers Build Better Real-Time Apps|website=TechCrunch|date=October 21, 2014|access-date=April 25, 2020|archive-date=October 22, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022032450/https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/21/google-acquires-firebase-to-help-developers-build-better-realtime-apps/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Android has a growing selection of third-party applications, which can be acquired by users by downloading and installing the application's [[APK (file format)|APK]] (Android application package) file, or by downloading them using an [[application store]] program that allows users to [[package manager|install, update, and remove applications]] from their devices. [[Google Play Store]] is the primary application store installed on Android devices that comply with Google's compatibility requirements and license the Google Mobile Services software.<ref name="ars-irongrip">{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Google's iron grip on Android: Controlling open source by any means necessary |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-on-android-controlling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=October 21, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310080416/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-on-android-controlling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/ |archive-date=March 10, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="geek-poweredby" /> Google Play Store allows users to browse, download and update applications published by Google and third-party developers; {{As of|lc=y|2021|01}}, there are more than three million applications available for Android in Play Store.<ref name="3 million apps">{{Cite web|title=Number of Android applications on the Google Play store|url=https://www.appbrain.com/stats/number-of-android-apps|access-date=August 12, 2020|website=AppBrain|archive-date=February 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210051327/https://www.appbrain.com/stats/number-of-android-apps|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mashable.com/2013/07/24/google-play-1-million/ |title=Google Play Hits 1 Million Apps |date=July 24, 2013 |access-date=January 2, 2014 |work=Mashable |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193051/http://mashable.com/2013/07/24/google-play-1-million/ |archive-date=January 2, 2014 }}</ref> {{As of|2013|7}}, 50&nbsp;billion application installations had been performed.<ref name="Google Play Hits 1 Million Apps">{{cite web|last1=Warren|first1=Christina|title=Google Play Hits 1 Million Apps|date=July 24, 2013|url=http://mashable.com/2013/07/24/google-play-1-million/|publisher=Mashable|access-date=June 4, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530013939/http://mashable.com/2013/07/24/google-play-1-million/|archive-date=May 30, 2014}}</ref><ref name="android-compatibility">{{cite web | url = https://developer.android.com/guide/practices/compatibility.html | title = Android Compatibility | work = Android Developers | access-date = November 16, 2013 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131017081434/http://developer.android.com/guide/practices/compatibility.html | archive-date = October 17, 2013 | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Some carriers offer direct carrier billing for Google Play application purchases, where the cost of the application is added to the user's monthly bill.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/04/new-carrier-billing-options-on-android.html |title=Android Developers Blog: New Carrier Billing Options on Android Market |last=Chu |first=Eric |publisher=android-developers.blogspot.com |date=April 13, 2011 |access-date=May 15, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415085650/http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/04/new-carrier-billing-options-on-android.html |archive-date=April 15, 2011 }}</ref> {{as of|2017|May|}}, there are over one billion active users a month for Gmail, Android, Chrome, Google Play and Maps.

Due to the open nature of Android, a number of third-party application marketplaces also exist for Android, either to provide a substitute for devices that are not allowed to ship with Google Play Store, provide applications that cannot be offered on Google Play Store due to policy violations, or for other reasons. Examples of these third-party stores have included the [[Amazon Appstore]], [[GetJar]], and SlideMe. [[F-Droid]], another alternative marketplace, seeks to only provide applications that are distributed under [[free and open source]] [[Free-software license|licenses]].<ref name="ars-irongrip" /><ref name="wired_alt_app_stores">{{cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2010/06/independent-app-stores-take-on-googles-android-market/ |title=Independent App Stores Take On Google's Android Market |date=June 11, 2010 |first=Priya |last=Ganapati |work=[[Wired News]] |access-date=February 20, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223133953/http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2010/06/independent-app-stores-take-on-googles-android-market |archive-date=February 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=The great Ars experiment—free and open source software on a smartphone?! |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/07/exploring-the-world-of-foss-android-can-a-smartphone-be-open-source/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=July 29, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064905/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/07/exploring-the-world-of-foss-android-can-a-smartphone-be-open-source/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Lee |last=Hutchinson |title=Google evicts ad-blocking software from Google Play store |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/03/google-evicts-ad-blocking-software-from-google-play-store/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=March 14, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210102321/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/03/google-evicts-ad-blocking-software-from-google-play-store/ |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref>

In October 2020, Google removed several Android applications from [[Play Store]], as they were identified breaching its data collection rules. The firm was informed by International Digital Accountability Council (IDAC) that apps for children like ''Number Coloring'', ''Princess Salon'' and ''Cats & Cosplay'', with collective downloads of 20 million, were violating Google's policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/these-android-apps-for-children-were-stealing-user-data|title=Android apps for children were actually stealing user data|access-date=October 26, 2020|website=TechRadar|date=October 26, 2020|archive-date=October 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029220858/https://www.techradar.com/news/these-android-apps-for-children-were-stealing-user-data|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the [[Windows 11]] announcement event in June 2021, [[Microsoft]] showcased the new [[Windows Subsystem for Android]] (WSA) to enable support for the [[Android Open Source Project]] (AOSP), but it has since been deprecated. It was meant to allow users running [[Android app]]s and games in Windows 11<!-- allow users from certain countries/territories to run [[Android app]]s --> on their Windows desktop.<ref>{{cite web|last=Parmar|first=Mayank|date=June 27, 2021|url=https://www.windowslatest.com/2021/06/27/microsoft-confirms-android-apps-will-run-on-all-windows-11-pcs/|title=Microsoft confirms Android apps will run on all Windows 11 PCs|access-date=June 28, 2021|publisher=Windows Latest|archive-date=June 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627171118/https://www.windowslatest.com/2021/06/27/microsoft-confirms-android-apps-will-run-on-all-windows-11-pcs/|url-status=live}}</ref> On March 5, 2024, Microsoft announced deprecation of WSA with support ending on March 5, 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warren |first=Tom |date=March 5, 2024 |title=Microsoft to end its Android apps on Windows 11 subsystem in 2025 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2024/3/5/24091370/microsoft-windows-11-android-apps-end-of-support |access-date=March 5, 2024 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=May 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505220310/https://www.theverge.com/2024/3/5/24091370/microsoft-windows-11-android-apps-end-of-support |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Storage ===
The storage of Android devices can be expanded using secondary devices such as [[SD card]]s. Android recognizes two types of secondary storage: ''portable'' storage (which is used by default), and ''adoptable'' storage. Portable storage is treated as an external storage device. Adoptable storage, introduced on Android 6.0, allows the internal storage of the device to be [[Non-RAID drive architectures#Concatenation (SPAN, BIG)|spanned]] with the SD card, treating it as an extension of the internal storage. This has the disadvantage of preventing the memory card from being used with another device unless it is [[disk formatting|reformatted]].<ref name="Ars Technica review">{{cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=October 5, 2015 |title=Android 6.0 Marshmallow, thoroughly reviewed |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/10/android-6-0-marshmallow-thoroughly-reviewed/ |access-date=March 6, 2017 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |archive-date=October 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006014621/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/10/android-6-0-marshmallow-thoroughly-reviewed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Android 4.4 introduced the Storage Access Framework (SAF), a set of APIs for accessing files on the device's filesystem.<ref name="anandtech-sdkitkat">{{cite web |last=Ho |first=Joshua |title=Examining MicroSD changes in Android 4.4 |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/7859/examining-microsd-changes-in-android-44 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314104428/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7859/examining-microsd-changes-in-android-44 |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |access-date=March 28, 2014 |work=Anandtech}}</ref> As of Android 11, Android has required apps to conform to a data privacy policy known as ''scoped storage'', under which apps may only automatically have access to certain directories (such as those for pictures, music, and video), and app-specific directories they have created themselves. Apps are required to use the SAF to access any other part of the filesystem.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Behavior changes: Apps targeting Android 11 |url=https://developer.android.com/about/versions/11/behavior-changes-11 |access-date=August 18, 2020 |website=Android Developers |language=en |archive-date=October 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017233052/https://developer.android.com/about/versions/11/behavior-changes-11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Android Q Scoped Storage: Best Practices and Updates |url=https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2019/04/android-q-scoped-storage-best-practices.html |access-date=August 15, 2019 |website=Android Developers Blog |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427125019/https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2019/04/android-q-scoped-storage-best-practices.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Android Q privacy change: Scoped storage |url=https://developer.android.com/preview/privacy/scoped-storage |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711073559/https://developer.android.com/preview/privacy/scoped-storage |archive-date=July 11, 2019 |access-date=August 15, 2019 |website=Android Developers}}</ref>

=== Memory management ===
Since Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is designed to manage processes to keep power consumption at a minimum. When an application is not in use the system [[Process state|suspends its operation]] so that, while available for immediate use rather than closed, it does not use battery power or CPU resources.<ref name="phonedogtask">{{cite web |url=http://www.phonedog.com/2011/06/26/the-truth-about-android-task-killers-and-why-you-don-t-need-them/ |title=The truth about Android task killers and why you don't need them |publisher=PhoneDog |date=June 26, 2011 |access-date=October 30, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023073622/http://www.phonedog.com/2011/06/26/the-truth-about-android-task-killers-and-why-you-don-t-need-them/ |archive-date=October 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://grail.cba.csuohio.edu/~matos/notes/cis-493/lecture-notes/Android-Chapter03-Life-Cycle.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222153131/http://grail.cba.csuohio.edu/~matos/notes/cis-493/lecture-notes/Android-Chapter03-Life-Cycle.pdf |title=Lesson 3: Android Application's Life Cycle |date=September 9, 2013 |access-date=April 15, 2014 |archive-date=February 22, 2014 |author=Victor Matos |publisher=Cleveland State University |work=grail.cba.csuohio.edu }}</ref> Android manages the applications stored in memory automatically: when memory is low, the system will begin invisibly and automatically closing inactive processes, starting with those that have been inactive for the longest amount of time.<ref name="phandroidtask">{{cite web |url=http://phandroid.com/2011/06/16/android-psa-stop-using-task-killer-apps-now/ |title=Android PSA: Stop Using Task Killer Apps |publisher=Phandroid.com |date=June 16, 2011 |access-date=October 30, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217024640/http://phandroid.com/2011/06/16/android-psa-stop-using-task-killer-apps-now/ |archive-date=February 17, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3hAdK1IBkYC&pg=PT53 |title=Professional Android 4 Application Development |author=Reto Meier |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-118-23722-9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121112754/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3hAdK1IBkYC&pg=PT53 |archive-date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref> Lifehacker reported in 2011 that third-party task-killer applications were doing more harm than good.<ref name="lifehackertask">{{cite web |last1=Gordon |first1=Whitson |url=http://lifehacker.com/5862994/real-world-test-show-that-android-task-killers-are-still-useless |title=Updates |work=Lifehacker |date=November 28, 2011 |publisher=Lifehacker.com |access-date=November 2, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105184651/http://lifehacker.com/5862994/real-world-test-show-that-android-task-killers-are-still-useless |archive-date=November 5, 2012 }}</ref>

=== Developer options ===
Some settings for use by [[Android app development|developers]] for [[debugging]] and [[power user]]s are located in a "Developer options" sub menu, such as the ability to highlight updating parts of the display, show an overlay with the current status of the touch screen, show touching spots for possible use in [[screencast]]ing, notify the user of unresponsive background processes with the option to end them ("Show all ANRs", i.e. "App's Not Responding"), prevent a Bluetooth audio client from controlling the system volume ("Disable absolute volume"), and adjust the duration of transition animations or deactivate them completely to speed up navigation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Your phone's dev options, explained |url=https://www.androidcentral.com/all-about-your-phones-developer-options |website=Android Central |access-date=June 13, 2021 |date=September 22, 2014 |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613220706/https://www.androidcentral.com/all-about-your-phones-developer-options |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How To Increase Bluetooth Headset Volume For Your Phone |url=https://thedroidguy.com/how-to-increase-bluetooth-headset-volume-for-your-phone-1087946 |website=thedroidguy.com |access-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614011238/https://thedroidguy.com/how-to-increase-bluetooth-headset-volume-for-your-phone-1087946 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Summerson |first1=Cameron |title=How to Speed Up Animations to Make Android Feel Faster |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/175033/how-to-speed-up-any-android-phone-by-disabling-animations/ |website=How-To Geek |access-date=June 13, 2021 |date=December 15, 2017}}</ref>

Developer options are initially hidden since Android 4.2 "Jelly Bean", but can be enabled by actuating the operating system's build number in the device information seven times. Hiding developers options again requires deleting user data for the "Settings" app, possibly resetting some other preferences, or in recent Android versions, turning off the Developer options master switch.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turn Off Developer Options on Android Devices – Tutorial |url=https://www.droidviews.com/how-to-hide-developer-options-on-android-devices/ |website=DroidViews |access-date=June 13, 2021 |date=December 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Duino |first1=Justin |title=How to hide Android's Developer options |url=https://9to5google.com/2017/06/11/how-to-disable-developer-options-android-basics/ |website=[[9to5Google]] |access-date=June 13, 2021 |date=June 11, 2017 |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613194217/https://9to5google.com/2017/06/11/how-to-disable-developer-options-android-basics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Cipriani |first1=Jason |title=Restore the Developer Options menu in Android 4.2 |url=https://www.cnet.com/how-to/restore-the-developer-options-menu-in-android-4-2/ |website=CNET |access-date=June 13, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613222448/https://www.cnet.com/how-to/restore-the-developer-options-menu-in-android-4-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== <span class="anchor" id="HWREQ"></span>Hardware ==
{{See also|Android hardware requirements}}
The main hardware platform for Android is [[ARM architecture family|ARM]] (i.e. the 64-bit [[ARMv8-A]] architecture and the 32-bit [[ARMv7-A]] architecture), with the [[x86]] and [[x86-64]] architectures also being officially supported in later versions of Android.<ref name="Android Lollipop platform support">{{cite web |title=Android Lollipop |url=https://developer.android.com/about/versions/lollipop.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130145944/https://developer.android.com/about/versions/lollipop.html |archive-date=January 30, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Support for 64-bit x86 |url=https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/x86-64.html |website=Android Developers |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306033848/https://developer.android.com/ndk/guides/x86-64.html |archive-date=March 6, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NDK Revision History |url=https://developer.android.com/ndk/downloads/revision_history |website=Android Developers |access-date=July 17, 2018 |archive-date=April 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405155532/https://developer.android.com/ndk/downloads/revision_history |url-status=live }}</ref> The unofficial [[Android-x86]] project provided support for x86 architectures ahead of the official support.<ref name="ARMAN-4.0-on-x86">{{cite web |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9222323/Google_s_Android_4.0_ported_to_x86_processors |title=Google's Android 4.0 ported to x86 processors |last=Shah |first=Agam |date=December 1, 2011 |work=[[Computerworld]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124084934/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9222323/Google_s_Android_4.0_ported_to_x86_processors |archive-date=January 24, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://01.org/android-ia/ |title=Android on Intel Architecture |publisher=01.org |date=July 11, 2013 |access-date=February 9, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209101735/https://01.org/android-ia/ |archive-date=February 9, 2014 }}</ref> Since 2012, Android devices with [[Intel]] processors began to appear, including phones<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phone-reviews/9314362/Orange-San-Diego-Intel-Android-mobile-phone-review.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phone-reviews/9314362/Orange-San-Diego-Intel-Android-mobile-phone-review.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Orange San Diego Intel Android mobile phone review |last1=Warman |first1=Matt |date=June 7, 2012 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=June 19, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and tablets. While gaining support for 64-bit platforms, Android was first made to run on 64-bit x86 and then on [[ARM64]]. An unofficial experimental port of the operating system to the [[RISC-V]] architecture was released in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Android has been ported to a RISC-V board |url=https://www.xda-developers.com/android-risc-v-port/ |website=[[xda-developers]] |access-date=January 25, 2021 |date=January 21, 2021 |archive-date=January 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124203310/https://www.xda-developers.com/android-risc-v-port/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Requirements for the minimum amount of [[random-access memory|RAM]] for smartphones running Android&nbsp;15 range from 4&nbsp;GB of RAM for full Android to 2&nbsp;GB, in which case the smartphone manufacturers must use the [[Android Go|Android Go Edition]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vlad |title=Here are Google's new minimum RAM and storage requirements for Android phones |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/here_are_googles_new_minimum_ram_and_storage_requirements_for_android_phones-news-67387.php |access-date=2025-09-23 |website=GSMArena.com |language=en |archive-date=July 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250726015800/https://www.gsmarena.com/here_are_googles_new_minimum_ram_and_storage_requirements_for_android_phones-news-67387.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Android supports all versions of OpenGL&nbsp;ES and [[Vulkan]] (and version 1.1 available for some devices<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://developer.nvidia.com/vulkan-android|title=Vulkan on Android|quote=Vulkan 1.1 is available as a Developer Preview OTA for the NVIDIA SHIELD TV.|date=February 10, 2016|work=NVIDIA Developer|access-date=March 21, 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123153634/https://developer.nvidia.com/vulkan-android|archive-date=January 23, 2018}}</ref>).

Android devices incorporate many optional hardware components, including still or video cameras, [[Global Positioning System|GPS]], [[orientation sensing|orientation sensors]], dedicated gaming controls, accelerometers, gyroscopes, barometers, [[magnetometer]]s, proximity sensors, [[pressure sensor]]s, thermometers, and [[touchscreen]]s. Some hardware components are not required, but became standard in certain classes of devices, such as smartphones, and additional requirements apply if they are present. Some other hardware was initially required, but those requirements have been relaxed or eliminated altogether. For example, as Android was developed initially as a phone OS, hardware such as microphones were required, while over time the phone function became optional.<ref name="android-compatibility" /> Android used to require an [[autofocus]] camera, which was relaxed to a [[fixed-focus lens|fixed-focus]] camera<ref name="android-compatibility" /> if present at all, since the camera was dropped as a requirement entirely when Android started to be used on [[set-top box]]es.

In addition to running on smartphones and tablets, several vendors run Android natively on regular PC hardware with a keyboard and mouse.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/product/1427121/n308.html|title=Lenovo N308 Desktop specs|work=PCWorld|date=May 8, 2014|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028175231/http://www.pcworld.com/product/1427121/n308.html|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jide.com/remixos-for-pc|title=Remix OS for PC|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927135811/http://www.jide.com/remixos-for-pc|archive-date=September 27, 2017|access-date=September 22, 2017|quote=Now powered by Android Marshmallow.}}
<!-- based on (what's coming to Remix OS) http://www.android-x86.org/ :
    2017-09-10: The oreo-x86 branch is ready for developers.
    2017-06-08: The Android-x86 7.1-rc1 released (the first release candidate of nougat-x86).
--></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2152540/android-on-the-big-screen-we-chew-up-and-spit-out-three-jelly-bean-all-in-one-pcs.html|title=Three Android all-in-one PCs reviewed|author=Michael Brown|date=May 8, 2014|work=PCWorld|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028170619/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2152540/android-on-the-big-screen-we-chew-up-and-spit-out-three-jelly-bean-all-in-one-pcs.html|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techspot.com/review/805-acer-ta272-hul-android-aio/|title=Acer TA272 HUL Android All-in-One Review|author=Shawn Knight|work=TechSpot|date=April 16, 2014 |access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028215542/http://www.techspot.com/review/805-acer-ta272-hul-android-aio/|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref> In addition to their availability on commercially available hardware, similar PC hardware-friendly versions of Android are freely available from the Android-x86 project, including customized Android&nbsp;4.4.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.android-x86.org/releases/releasenote-4-4-r1|title=ReleaseNote 4.4-r1 – Android-x86 – Porting Android to x86|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028173131/http://www.android-x86.org/releases/releasenote-4-4-r1|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref> Using the Android emulator that is part of the [[Android SDK]], or third-party emulators, Android can also run non-natively on x86 architectures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howtogeek.com/179691/4-ways-to-run-android-on-your-pc-and-make-your-own-dual-os-system/ |title=4 Ways to Run Android on Your PC and Make Your Own "Dual OS" System |publisher=Howtogeek.com |date=January 13, 2014 |access-date=April 7, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407084905/http://www.howtogeek.com/179691/4-ways-to-run-android-on-your-pc-and-make-your-own-dual-os-system/ |archive-date=April 7, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Brad Chacos |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2048220/hybrid-hijinks-how-to-install-android-on-your-pc.html |title=Hybrid hijinks: How to install Android on your PC |publisher=PCWorld |date=September 6, 2013 |access-date=April 7, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407071525/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2048220/hybrid-hijinks-how-to-install-android-on-your-pc.html |archive-date=April 7, 2014 }}</ref> Chinese companies are building a PC and mobile operating system, based on Android, to "compete directly with Microsoft Windows and Google Android".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/2014/08/25/technology/security/china-os/|title=China ditching Windows and Android for its own operating system|author=Jose Pagliery|date=August 25, 2014|work=CNNMoney|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028171711/https://money.cnn.com/2014/08/25/technology/security/china-os/|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref> The Chinese Academy of Engineering noted that "more than a dozen" companies were customizing Android following a Chinese ban on the use of Windows 8 on government PCs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-28928369|title=BBC News – China plans new PC operating system in October|work=BBC News|date=August 25, 2014|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112054354/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-28928369|archive-date=November 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324539404578342132324098420|title=China Criticizes Android's Dominance|author=Paul Mozur|date=March 5, 2013|work=WSJ|access-date=November 1, 2014|archive-date=September 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929020352/http://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324539404578342132324098420|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-technology-idUSKBN0GO08H20140824|title=China targets own operating system to take on likes of Microsoft, Google|work=Reuters|date=August 24, 2014|access-date=November 1, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028173428/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/24/us-china-technology-idUSKBN0GO08H20140824|archive-date=October 28, 2014}}</ref>

== Devices ==
Android runs on a wide variety of devices such as smartphones, tablets, cars, computers, smart watches, and smart TVs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Android |url=https://www.android.com/what-is-android/ |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=Android |language=en |archive-date=December 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202125145/https://www.android.com/what-is-android/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the vast majority of Android-powered devices are smartphones. Unlike its two main competitors in the mobile operating system space, namely iOS and HarmonyOS, Android devices are made by many different original equipment manufacturers. These OEMs include Samsung, Xiaomi, Vivo, Oppo, iQOO, OnePlus, Honor, Google, Sony, Lenovo, Sharp, Realme, Nothing, and Tecno.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-10 |title=Android 14 features: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/android-14-features-3280726/ |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=Android Authority |language=en |archive-date=July 31, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250731002518/https://www.androidauthority.com/android-14-features-3280726/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Romero |first=Andrew |date=15 May 2024 |title=Android 15 Beta is now available for devices from Nothing, OnePlus, Xiaomi, and more |url=https://9to5google.com/2024/05/15/android-15-beta-available-for-these-devices/ |access-date=28 July 2025 |website=9 To 5 Google |archive-date=May 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516053019/https://9to5google.com/2024/05/15/android-15-beta-available-for-these-devices/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== <span class="anchor" id="AOSP"></span>Development ==
[[File:AOSP Android Stack.png|thumb|214x214px|The stack of Android Open Source Project]]
Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the [[source code]] is made available to the Android Open Source Project (AOSP),<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to the Android Open Source Project! |url=http://source.android.com/ |website=Android Source |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312181554/http://source.android.com/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> an open source initiative led by Google.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://source.android.com/|title=Android Open Source Project|access-date=December 22, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222213939/https://source.android.com/|archive-date=December 22, 2017}}</ref> The first source code release happened as part of the initial release in 2007. All releases are under the [[Apache License]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Ryan |date=November 6, 2007 |title=Why Google chose the Apache Software License over GPLv2 for Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/11/why-google-chose-the-apache-software-license-over-gplv2/ |access-date=December 9, 2022 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=March 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063844/https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/11/why-google-chose-the-apache-software-license-over-gplv2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The AOSP code can be found with minimal modifications on select devices, mainly the former Nexus and current Android One series of devices.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Lynn |last1=La |first2=Brian |last2=Bennett |title=Powerful, pure Android handsets (roundup) |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/powerful-pure-android-phones/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=November 14, 2014 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064159/https://www.cnet.com/news/powerful-pure-android-phones/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> However, most original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) customize the source code to run on their hardware.<ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Lawler |title=Android 4.1 Jelly Bean source code now available |url=https://www.engadget.com/2012/07/09/android-4-1-jelly-bean-source-code-now-available/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=July 9, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314151854/https://www.engadget.com/2012/07/09/android-4-1-jelly-bean-source-code-now-available/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=McCann |title=Android 4.1 Jelly Bean source code released |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/android-4-1-jelly-bean-source-code-released-1088404 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713010734/http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/android-4-1-jelly-bean-source-code-released-1088404 |website=[[TechRadar]] |publisher=[[Future plc]] |date=July 10, 2012 |archive-date=July 13, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref>

Android's source code does not contain the [[device driver]]s, often proprietary, that are needed for certain hardware components,<ref name="Building for devices">{{cite web|title=Building for devices |url=http://source.android.com:80/source/building-devices.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107123505/http://source.android.com/source/building-devices.html |website=Android Open Source Project |archive-date=January 7, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and does not contain the source code of [[Google Play Services]], which many apps depend on. As a result, most Android devices, including Google's own, ship with a combination of [[Free and open-source software|free and open source]] and [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] software, with the software required for accessing Google services falling into the latter category.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} In response to this, there are some projects that build complete operating systems based on AOSP as free software, the first being [[CyanogenMod]] (see section [[#Open-source community|Open-source community]] below).

=== Update schedule ===
{{See also|Android version history}}
{| class="wikitable sortable tabelle-zeile-aktiv" style="float:right; margin-right:1em;"
|+Summary of versions
!Version
!Release date
|-
|1.0
|September 23, 2008
|-
|1.1
|February 9, 2009
|-
|[[Android Cupcake|1.5 (Cupcake)]]
|April 27, 2009
|-
|[[Android Donut|1.6 (Donut)]]
|September 15, 2009
|-
|[[Android Eclair|2.0&minus;2.1 (Eclair)]]
|October 26, 2009
|-
|[[Android Froyo|2.2 (Froyo)]]
|May 20, 2010
|-
|[[Android Gingerbread|2.3 (Gingerbread)]]
|December 6, 2010
|-
|[[Android Honeycomb|3.0 (Honeycomb)]]
|February 22, 2011
|-
|[[Android Ice Cream Sandwich|4.0 (Ice Cream Sandwich)]]
|October 18, 2011
|-
|[[Android Jelly Bean|4.1&minus;4.2&minus;4.3 (Jelly Bean)]]
|July 9, 2012
|-
|[[Android KitKat|4.4 (KitKat)]]
|October 31, 2013
|-
|[[Android Lollipop|5.0&minus;5.1 (Lollipop)]]
|November 12, 2014
|-
|[[Android Marshmallow|6.0 (Marshmallow)]]
|October 5, 2015
|-
|[[Android Nougat|7.0&minus;7.1 (Nougat)]]
|August 22, 2016
|-
|[[Android Oreo|8.0&minus;8.1 (Oreo)]]
|August 21, 2017
|-
|[[Android Pie|9 (Pie)]]
|August 6, 2018
|-
|[[Android 10|10]]
|September 3, 2019
|-
|[[Android 11|11]]
|September 8, 2020
|-
|[[Android 12|12&minus;12L]]
|October 4, 2021
|-
|[[Android 13|13]]
|August 15, 2022
|-
|[[Android 14|14]]
|October 4, 2023
|-
|[[Android 15|15]]
|October 15, 2024
|-
|[[Android 16|16]]
|June 10, 2025
|}
Google provides annual<ref>{{cite web |first=Peter |last=K. |title=We'll get a major Android release every year from now on: Android M tomorrow, Android N in 2016 |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Well-get-a-major-Android-release-every-year-from-now-on-Android-M-tomorrow-Android-N-in-2016_id69709 |website=PhoneArena |date=May 27, 2015 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313214349/http://www.phonearena.com/news/Well-get-a-major-Android-release-every-year-from-now-on-Android-M-tomorrow-Android-N-in-2016_id69709 |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> Android releases, both for factory installation in new devices, and for [[Over-the-air programming|over-the-air]] updates to existing devices.<ref>{{cite web |title=OTA Updates |url=https://source.android.com/devices/tech/ota/ |website=Android Source |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095155/https://source.android.com/devices/tech/ota/ |archive-date=December 25, 2016 }}</ref> The latest major release is [[Android 16]].

The extensive variation of [[computer hardware|hardware]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Casey |last=Johnston |title=Android fragmentation: one developer encounters 3,997 devices |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/05/android-fragmentation-one-developer-encounters-3997-devices/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 16, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314063422/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/05/android-fragmentation-one-developer-encounters-3997-devices/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> in Android devices has caused significant delays for software upgrades and [[Patch (computing)|security patches]]. Each upgrade has had to be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process.<ref>{{cite web |first=Alex |last=Dobie |title=Solving the impossible problem of Android updates |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/solving-impossible-problem-android-updates |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=January 18, 2014 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303061348/http://www.androidcentral.com/solving-impossible-problem-android-updates |archive-date=March 3, 2017 }}</ref> Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates have often arrived months after the release of the new version, or not at all.<ref>{{cite web |first=Antonio |last=Villas-Boas |title=The latest Android delay is why I'm sticking to iPhone |url=http://nordic.businessinsider.com/nexus-6-android-70-nougat-update-delayed-2016-9/ |website=[[Business Insider]] |publisher=[[Axel Springer SE]] |date=September 14, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314063958/http://nordic.businessinsider.com/nexus-6-android-70-nougat-update-delayed-2016-9/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind.<ref name="alliance">{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=What happened to the Android Update Alliance? |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/06/what-happened-to-the-android-update-alliance/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=June 28, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063530/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/06/what-happened-to-the-android-update-alliance/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers who, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending out the upgrade.<ref name="alliance" /><ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Hoffman |title=Why Do Carriers Delay Updates for Android But Not iPhone? |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/163958/why-do-carriers-delay-updates-for-android-but-not-iphone/ |website=How-To Keep |date=May 25, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312225544/https://www.howtogeek.com/163958/why-do-carriers-delay-updates-for-android-but-not-iphone/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> There are also situations in which upgrades are impossible due to a manufacturer not updating necessary [[Device driver|drivers]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Why isn't your old phone getting Nougat? There's blame enough to go around |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/08/why-isnt-your-old-phone-getting-nougat-theres-blame-enough-to-go-around/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 31, 2016 |access-date=April 3, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403194841/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/08/why-isnt-your-old-phone-getting-nougat-theres-blame-enough-to-go-around/ |archive-date=April 3, 2017 }}</ref>

The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Priya |last=Ganapati |title=New Phones Still Sold With Old Versions of Android |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/android-version-confusion/ |journal=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=March 15, 2010 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064024/https://www.wired.com/2010/03/android-version-confusion/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=cwalters |title=Make Sure You Know Which Version Of Android Is On That Phone Before Buying It |url=https://consumerist.com/2010/03/15/make-sure-you-know-which-version-of-android-is-on-that-phone-before-buying-it/ |website=[[Consumerist]] |publisher=[[Consumer Reports]] |date=March 15, 2010 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614172640/https://consumerist.com/2010/03/15/make-sure-you-know-which-version-of-android-is-on-that-phone-before-buying-it/ |archive-date=June 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="The Guardian upgrades">{{cite web |first=Dan |last=Gillmor |title=Android's smartphone OS upgrade issues need more than a quick fix |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/oct/28/android-smartphone-os-upgrade |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=October 28, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064542/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/oct/28/android-smartphone-os-upgrade |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to upgrade their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones,<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Leyden |title=Security takes a backseat on Android in update shambles |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/11/22/android_patching_mess |website=[[The Register]] |publisher=Situation Publishing |date=November 22, 2011 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064219/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/11/22/android_patching_mess |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> an attitude described as "insulting".<ref name="The Guardian upgrades" /> ''[[The Guardian]]'' complained that the method of distribution for updates is complicated only because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way.<ref name="The Guardian upgrades" /> In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an "Android Update Alliance", pledging to deliver timely updates for every device for 18 months after its release; however, there has not been another official word about that alliance since its announcement.<ref name="alliance" /><ref>{{cite web |first=JR |last=Raphael |title=It's time to rethink the Android upgrade standard |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2475873/android/it-s-time-to-rethink-the-android-upgrade-standard.html |website=[[Computerworld]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=February 13, 2014 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213194813/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2475873/android/it-s-time-to-rethink-the-android-upgrade-standard.html |archive-date=February 13, 2017 }}</ref>

In 2012, Google began de-coupling certain aspects of the operating system (particularly its central applications) so they could be updated through the [[Google Play]] store independently of the OS. One of those components, [[Google Play Services]], is a [[closed-source]] system-level process providing [[API]]s for Google services, installed automatically on nearly all devices running [[Android Froyo|Android 2.2 "Froyo"]] and higher. With these changes, Google can add new system functions and update apps without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Balky carriers and slow OEMs step aside: Google is defragging Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=September 3, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903011541/http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/09/balky-carriers-and-slow-oems-step-aside-google-is-defragging-android/ |archive-date=September 3, 2013 }}</ref> As a result, [[Android Jelly Bean|Android 4.2 and 4.3 "Jelly Bean"]] contained relatively fewer user-facing changes, focusing more on minor changes and platform improvements.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Review: Android 4.3's multitude of minor changes future-proofs the platform |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/08/review-android-4-3-future-proofs-the-platform-with-multitude-of-minor-changes/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 9, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314063711/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/08/review-android-4-3-future-proofs-the-platform-with-multitude-of-minor-changes/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref>

[[HTC]]'s then-executive Jason Mackenzie called monthly security updates "unrealistic" in 2015, and Google was trying to persuade carriers to exclude security patches from the full testing procedures. In May 2016, [[Bloomberg Businessweek]] reported that Google was making efforts to keep Android more up-to-date, including accelerated rates of security updates, rolling out technological workarounds, reducing requirements for phone testing, and ranking phone makers in an attempt to "shame" them into better behavior. As stated by ''Bloomberg'': "As smartphones get more capable, complex and hackable, having the latest software work closely with the hardware is increasingly important". Hiroshi Lockheimer, the Android lead, admitted that "It's not an ideal situation", further commenting that the lack of updates is "the weakest link on security on Android". Wireless carriers were described in the report as the "most challenging discussions", due to their slow approval time while testing on their networks, despite some carriers, including [[Verizon Wireless]] and [[Sprint Corporation]], already shortening their approval times. In a further effort for persuasion, Google shared a list of top phone makers measured by updated devices with its Android partners, and is considering making the list public.{{when|date=November 2019}} Mike Chan, co-founder of phone maker Nextbit and former Android developer, said that "The best way to solve this problem is a massive re-architecture of the operating system", "or Google could invest in training manufacturers and carriers 'to be good Android citizens{{' "}}.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Jack |last1=Clark |first2=Scott |last2=Moritz |title=Google Steps Up Pressure on Partners Tardy in Updating Android |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-25/google-steps-up-pressure-on-partners-tardy-in-updating-android |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |date=May 25, 2016 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330113629/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-25/google-steps-up-pressure-on-partners-tardy-in-updating-android |archive-date=March 30, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Google's making a list: Android OEMs to be ranked, shamed by update speed |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/05/google-hopes-to-shame-slow-android-oems-with-update-rankings/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 26, 2016 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113202/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/05/google-hopes-to-shame-slow-android-oems-with-update-rankings/ |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Abner |last=Li |title=Report: Google pressuring OEMs and carriers to speed up Android updates, security patches |url=https://9to5google.com/2016/05/25/android-security-os-updates/ |website=[[9to5Google]] |date=May 25, 2016 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316025422/https://9to5google.com/2016/05/25/android-security-os-updates/ |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref>

In May 2017, with the announcement of [[Android Oreo|Android 8.0]], Google introduced Project Treble, a major re-architect of the Android OS framework designed to make it easier, faster, and less costly for manufacturers to update devices to newer versions of Android. Project Treble separates the vendor implementation (device-specific, lower-level software written by silicon manufacturers) from the Android OS framework via a new "vendor interface". In Android 7.0 and earlier, no formal vendor interface exists, so device makers must update large portions of the Android code to move a device to a newer version of the operating system. With Treble, the new stable vendor interface provides access to the hardware-specific parts of Android, enabling device makers to deliver new Android releases simply by updating the Android OS framework, "without any additional work required from the silicon manufacturers."<ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Google's "Project Treble" solves one of Android's many update roadblocks |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/05/google-hopes-to-fix-android-updates-no-really-with-project-treble/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 12, 2017 |access-date=November 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203010312/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/05/google-hopes-to-fix-android-updates-no-really-with-project-treble/ |archive-date=December 3, 2017 }}</ref>

In September 2017, Google's Project Treble team revealed that, as part of their efforts to improve the security lifecycle of Android devices, Google had managed to get the Linux Foundation to agree to extend the support lifecycle of the Linux Long-Term Support (LTS) kernel branch from the 2 years that it has historically lasted to 6 years for future versions of the LTS kernel, starting with Linux kernel 4.4.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Android users rejoice! Linux kernel LTS releases are now good for 6 years |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-users-rejoice-linux-kernel-lts-releases-are-now-good-for-6-years/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=September 29, 2017 |access-date=November 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111043334/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-users-rejoice-linux-kernel-lts-releases-are-now-good-for-6-years/ |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref>

In May 2019, with the announcement of [[Android 10]], Google introduced Project Mainline to simplify and expedite delivery of updates to the Android ecosystem. Project Mainline enables updates to core OS components through the Google Play Store. As a result, important security and performance improvements that previously needed to be part of full OS updates can be downloaded and installed as easily as an app update.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2019/05/fresher-os-with-projects-treble-and-mainline.html|title=Fresher OS with Projects Treble and Mainline|website=Android Developers Blog|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220093711/https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2019/05/fresher-os-with-projects-treble-and-mainline.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Google reported rolling out new amendments in Android 12 aimed at making the use of third-party application stores easier. This announcement rectified the concerns reported regarding the development of Android apps, including a fight over an alternative in-app payment system and difficulties faced by businesses moving online because of [[COVID-19]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/28/21472139/google-android-12-app-store-installation-payment-fees|title=Google says Android 12 will make using third-party app stores easier|access-date=September 28, 2020|website=The Verge|date=September 28, 2020|archive-date=September 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928172737/https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/28/21472139/google-android-12-app-store-installation-payment-fees|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Linux kernel ===
Android's [[kernel (operating system)|kernel]] is based on the [[Linux kernel]]'s [[long-term support]] (LTS) branches. {{As of|2024}}, Android (14) uses versions 6.1 or 5.15 (for "Feature kernels", can be older for "Launch kernels", e.g. android12-5.10, android11-5.4, depending on Android version down to e.g. android11-5.4, android-4.14-stable, android-4.9-q), and older Android versions, use version 5.15 or a number of older kernels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Android common kernels |url=https://source.android.com/docs/core/architecture/kernel/android-common |access-date=March 14, 2024 |website=Android Open Source Project |language=en |archive-date=March 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314190124/https://source.android.com/docs/core/architecture/kernel/android-common |url-status=live }}</ref> The actual kernel depends on the individual device.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jerry |last=Hildenbrand |title=What is a kernel? |url=https://www.androidcentral.com/android-z-what-kernel |website=Android Central |date=January 23, 2012 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527152852/http://www.androidcentral.com/android-z-what-kernel |archive-date=May 27, 2017}}</ref>

Android's variant of the Linux kernel has further architectural changes that are implemented by Google outside the typical Linux kernel development cycle, such as the inclusion of components like device trees, ashmem, ION, and different [[out of memory]] (OOM) handling.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Are The Major Changes That Android Made To The Linux Kernel? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/05/13/what-are-the-major-changes-that-android-made-to-the-linux-kernel/ |website=[[Forbes]] |date=May 13, 2013 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104090354/http://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/05/13/what-are-the-major-changes-that-android-made-to-the-linux-kernel/ |archive-date=January 4, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LMG Upstreaming |url=https://wiki.linaro.org/LMG/Kernel/Upstreaming |website=Linaro |date=December 5, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063643/https://wiki.linaro.org/LMG/Kernel/Upstreaming |archive-date=January 9, 2018 |access-date=June 26, 2017 }}</ref> Certain features that Google contributed back to the Linux kernel, notably a power management feature called "wakelocks",<ref>{{cite web |first=Brian |last=Proffitt |title=Garrett's LinuxCon Talk Emphasizes Lessons Learned from Android/Kernel Saga |url=https://www.linux.com/news/garretts-linuxcon-talk-emphasizes-lessons-learned-androidkernel-saga |website=[[LinuxCon]] |publisher=[[Linux Foundation]] |date=August 10, 2010 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629190535/https://www.linux.com/news/garretts-linuxcon-talk-emphasizes-lessons-learned-androidkernel-saga |archive-date=June 29, 2017 }}</ref> were initially rejected by [[Mainline Linux|mainline kernel]] developers partly because they felt that Google did not show any intent to maintain its own code.<ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Meyer |title=Linux developer explains Android kernel code removal |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/linux-developer-explains-android-kernel-code-removal/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=February 3, 2010 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015045139/http://www.zdnet.com/article/linux-developer-explains-android-kernel-code-removal/ |archive-date=October 15, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="hartman">{{cite web |first=Greg |last=Kroah-Hartman |author-link=Greg Kroah-Hartman |title=Android and the Linux kernel community |url=http://www.kroah.com/log/linux/android-kernel-problems.html |website=Linux kernel monkey log |date=December 9, 2010 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427144039/http://www.kroah.com/log/linux/android-kernel-problems.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Google announced in April 2010 that they would hire two employees to work with the Linux kernel community,<ref>{{cite web |first=Paula |last=Rooney |title=DiBona: Google will hire two Android coders to work with kernel.org |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/dibona-google-will-hire-two-android-coders-to-work-with-kernel-org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617005554/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/open-source/dibona-google-will-hire-two-android-coders-to-work-with-kernelorg/6274 |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=April 15, 2010 |archive-date=June 17, 2010 |url-status=live |access-date=March 11, 2017}}</ref> but [[Greg Kroah-Hartman]], the current Linux kernel maintainer for the stable branch, said in December 2010 that he was concerned that Google was no longer trying to get their code changes included in mainstream Linux.<ref name="hartman" /> Google engineer Patrick Brady once stated in the company's developer conference that "Android is not Linux",<ref name="ars introduction developer">{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Paul |title=Dream(sheep++): A developer's introduction to Google Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2009/02/an-introduction-to-google-android-for-developers/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=February 24, 2009 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704115615/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2009/02/an-introduction-to-google-android-for-developers/ |archive-date=July 4, 2017 }}</ref> with ''[[Computerworld]]'' adding that "Let me make it simple for you, without Linux, there is no Android".<ref>{{cite web |first=Steven J. |last=Vaughan-Nichols |title=Android/Linux kernel fight continues |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2469087/mobile-apps/android-linux-kernel-fight-continues.html |website=[[Computerworld]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=September 7, 2010 |access-date=June 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214190045/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2469087/mobile-apps/android-linux-kernel-fight-continues.html |archive-date=February 14, 2017 }}</ref> ''[[Ars Technica]]'' wrote that "Although Android is built on top of the Linux kernel, the platform has very little in common with the conventional desktop Linux stack".<ref name="ars introduction developer" />

In August 2011, [[Linus Torvalds]] said that "eventually Android and Linux would come back to a common kernel, but it will probably not be for four to five years".<ref>{{cite web |first=Steven J. |last=Vaughan-Nichols |title=Linus Torvalds on Android, the Linux fork |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/linus-torvalds-on-android-the-linux-fork/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=August 18, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218053104/http://www.zdnet.com/article/linus-torvalds-on-android-the-linux-fork/ |archive-date=February 18, 2017 }}</ref> In December 2011, Greg Kroah-Hartman announced the start of Android Mainlining Project, which aims to put some Android [[Device driver|drivers]], patches and features back into the Linux kernel, starting in Linux 3.3.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Android-drivers-to-be-included-in-Linux-3-3-kernel-1400996.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208130029/http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Android-drivers-to-be-included-in-Linux-3-3-kernel-1400996.html|archive-date=December 8, 2013 |title=Android drivers to be included in Linux 3.3 kernel |author=Chris von Eitzen |work=h-online.com |date=December 23, 2011 |access-date=February 15, 2012}}</ref> Linux included the autosleep and wakelocks capabilities in the 3.5 kernel, after many previous attempts at a merger. The interfaces are the same but the upstream Linux implementation allows for two different suspend modes: to memory (the traditional suspend that Android uses), and to disk (hibernate, as it is known on the desktop).<ref>{{cite web|last=Jonathan|first=Corbet|title=Autosleep and wakelocks|date=February 7, 2012 |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/479841/|publisher=LWN|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826165126/http://lwn.net/Articles/479841/|archive-date=August 26, 2012}}</ref> Google maintains a public code repository that contains their experimental work to [[rebasing|re-base]] Android off the latest stable Linux versions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTMxMzc |title=Google Working On Android Based On Linux 3.8 |date=February 28, 2013 |access-date=February 28, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302004730/http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTMxMzc |archive-date=March 2, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pocketdroid.net/google-working-on-experimental-linux-kernel-3-10-for-android/ |title=Google working on experimental Linux Kernel 3.10 for Android |publisher=Pocketdroid.net |access-date=September 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827220633/http://www.pocketdroid.net/google-working-on-experimental-linux-kernel-3-10-for-android/ |archive-date=August 27, 2013 }}</ref>

Android is a [[Linux distribution]] according to the [[Linux Foundation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news-media/blogs/browse/2012/12/what-year-linux-please-join-us-celebration |title=What a Year for Linux: Please Join us in Celebration |first=Amanda |last=McPherson |publisher=Linux Foundation |date=December 13, 2012 |access-date=April 16, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417232521/http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news-media/blogs/browse/2012/12/what-year-linux-please-join-us-celebration |archive-date=April 17, 2014 }}</ref> Google's open-source chief [[Chris DiBona]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://derstandard.at/1308186313932/Interview-Google-Android-is-the-Linux-desktop-dream-come-true |title=Google: "Android is the Linux desktop dream come true" |first=Andreas |last=Proschofsky |work=derStandard.at |date=July 10, 2011 |access-date=March 14, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422021245/http://derstandard.at/1308186313932/Interview-Google-Android-is-the-Linux-desktop-dream-come-true |archive-date=April 22, 2013 }}</ref> and several journalists.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jerry |last=Hildenbrand |title=Ask AC: Is Android Linux? |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/ask-ac-android-linux |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=November 8, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408213437/http://www.androidcentral.com/ask-ac-android-linux |archive-date=April 8, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.itworld.com/open-source/369810/android-really-linux-distribution |title=Is Android really a Linux distribution? |first=Jim |last=Lynch |work=ITworld |date=August 20, 2013 |access-date=April 17, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140205165359/http://www.itworld.com/open-source/369810/android-really-linux-distribution |archive-date=February 5, 2014 }}</ref> Others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, say that Android is not Linux in the traditional [[Unix-like]] Linux distribution sense; Android does not include the [[GNU C Library]] (it uses [[Bionic (software)|Bionic]] as an alternative C library) and some other components typically found in Linux distributions.<ref name="APIs">{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Paul |title=Dream(sheep++): A developer's introduction to Google Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2009/02/an-introduction-to-google-android-for-developers/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=February 24, 2009 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064709/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2009/02/an-introduction-to-google-android-for-developers/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref>

With the release of [[Android Oreo]] in 2017, Google began to require that devices shipped with new [[system on a chip|SoCs]] had Linux kernel version 4.4 or newer, for security reasons. Existing devices upgraded to Oreo, and new products launched with older SoCs, were exempt from this rule.<ref>{{cite web |first=Doug |last=Lynch |title=Google is Mandating Linux Kernel Versions in Android Oreo |url=https://www.xda-developers.com/google-mandating-linux-kernel-versions-android-oreo/ |website=[[XDA Developers]] |date=September 2, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904023054/https://www.xda-developers.com/google-mandating-linux-kernel-versions-android-oreo/ |archive-date=September 4, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Sofia |last=Wyciślik-Wilson |title=With Android Oreo, Google is introducing Linux kernel requirements |url=https://betanews.com/2017/09/03/android-oreo-linux-kernel/ |website=BetaNews |publisher=[[eFront]] |date=September 3, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013445/https://betanews.com/2017/09/03/android-oreo-linux-kernel/ |archive-date=November 7, 2017 }}</ref>

=== Rooting ===
{{Main article|Rooting (Android)}}
The [[flash storage]] on Android devices is split into several partitions, such as <code>/system/</code> for the operating system itself, and <code>/data/</code> for user data and application installations.<ref>{{cite news |last=Raja |first=Haroon Q. |url=http://www.addictivetips.com/mobile/android-partitions-explained-boot-system-recovery-data-cache-misc/ |title=Android Partitions Explained: boot, system, recovery, data, cache & misc |newspaper=Addictivetips |publisher=Addictivetips.com |date=May 19, 2011 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922024642/http://www.addictivetips.com/mobile/android-partitions-explained-boot-system-recovery-data-cache-misc/ |archive-date=September 22, 2012 }}</ref>

In contrast to typical [[desktop Linux]] distributions, Android device owners are not given [[superuser|root]] access to the operating system and sensitive partitions such as <code>/system/</code> are partially [[read-only memory|read-only]]. However, [[Filesystem Hierarchy Standard|root access]] can be obtained by exploiting [[Vulnerability (computing)|security flaws]] in Android, which is used frequently by the [[#Open-source community|open-source community]] to enhance the capabilities and customizability of their devices, but also by malicious parties to install [[computer virus|viruses]] and [[malware]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Jools Whitehorn |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/android-malware-gives-itself-root-access-1062294 |title=Android malware gives itself root access &#124; News |date=February 10, 2012 |publisher=TechRadar |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901170804/http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/android-malware-gives-itself-root-access-1062294 |archive-date=September 1, 2012 }}</ref> Root access can also be obtained by [[Bootloader unlocking|unlocking the bootloader]] which is available on most Android devices, for example on most [[Google Pixel]], [[OnePlus]] and [[Nothing (company)|Nothing]] models <code>OEM Unlocking</code> option in the developer settings allows the user to unlock the bootloader with [[Fastboot]], afterward, custom software may be installed. Some OEMs have their own methods. The unlocking process [[factory reset|resets the system to factory state]], erasing all user data.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 29, 2016 |title=Bootloader, Recovery, and the joy of unlocking |url=https://ifixit.com/Anleitung/Bootloader+Recovery+and+the+joy+of+unlocking/62398 |website=iFixit }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Proprietary frameworks like [[Samsung Knox]] limit or block attempts at rooting. Google's [[Play Integrity API]] allows developers to check for any signs of tampering,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Play Integrity API {{!}} Google Play |url=https://developer.android.com/google/play/integrity |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=Android Developers |language=en |archive-date=May 1, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250501193328/https://developer.android.com/google/play/integrity |url-status=live }}</ref> although the fairness of the tests have been criticized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Attestation compatibility guide {{!}} Articles {{!}} GrapheneOS |url=https://grapheneos.org/articles/attestation-compatibility-guide |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=grapheneos.org |language=en |archive-date=May 25, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250525150632/https://grapheneos.org/articles/attestation-compatibility-guide |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Software stack ===
[[File:Android-System-Architecture.svg|thumb|right|250px|Android's architecture diagram {{Obsolete source|reason=this is from 2008 (https://sites.google.com/site/io/anatomy--physiology-of-an-android)|date=November 2020}}]]On top of the Linux kernel, there are the [[middleware]], [[software library|libraries]] and [[API]]s written in [[C (programming language)|C]], and [[application software]] running on an [[application framework]] which includes [[Java (software platform)|Java]]-compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android's other source code projects.

Android uses [[Android Runtime]] (ART) as its runtime environment (introduced in version 4.4), which uses [[Ahead-of-time compilation|ahead-of-time (AOT) compilation]] to entirely compile the application bytecode into [[machine code]] upon the installation of an application. In Android&nbsp;4.4, ART was an experimental feature and not enabled by default; it became the only runtime option in the next major version of Android, 5.0.<ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://www.androidpolice.com/2013/11/06/meet-art-part-1-the-new-super-fast-android-runtime-google-has-been-working-on-in-secret-for-over-2-years-debuts-in-kitkat/
 |title = Meet ART, Part 1: The New Super-Fast Android Runtime Google Has Been Working On In Secret For Over 2 Years Debuts In KitKat
 |first = Cody
 |last = Toombs
 |work = Android Police
 |date = November 6, 2013
|access-date = April 27, 2014
|url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140513062758/http://www.androidpolice.com/2013/11/06/meet-art-part-1-the-new-super-fast-android-runtime-google-has-been-working-on-in-secret-for-over-2-years-debuts-in-kitkat/
 |archive-date = May 13, 2014
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> In versions no longer supported, until version 5.0 when ART took over, Android previously used [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]] as a [[process virtual machine]] with [[Tracing just-in-time compilation|trace-based just-in-time (JIT) compilation]] to run Dalvik "dex-code" (Dalvik Executable), which is usually translated from the [[Java bytecode]]. Following the trace-based JIT principle, in addition to [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreting]] the majority of application code, Dalvik performs the compilation and [[Machine code|native execution]] of select frequently executed code segments ("traces") each time an application is launched.<ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://www.android-app-developer.co.uk/android-app-development-docs/android-jit-compiler-androids-dalvik-vm.pdf
 |title = A JIT Compiler for Android's Dalvik VM
 |date = May 2010
 |access-date = March 18, 2015
|author1 = Ben Cheng
 |author2 = Bill Buzbee
 |website = android-app-developer.co.uk
 |pages = 5–14
 |url-status = dead
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106221110/http://www.android-app-developer.co.uk/android-app-development-docs/android-jit-compiler-androids-dalvik-vm.pdf
 |archive-date = November 6, 2015
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Phil |last=Nickinson |title=Google Android developer explains more about Dalvik and the JIT in Froyo |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/google-android-developer-explains-more-about-dalvik-and-jit-froyo |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=May 26, 2010 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408183538/http://www.androidcentral.com/google-android-developer-explains-more-about-dalvik-and-jit-froyo |archive-date=April 8, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="brady_dissects_android">{{cite web |first=Ed |last=Burnette |title=Patrick Brady dissects Android |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/patrick-brady-dissects-android/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=June 4, 2008 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705145635/http://www.zdnet.com/article/patrick-brady-dissects-android/ |archive-date=July 5, 2017 }}</ref>
For its Java library, the Android platform uses a subset of the now discontinued [[Apache Harmony]] project.<ref name="ars-njdk" /> In December 2015, Google announced that the next version of Android would switch to a Java implementation based on the [[OpenJDK]] project.<ref name="vb-openjdk">{{cite web|title=Google confirms next Android version won't implement Oracle's proprietary Java APIs|url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/12/29/google-confirms-next-android-version-wont-use-oracles-proprietary-java-apis/|website=VentureBeat|date=December 29, 2015|access-date=December 30, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230021134/http://venturebeat.com/2015/12/29/google-confirms-next-android-version-wont-use-oracles-proprietary-java-apis/|archive-date=December 30, 2015}}</ref>

Android's [[C standard library|standard C library]], [[Bionic (software)|Bionic]], was developed by Google specifically for Android, as a derivation of the [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]'s standard C library code. Bionic itself has been designed with several major features specific to the Linux kernel. The main benefits of using Bionic instead of the [[GNU C Library]] (glibc) or [[uClibc]] are its smaller runtime footprint, and optimization for low-frequency CPUs. At the same time, Bionic is licensed under the terms of the [[BSD licence]], which Google finds more suitable for the Android's overall licensing model.<ref name="brady_dissects_android" />

Aiming for a different licensing model, toward the end of 2012, Google switched the Bluetooth stack in Android from the GPL-licensed [[BlueZ]] to the Apache-licensed BlueDroid.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Edge |first1=Jake |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/597293/ |title=Returning BlueZ to Android |date=May 6, 2014 |publisher=[[LWN.net]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625090633/http://lwn.net/Articles/597293/ |archive-date=June 25, 2014 }}</ref> A new Bluetooth stack, called Gabeldorsche, was developed to try to fix the bugs in the BlueDroid implementation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://9to5google.com/2020/02/19/android-11-dp1-gabeldorsche-bluetooth/|title=Android 11's new 'Gabeldorsche' Bluetooth stack was given its name for a great reason|first=Kyle|last=Bradshaw|date=February 20, 2020|website=[[9to5Google]]|access-date=April 2, 2021|archive-date=March 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327094732/https://9to5google.com/2020/02/19/android-11-dp1-gabeldorsche-bluetooth/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Android does not have a native [[X Window System]] by default, nor does it support the full set of standard [[GNU]] libraries. This made it difficult to port existing Linux applications or libraries to Android,<ref name="APIs" /> until version r5 of the [[Android NDK|Android Native Development Kit]] brought support for applications written completely in [[C (programming language)|C]] or [[C++]].<ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/01/gingerbread-ndk-awesomeness.html
 |title = Gingerbread NDK Awesomeness
 |first = Chris
 |last = Pruett
 |work = Android Developers Blog
 |publisher = Google, Inc.
 |date = January 11, 2011
|access-date = April 22, 2014
|url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140219125015/http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/01/gingerbread-ndk-awesomeness.html
 |archive-date = February 19, 2014
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> Libraries written in C may also be used in applications by injection of a small [[Shim (computing)|shim]] and usage of the [[Java Native Interface|JNI]].<ref name="sdlandroid">{{cite web
|url = http://www.libsdl.org/tmp/SDL/README.android
|title = Simple DirectMedia Layer for Android
|work = [[Simple DirectMedia Layer|SDL]]
|date = August 12, 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120604080429/http://www.libsdl.org/tmp/SDL/README.android
|archive-date = June 4, 2012
}}</ref>

In current versions of Android, "[[Toybox]]", a collection of command-line utilities (mostly for use by apps, as Android does not provide a [[command-line interface]] by default), is used (since the release of Marshmallow) replacing a similar "Toolbox" collection found in previous Android versions.<ref name="toyboxmarsmallow">[https://lwn.net/Articles/629362/ Android gets a toybox] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204730/https://lwn.net/Articles/629362/ |date=March 4, 2016 }} on [[lwn.net]] by Jake Edge (January 14, 2015)</ref>

Android has another operating system, Trusty OS, within it, as a part of "Trusty" "software components supporting a Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) on mobile devices." "Trusty and the Trusty API are subject to change. [..] Applications for the Trusty OS can be written in C/C++ (C++ support is limited), and they have access to a small C library. [..] All Trusty applications are single-threaded; multithreading in Trusty userspace currently is unsupported. [..] Third-party application development is not supported in" the current version, and software running on the OS and processor for it, run the "[[Digital rights management|DRM]] framework for protected content. [..] There are many other uses for a TEE such as mobile payments, secure banking, full-disk encryption, multi-factor authentication, device reset protection, replay-protected persistent storage, wireless display ("cast") of protected content, secure PIN and fingerprint processing, and even malware detection."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://source.android.com/security/trusty/index.html |title=Trusty TEE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018232112/https://source.android.com/security/trusty/index.html |archive-date=October 18, 2016 }}</ref>

=== Open-source community ===
{{See also|List of custom Android distributions}}
Android's [[source code]] is released by Google under an [[open-source license]], and its open nature has encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for community-driven projects, which deliver updates to older devices, add new features for advanced users or bring Android to devices originally shipped with other operating systems.<ref>{{cite web |first=Damien |last=McFerran |title=Best custom ROMs for the Samsung Galaxy S2 |url=http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/mobile-apps/best-custom-roms-for-the-samsung-galaxy-s2-50007658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419194709/http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/mobile-apps/best-custom-roms-for-the-samsung-galaxy-s2-50007658 |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=April 17, 2012 |archive-date=April 19, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017}}</ref> These community-developed releases often bring new features and updates to devices faster than through the official manufacturer/carrier channels, with a comparable level of quality;<ref>{{cite news |first=Artem |last=Russakovskii |title=Custom ROMs For Android Explained – Here Is Why You Want Them |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2010/05/01/custom-roms-for-android-explained-and-why-you-want-them/ |website=Android Police |date=May 1, 2010 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128133644/http://www.androidpolice.com/2010/05/01/custom-roms-for-android-explained-and-why-you-want-them/ |archive-date=January 28, 2017 }}</ref> provide continued support for older devices that no longer receive official updates; or bring Android to devices that were officially released running other operating systems, such as the [[HP TouchPad]]. Community releases often come pre-[[Android rooting|rooted]] and contain modifications not provided by the original vendor, such as the ability to [[overclock]] or [[Dynamic voltage scaling|over/undervolt]] the device's processor,<ref>{{cite news |last=Isaac |first=Mike |url=https://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2011/04/cyanogenmod-android/ |title=Android OS Hack Gives Virtual Early Upgrade &#124; Gadget Lab |publisher=Wired.com |date=April 11, 2011 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502133719/http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2011/04/cyanogenmod-android |archive-date=May 2, 2012 }}</ref> or security enhancements beyond what is included in the stock OS.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Mascellino |first=Alessandro |date=2022-06-16 |title=What is GrapheneOS and how does it improve privacy and security? |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/what-is-graphene-os/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722231922/https://www.androidpolice.com/what-is-graphene-os/ |archive-date=22 July 2022 |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=Android Police |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[CyanogenMod]] was the most widely used community firmware;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2012/05/28/cyanogenmod-has-been-installed-over-2-million-times-doubles-install-numbers-since-january/ |title=CyanogenMod Has Now Been Installed On Over 2 Million Devices, Doubles Install Numbers Since January |publisher=Androidpolice.com |date=May 28, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804015756/http://www.androidpolice.com/2012/05/28/cyanogenmod-has-been-installed-over-2-million-times-doubles-install-numbers-since-january/ |archive-date=August 4, 2012 }}</ref> after its abrupt discontinuation in 2016, a community [[Fork (software development)|fork]] known as [[LineageOS]] was established as a spiritual continuation of the project.<ref>{{cite news |last=Levy |first=Nat |date=26 December 2016 |title=Open-source Lineage project rises from Cyanogen's ashes as Android maker abruptly shuts down services |url=http://www.geekwire.com/2016/open-source-lineage-project-rises-cyanogens-ashes-android-maker-abruptly-shuts-services/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403113753/https://www.geekwire.com/2016/open-source-lineage-project-rises-cyanogens-ashes-android-maker-abruptly-shuts-services/ |archive-date=3 April 2019 |access-date=26 December 2016 |work=[[GeekWire]]}}</ref>

Historically, device manufacturers and mobile carriers have typically been unsupportive of third-party [[firmware]] development. Manufacturers express concern about improper functioning of devices running unofficial software and the support costs resulting from this.<ref name="htcdev">{{cite web |url=http://htcdev.com/bootloader |title=HTC's bootloader unlock page |publisher=Htcdev.com |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019020546/http://htcdev.com/bootloader |archive-date=October 19, 2012 }}</ref> Moreover, modified firmware such as CyanogenMod sometimes offer features, such as [[tethering]], for which carriers would otherwise charge a premium. As a result, technical obstacles including locked [[bootloader]]s and restricted access to root permissions are common in many devices. However, as community-developed software has grown more popular, and following a statement by the [[Librarian of Congress]] in the [[United States]] that permits the "[[iOS jailbreaking|jailbreaking]]" of mobile devices,<ref>{{cite web |last=Sadun |first=Erica |url=http://www.tuaw.com/2010/07/26/library-of-congress-rules-in-favor-of-jailbreaking/ |title=LoC rules in favor of jailbreaking |publisher=Tuaw.com |date=July 26, 2010 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030023251/http://www.tuaw.com/2010/07/26/library-of-congress-rules-in-favor-of-jailbreaking/ |archive-date=October 30, 2012 }}</ref> manufacturers and carriers have softened their position regarding third party development, with some, including [[HTC]],<ref name="htcdev" /> [[Motorola]],<ref>{{cite web |first=Jordan |last=Crook |title=Motorola Offers Unlocked Bootloader Tool For Droid RAZR, Verizon Removes It |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/10/24/motorola-offers-unlocked-bootloader-tool-for-droid-razr-verizon-removes-it/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 24, 2011 |access-date=June 25, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025174051/http://techcrunch.com/2011/10/24/motorola-offers-unlocked-bootloader-tool-for-droid-razr-verizon-removes-it/ |archive-date=October 25, 2011 }}</ref> [[Samsung]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inspiredgeek.com/2011/06/08/cyanogenmod-7-for-samsung-galaxy-s2-ii-development-already-started/ |title=CyanogenMod 7 for Samsung Galaxy S2 (II): Development Already Started! |date=June 8, 2011 |work=Inspired Geek |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822051352/http://www.inspiredgeek.com/2011/06/08/cyanogenmod-7-for-samsung-galaxy-s2-ii-development-already-started/ |archive-date=August 22, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Menno |title=CyanogenMod coming to the Galaxy S 2, thanks to Samsung |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/cyanogenmod-coming-galaxy-sii-thanks-samsung |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=June 6, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408230750/http://www.androidcentral.com/cyanogenmod-coming-galaxy-sii-thanks-samsung |archive-date=April 8, 2017 }}</ref> and [[Sony Mobile Communications|Sony]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Forian |first=Daniel |url=http://developer.sonyericsson.com/wp/2011/09/28/sony-ericsson-supports-independent-developers/ |title=Sony Ericsson supports independent developers – Developer World |publisher=Developer.sonyericsson.com |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212160322/http://developer.sonyericsson.com/wp/2011/09/28/sony-ericsson-supports-independent-developers/ |archive-date=February 12, 2012 }}</ref> providing support and encouraging development. As a result of this, over time the need to circumvent hardware restrictions to install unofficial firmware has lessened as an increasing number of devices are shipped with unlocked or unlockable [[bootloader]]s, similar to [[Google Nexus|Nexus]] series of phones, although usually requiring that users waive their devices' warranties to do so.<ref name="htcdev" /> However, despite manufacturer acceptance, some carriers in the US still require that phones are locked down.<ref>{{cite web |first=Janus |last=Kopfstein |title=Access Denied: why Android's broken promise of unlocked bootloaders needs to be fixed |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/11/20/3666668/access-denied-android-unlocked-bootloaders |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=November 20, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210040817/http://www.theverge.com/2012/11/20/3666668/access-denied-android-unlocked-bootloaders |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref>

=== <span class="anchor" id="codename"></span>Device codenames ===
Internally, Android identifies each supported device by its '''device codename''', a short string,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://forum.xda-developers.com/wiki/Device_codename|title=Device codename – XDA-Developers|website=forum.xda-developers.com|date=April 30, 2013|access-date=March 13, 2019|archive-date=June 14, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614192752/http://forum.xda-developers.com/wiki/Device_codename|url-status=live}}</ref> which may or may not be similar to the model name used in marketing the device. For example, the device codename of the [[Pixel (1st generation)|Pixel smartphone]] is ''sailfish''.

The device codename is usually not visible to the end user, but is important for determining compatibility with modified Android versions. It is sometimes also mentioned in articles discussing a device, because it allows to distinguish different hardware variants of a device, even if the manufacturer offers them under the same name. The device codename is available to running applications under <code>android.os.Build.DEVICE</code>.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE|title=Documentation of the Build class|website=Android Developers|access-date=March 13, 2019|archive-date=March 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321230820/https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE|url-status=live}}</ref>

== <span class="anchor" id="APP-OPS"></span>Security and privacy ==
{{See also|Mobile security|Comparison of open-source mobile phones}}

In 2020, Google launched the Android Partner Vulnerability Initiative to improve the security of Android.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Tom Pritchard |title=Google Pixel 5 just got a lot more appealing—here's why |url=https://www.tomsguide.com/uk/news/google-pixel-5-just-got-a-lot-more-appealing-heres-why |website=Tom's Guide |date=October 5, 2020 |access-date=October 5, 2020 |archive-date=October 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031043401/https://www.tomsguide.com/uk/news/google-pixel-5-just-got-a-lot-more-appealing-heres-why |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Google launches initiative to improve the security of non-Pixel devices |url=https://www.xda-developers.com/google-launches-android-partner-vulnerability-initiative/ |website=xda-developers |access-date=October 3, 2020 |date=October 2, 2020 |archive-date=October 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003084114/https://www.xda-developers.com/google-launches-android-partner-vulnerability-initiative/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They also formed an Android security team.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google is forming an Android security team to find bugs in sensitive apps |url=https://www.xda-developers.com/google-forming-android-security-team-find-bugs-sensitive-apps/ |website=xda-developers |access-date=October 5, 2020 |date=October 5, 2020 |archive-date=October 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005074705/https://www.xda-developers.com/google-forming-android-security-team-find-bugs-sensitive-apps/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Common security threats ===
Research from security company [[Trend Micro]] lists premium service abuse as the most common type of Android malware, where text messages are sent from infected phones to [[premium-rate telephone number]]s without the consent or even knowledge of the user. Other malware displays unwanted and intrusive advertisements on the device, or sends personal information to unauthorised third parties.<ref>{{cite news |first=Emil |last=Protalinski |title=Android malware numbers explode to 25,000 in June 2012 |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/android-malware-numbers-explode-to-25000-in-june-2012/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=July 17, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012044759/http://www.zdnet.com/article/android-malware-numbers-explode-to-25000-in-june-2012/ |archive-date=October 12, 2016 }}</ref> Security threats on Android are reportedly growing exponentially; however, Google engineers have argued that the malware and virus threat on Android is being [[Fear, uncertainty and doubt|exaggerated]] by security companies for commercial reasons,<ref name="exaggeration">{{cite web|url=http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/network-wifi/3320818/mobile-malware-exaggerated-by-charlatan-vendors-says-google-engineer/|title=Mobile malware exaggerated by "charlatan" vendors, says Google engineer|date=November 24, 2011|publisher=PC Advisor|access-date=November 9, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308075557/http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/network-wifi/3320818/mobile-malware-exaggerated-by-charlatan-vendors-says-google-engineer/|archive-date=March 8, 2013}}</ref><ref name="extremely">{{cite web |first=Jerry |last=Hildenbrand |title=Android 4.2 brings new security features to scan sideloaded apps |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/android-42-brings-new-security-features-scan-sideloaded-apps |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=November 2, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408194541/http://www.androidcentral.com/android-42-brings-new-security-features-scan-sideloaded-apps |archive-date=April 8, 2017 }}</ref> and have accused the security industry of playing on fears to sell virus protection software to users.<ref name="exaggeration" /> Google maintains that dangerous malware is actually extremely rare,<ref name="extremely" /> and a survey conducted by [[F-Secure]] showed that only 0.5% of Android malware reported had come from the Google Play store.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Android-malware-perspective-only-0.5-comes-from-the-Play-Store_id36696|title=Android malware perspective: only 0.5% comes from the Play Store|date=November 15, 2012 |publisher=Phonearena.com|access-date=March 14, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509190547/http://www.phonearena.com/news/Android-malware-perspective-only-0.5-comes-from-the-Play-Store_id36696|archive-date=May 9, 2013}}</ref>

In 2021, journalists and researchers reported the discovery of [[spyware]], called [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]], developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect both [[iOS]] and Android smartphones often – partly via use of [[Zero-day (computing)|0-day exploits]] – without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is Pegasus spyware and how does it hack phones? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |access-date=August 13, 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=July 18, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=August 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823133406/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/18/what-is-pegasus-spyware-and-how-does-it-hack-phones |url-status=live }}</ref> Analysis [[Packet analyzer|of data traffic]] by popular smartphones running variants of Android found substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out by this [[pre-installed software]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study reveals scale of data-sharing from Android mobile phones |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-reveals-scale-data-sharing-android-mobile.html |access-date=November 16, 2021 |work=[[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Haoyu |last2=Patras |first2=Paul |last3=Leith |first3=Douglas J. |title=Android Mobile OS Snooping By Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei and Realme Handsets |date=October 6, 2021 |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |access-date=November 16, 2021 |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118203531/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/Doug.Leith/Android_privacy_report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Both of these issues are not addressed or cannot be addressed by security patches.

==== Scope of surveillance by public institutions ====
{{See also|WARRIOR PRIDE}}
As part of the broader [[2013 mass surveillance disclosures]] it was revealed in September 2013 that the American and British intelligence agencies, the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) and [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), respectively, have access to the user data on iPhone, BlackBerry, and Android devices. They were reportedly able to read almost all smartphone information, including SMS, location, emails, and notes.<ref name="spiegel20130907">{{cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/a-920971.html|title=Privacy Scandal: NSA Can Spy on Smart Phone Data|date=September 7, 2013|access-date=September 7, 2013|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->}}</ref> In January 2014, further reports revealed the intelligence agencies' capabilities to intercept the personal information transmitted across the Internet by social networks and other popular applications such as ''[[Angry Birds]]'', which collect personal information of their users for advertising and other commercial reasons. GCHQ has, according to ''[[The Guardian]]'', a [[wiki]]-style guide of different apps and advertising networks, and the different data that can be siphoned from each.<ref name="angrybirdsatgchq">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/27/nsa-gchq-smartphone-app-angry-birds-personal-data|title=Angry Birds and 'leaky' phone apps targeted by NSA and GCHQ for user data &#124; World news|publisher=theguardian.com|author=James Ball|date=January 28, 2014|access-date=February 2, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302173109/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/27/nsa-gchq-smartphone-app-angry-birds-personal-data|archive-date=March 2, 2014}}</ref> Later that week, the Finnish Angry Birds developer [[Rovio Entertainment|Rovio]] announced that it was reconsidering its relationships with its advertising platforms in the light of these revelations, and called upon the wider industry to do the same.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/28/angry-birds-rovio-respond-nsa-spying-revelations|title=Angry Birds firm calls for industry to respond to NSA spying revelations &#124; World news|date=January 28, 2014|publisher=theguardian.com|author=James Ball|access-date=February 2, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130104652/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/28/angry-birds-rovio-respond-nsa-spying-revelations|archive-date=January 30, 2014|author-link=James Ball (journalist)}}</ref>

The documents revealed a further effort by the intelligence agencies to intercept Google Maps searches and queries submitted from Android and other smartphones to collect location information in bulk.<ref name="angrybirdsatgchq" /> The NSA and GCHQ insist their activities comply with all relevant domestic and international laws, although the Guardian stated "the latest disclosures could also add to mounting public concern about how the technology sector collects and uses information, especially for those outside the US, who enjoy fewer privacy protections than Americans."<ref name="angrybirdsatgchq" />

Leaked documents codenamed [[Vault 7]] and dated from 2013 to 2016, detail the capabilities of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and [[cyber warfare]], including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including Android).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|title=Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs|website=[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]|date=March 7, 2017|access-date=April 22, 2018|archive-date=April 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412212526/https://www.computing.co.uk/ctg/news/3006021/vault-7-wikileaks-reveals-details-of-cias-hacks-of-android-iphone-windows-linux-macos-and-even-samsung-tvs|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|title=How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|date=March 7, 2017|magazine=[[WIRED]]|archive-date=March 20, 2019|access-date=April 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320070844/https://www.wired.com/2017/03/cia-can-hack-phone-pc-tv-says-wikileaks/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Security patches ====
In August 2015, Google announced that devices in the [[Google Nexus]] series would begin to receive monthly security [[Patch (computing)|patches]]. Google also wrote that "Nexus devices will continue to receive major updates for at least two years and security patches for the longer of three years from initial availability or 18 months from last sale of the device via the [[Google Store]]."<ref>{{cite web |first1=Adrian |last1=Ludwig |first2=Venkat |last2=Rapaka |title=An Update to Nexus Devices |url=https://android.googleblog.com/2015/08/an-update-to-nexus-devices.html |website=Official Android Blog |date=August 5, 2015 |access-date=March 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318164542/https://android.googleblog.com/2015/08/an-update-to-nexus-devices.html |archive-date=March 18, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Whitwam |title=Google Announces New Update Policy For Nexus Devices Including Monthly Security Patches For 3 Years And Major OTAs For 2 Years From Release |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2015/08/05/google-announces-new-update-policy-for-nexus-devices-including-monthly-security-patches-for-3-years-and-major-otas-for-2-years-from-release/ |website=Android Police |date=August 5, 2015 |access-date=March 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126054028/http://www.androidpolice.com/2015/08/05/google-announces-new-update-policy-for-nexus-devices-including-monthly-security-patches-for-3-years-and-major-otas-for-2-years-from-release/ |archive-date=January 26, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Brandon |last=Chester |title=Google Commits To Monthly Security Updates For Nexus Devices |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/9496/google-commits-to-monthly-security-updates-for-nexus-devices |website=[[AnandTech]] |publisher=[[Purch Group]] |date=August 5, 2015 |access-date=March 16, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054707/http://www.anandtech.com/show/9496/google-commits-to-monthly-security-updates-for-nexus-devices |archive-date=March 17, 2017 }}</ref> The following October, researchers at the [[University of Cambridge]] concluded that 87.7% of Android phones in use had known but unpatched [[security vulnerabilities]] due to lack of updates and support.<ref>{{cite web |title=87% of Android devices insecure |url=http://androidvulnerabilities.org/press/2015-10-08 |website=Android Vulnerabilities |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |date=October 8, 2015 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222080441/http://www.androidvulnerabilities.org/press/2015-10-08 |archive-date=February 22, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Daniel R. |last1=Thomas |first2=Alastair R. |last2=Beresford |first3=Andrew |last3=Rice |title=Security Metrics for the Android Ecosystem |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~drt24/papers/spsm-scoring.pdf |publisher=[[Libraries of the University of Cambridge|Computer Laboratory]], [[University of Cambridge]] |access-date=March 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222134830/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~drt24/papers/spsm-scoring.pdf |archive-date=February 22, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=University of Cambridge study finds 87% of Android devices are insecure |url=https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/10/university-of-cambridge-study-finds-87-of-android-devices-are-insecure/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=October 14, 2015 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063812/https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/10/university-of-cambridge-study-finds-87-of-android-devices-are-insecure/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Ron Amadeo of ''[[Ars Technica]]'' wrote also in August 2015 that "Android was originally designed, above all else, to be widely adopted. Google was starting from scratch with zero percent market share, so it was happy to give up control and give everyone a seat at the table in exchange for adoption. [...] Now, though, Android has around 75–80 percent of the worldwide smartphone market—making it not just the world's most popular mobile operating system but arguably the most popular operating system, period. As such, security has become a big issue. Android still uses a software update chain-of-command designed back when the Android ecosystem had zero devices to update, and it just doesn't work".<ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Waiting for Android's inevitable security Armageddon |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/08/waiting-for-androids-inevitable-security-armageddon/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 6, 2015 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312065601/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/08/waiting-for-androids-inevitable-security-armageddon/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Following news of Google's monthly schedule, some manufacturers, including Samsung and LG, promised to issue monthly security updates,<ref>{{cite web |first=Liam |last=Tung |title=After Stagefright, Samsung and LG join Google with monthly Android patches |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/after-stagefright-samsung-and-lg-join-google-with-monthly-android-patches/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=August 6, 2015 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051109/http://www.zdnet.com/article/after-stagefright-samsung-and-lg-join-google-with-monthly-android-patches/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> but, as noted by Jerry Hildenbrand in ''Android Central'' in February 2016, "instead we got a few updates on specific versions of a small handful of models. And a bunch of broken promises".<ref>{{cite web |first=Jerry |last=Hildenbrand |title=Monthly security patches are the most important updates you'll never get |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/monthly-security-patches-are-most-important-updates-youll-never-get |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=February 19, 2016 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115232057/http://www.androidcentral.com/monthly-security-patches-are-most-important-updates-youll-never-get |archive-date=January 15, 2017 }}</ref>

In a March 2017 post on Google's Security Blog, Android security leads Adrian Ludwig and Mel Miller wrote that "More than 735 million devices from 200+ manufacturers received a platform security update in 2016" and that "Our carrier and hardware partners helped expand deployment of these updates, releasing updates for over half of the top 50 devices worldwide in the last quarter of 2016". They also wrote that "About half of devices in use at the end of 2016 had not received a platform security update in the previous year", stating that their work would continue to focus on streamlining the security updates program for easier deployment by manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Adrian |last1=Ludwig |first2=Mel |last2=Miller |title=Diverse protections for a diverse ecosystem: Android Security 2016 Year in Review |url=https://security.googleblog.com/2017/03/diverse-protections-for-diverse.html |quote=<!--More than 735 million devices from 200+ manufacturers received a platform security update in 2016. [..]-->We released monthly Android security updates throughout the year for devices running Android 4.4.4 and up—that accounts for 86.3 percent of all active Android devices worldwide. |website=Google Security Blog |date=March 22, 2017 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322141254/http://security.googleblog.com/2017/03/diverse-protections-for-diverse.html |archive-date=March 22, 2017 }}</ref> Furthermore, in a comment to ''[[TechCrunch]]'', Ludwig stated that the wait time for security updates had been reduced from "six to nine weeks down to just a few days", with 78% of flagship devices in North America being up-to-date on security at the end of 2016.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kate |last=Conger |title=Android plans to improve security update speed this year |url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/22/security-updates-are-still-slow-for-android-users/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=March 22, 2017 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322144352/https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/22/security-updates-are-still-slow-for-android-users/ |archive-date=March 22, 2017 }}</ref>

Patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-priced devices.<ref>{{cite web |first=Lorenzo |last=Franceschi-Bicchierai |title=Goodbye, Android |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/goodbye-android/ |website=Motherboard |publisher=[[Vice Media]] |date=July 29, 2015 |access-date=March 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316205243/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/goodbye-android |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Adrian |last=Kingsley-Hughes |title=The Android 'toxic hellstew' survival guide |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-android-toxic-hellstew-survival-guide/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=June 9, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327220116/http://www.zdnet.com/article/the-android-toxic-hellstew-survival-guide/ |archive-date=March 27, 2017 }}</ref> However, the open-source nature of Android allows security contractors to take existing devices and adapt them for highly secure uses. For example, Samsung has worked with General Dynamics through their [[Open Kernel Labs]] acquisition to rebuild ''Jelly Bean'' on top of their hardened microvisor for the "Knox" project.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/02/28/general_dynamics/|title=Air-to-ground rocket men flog top-secret mobe-crypto to Brad in accounts|date=February 28, 2013|publisher=The Register|access-date=August 8, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728215538/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/02/28/general_dynamics/|archive-date=July 28, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/28/technology/samsung-armors-android-to-take-on-blackberry.html|title=Samsung Armors Android to Take On BlackBerry|date=February 28, 2013|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623171457/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/28/technology/samsung-armors-android-to-take-on-blackberry.html|archive-date=June 23, 2017}}</ref>

=== Location-tracking ===
Android smartphones have the ability to report the location of [[Wi-Fi]] access points, encountered as phone users move around, to build databases containing the physical locations of hundreds of millions of such access points. These databases form electronic maps to locate smartphones, allowing them to run apps like [[Foursquare City Guide|Foursquare]], [[Google Latitude]], [[Facebook Places]], and to deliver location-based ads.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/09/technology/09google.html|title=Suit Opens a Window Into Google|date=May 8, 2011|work=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331|author=Steve Lohr|access-date=February 16, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116095159/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/09/technology/09google.html|archive-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref> Third party monitoring software such as TaintDroid,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://appanalysis.org/faq.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315153458/http://appanalysis.org/faq.html|url-status=dead|title=AppAnalysis.org: Real Time Privacy Monitoring on Smartphones|date=March 15, 2018|archive-date=March 15, 2012|access-date=October 9, 2018}}</ref> an academic research-funded project, can, in some cases, detect when personal information is being sent from applications to remote servers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2010/09/data-collection-android/|title=Study Shows Some Android Apps Leak User Data Without Clear Notifications &#124; Gadget Lab|last=Ganapati|first=Priya|date=September 30, 2010|publisher=Wired.com|access-date=January 30, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004011111/http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2010/09/data-collection-android/|archive-date=October 4, 2011}}</ref>

=== Further notable exploits ===
In 2018, Norwegian security firm Promon has unearthed a serious Android security hole which can be exploited to steal login credentials, access messages, and track location, which could be found in all versions of Android, including [[Android 10]]. The vulnerability came by exploiting a bug in the multitasking system enabling a malicious app to overlay legitimate apps with fake login screens that users are not aware of when handing in security credentials. Users can also be tricked into granting additional permissions to the malicious apps, which later enable them to perform various nefarious activities, including intercepting texts or calls and stealing banking credentials.<ref>[https://www.techradar.com/au/news/a-serious-android-bug-could-be-exploited-to-steal-your-banking-credentials A Serious Android bug Could Be Exploited To Steal Your Banking Credentials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726042831/https://www.techradar.com/au/news/a-serious-android-bug-could-be-exploited-to-steal-your-banking-credentials |date=July 26, 2020 }} ''TechRadar''</ref> ''[[Avast]] Threat Labs'' also discovered that many pre-installed apps on several hundred new Android devices contain dangerous malware and [[adware]]. Some of the preinstalled malware can commit ad fraud or even take over its host device.<ref>[https://blog.avast.com/android-devices-ship-with-pre-installed-malware Avast Threat Labs analyzed malware that has affected thousands of users around the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315022808/https://blog.avast.com/android-devices-ship-with-pre-installed-malware |date=March 15, 2020 }} ''Avast''</ref><ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoffman/2019/08/10/google-warning-tens-of-millions-of-android-phones-come-preloaded-with-dangerous-malware/#4f15106cddb3 Google Warning Tens of Millions of Android Phones Come Preloaded With Dangerous Malware] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614051620/https://www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoffman/2019/08/10/google-warning-tens-of-millions-of-android-phones-come-preloaded-with-dangerous-malware/#4f15106cddb3 |date=June 14, 2020 }} ''Forbes''</ref>

In 2020, the Which? watchdog reported that more than a billion Android devices released in 2012 or earlier, which was 40% of Android devices worldwide, were at risk of being hacked. This conclusion stemmed from the fact that no security updates were issued for the Android versions below 7.0 in 2019. Which? collaborated with the AV Comparatives anti-virus lab to infect five phone models with malware, and it succeeded in each case. Google refused to comment on the watchdog's speculations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51751950|title=One billion Android devices at risk of hacking|date=March 6, 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=March 6, 2020|archive-date=March 6, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306171232/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51751950|url-status=live}}</ref>

On August 5, 2020, [[Twitter]] published a blog urging its users to update their applications to the latest version with regards to a security concern that allowed others to access direct messages. A hacker could easily use the "Android system permissions" to fetch the account credentials in order to do so. The security issue is only with Android 8 ([[Android Oreo]]) and Android 9 ([[Android Pie]]). Twitter confirmed that updating the app will restrict such practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/twitter-android-users-update-app-direct-messages-a9656581.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/twitter-android-users-update-app-direct-messages-a9656581.html |archive-date=May 7, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title= Twitter urges Android users to update after breach gives hackers access to private messages |access-date=August 6, 2020|website=Independent|date= August 6, 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Technical security features ===
Android applications run in a [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]], an isolated area of the system that does not have access to the rest of the system's resources, unless access permissions are explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed, however this may not be possible for pre-installed apps. It is not possible, for example, to turn off the microphone access of the pre-installed camera app without disabling the camera completely. This is valid also in Android versions 7 and 8.<ref>{{cite web |first=Gary |last=Sims |title=How secure is Android? |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/secure-android-90523/ |website=Android Authority |date=May 30, 2012 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024406/http://www.androidauthority.com/secure-android-90523/ |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref>

Since February 2012, Google has used its [[Google Bouncer]] malware scanner to watch over and scan apps available in the Google Play store.<ref>{{cite web |first=Hiroshi |last=Lockheimer |title=Android and Security |url=http://googlemobile.blogspot.no/2012/02/android-and-security.html |website=Google Mobile Blog |date=February 2, 2012 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227062701/http://googlemobile.blogspot.no/2012/02/android-and-security.html |archive-date=February 27, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Chloe |last=Albanesius |title=Google 'Bouncer' Now Scanning Android Market for Malware |url=http://uk.pcmag.com/apps/66697/news/google-bouncer-now-scanning-android-market-for-malware |website=PC Magazine |publisher=Ziff Davis |date=February 2, 2012 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227160213/http://uk.pcmag.com/apps/66697/news/google-bouncer-now-scanning-android-market-for-malware |archive-date=February 27, 2017 }}</ref> A "Verify Apps" feature was introduced in November 2012, as part of the [[Android Jelly Bean|Android 4.2 "Jelly Bean"]] operating system version, to scan all apps, both from Google Play and from third-party sources, for malicious behaviour.<ref>{{cite web |first=JR |last=Raphael |title=Exclusive: Inside Android 4.2's powerful new security system |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2473570/android/exclusive--inside-android-4-2-s-powerful-new-security-system.html |website=Computerworld |publisher=International Data Group |date=November 1, 2012 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317162810/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2473570/android/exclusive--inside-android-4-2-s-powerful-new-security-system.html |archive-date=March 17, 2017 }}</ref> Originally only doing so during installation, Verify Apps received an update in 2014 to "constantly" scan apps, and in 2017 the feature was made visible to users through a menu in Settings.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Whitwam |title=Google's Verify Apps now shows apps that it has recently scanned |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2017/02/13/googles-verify-apps-now-shows-apps-recently-scanned/ |website=Android Police |date=February 13, 2017 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316025715/http://www.androidpolice.com/2017/02/13/googles-verify-apps-now-shows-apps-recently-scanned/ |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Kyle |last=Wiggers |title=Google's virus-scanning Verify Apps feature for Android now reveals its secrets |url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/verify-apps-list-update/ |website=Digital Trends |date=February 15, 2017 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316025235/http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/verify-apps-list-update/ |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref>

In former Android versions, before installing an application, the [[Google Play]] store displayed a list of the requirements an app needs to function. After reviewing these permissions, the user could choose to accept or refuse them, installing the application only if they accepted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Review app permissions thru Android 5.9 |url=https://support.google.com/googleplay/answer/6014972 |website=Google Play Help |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316025438/https://support.google.com/googleplay/answer/6014972 |archive-date=March 16, 2017 }}</ref> In [[Android Marshmallow|Android 6.0 "Marshmallow"]], the permissions system was changed; apps are no longer automatically granted all of their specified permissions at installation time. An opt-in system is used instead, in which users are prompted to grant or deny individual permissions to an app when they are needed for the first time. Applications remember the grants, which can be revoked by the user at any time. Pre-installed apps, however, are not always part of this approach. In some cases it may not be possible to deny certain permissions to pre-installed apps, nor be possible to disable them. The [[Google Play Services]] app cannot be uninstalled, nor disabled. Any force stop attempt results in the app restarting itself.<ref>{{cite web |first=Nick |last=Mediati |title=How to toggle app permissions in Android Marshmallow |url=http://www.greenbot.com/article/2990078/android/how-to-toggle-app-permissions-in-android-marshmallow.html |website=Greenbot |publisher=International Data Group |date=October 12, 2015 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307045224/http://www.greenbot.com/article/2990078/android/how-to-toggle-app-permissions-in-android-marshmallow.html |archive-date=March 7, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Dan |last=Seifert |title=Google announces Android M, available later this year |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/5/28/8675257/android-m-os-update-google-io-2015 |website=The Verge |publisher=Vox Media |date=May 28, 2015 |access-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328095646/http://www.theverge.com/2015/5/28/8675257/android-m-os-update-google-io-2015 |archive-date=March 28, 2017 }}</ref> The new permissions model is used only by applications developed for Marshmallow using its [[software development kit]] (SDK), and older apps will continue to use the previous all-or-nothing approach. Permissions can still be revoked for those apps, though this might prevent them from working properly, and a warning is displayed to that effect.<ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Hoffman |title=How to Manage App Permissions on Android 6.0 |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/230683/how-to-manage-app-permissions-on-android-6.0/ |publisher=How-To Geek |date=October 11, 2015 |access-date=March 6, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307045557/https://www.howtogeek.com/230683/how-to-manage-app-permissions-on-android-6.0/ |archive-date=March 7, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ara |last=Wagoner |title=How to take advantage of the new App Permissions in Marshmallow |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/how-take-advantage-new-app-permissions-marshmallow |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=November 1, 2015 |access-date=March 6, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519132425/http://www.androidcentral.com/how-take-advantage-new-app-permissions-marshmallow |archive-date=May 19, 2017 }}</ref>

In September 2014, Jason Nova of ''Android Authority'' reported on a study by the German security company Fraunhofer AISEC in [[antivirus software]] and malware threats on Android. Nova wrote that "The Android operating system deals with software packages by sandboxing them; this does not allow applications to list the directory contents of other apps to keep the system safe. By not allowing the antivirus to list the directories of other apps after installation, applications that show no inherent suspicious behavior when downloaded are cleared as safe. If then later on parts of the app are activated that turn out to be malicious, the antivirus will have no way to know since it is inside the app and out of the antivirus' jurisdiction". The study by Fraunhofer AISEC, examining antivirus software from [[Avast]], [[AVG AntiVirus|AVG]], [[Bitdefender]], [[ESET]], [[F-Secure]], [[Kaspersky Lab|Kaspersky]], [[Lookout (company)|Lookout]], [[McAfee]] (formerly Intel Security), [[Norton (software)|Norton]], [[Sophos]], and [[Trend Micro]], revealed that "the tested antivirus apps do not provide protection against customized malware or targeted attacks", and that "the tested antivirus apps were also not able to detect malware which is completely unknown to date but does not make any efforts to hide its malignity".<ref>{{cite web |first=Jason |last=Nova |title=The State of Antivirus for Android |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/state-antivirus-android-523684/ |website=Android Authority |date=September 14, 2014 |access-date=March 22, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621003547/http://www.androidauthority.com/state-antivirus-android-523684/ |archive-date=June 21, 2017 }}</ref>

In August 2013, Google announced Android Device Manager (renamed Find My Device in May 2017),<ref>{{cite web |first=Ryne |last=Hager |title=Android Device Manager updated for the first time in two years and renamed to Find My Device [APK Download] |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2017/05/17/android-device-manager-updated-first-time-two-years-renamed-find-device-apk-download/ |website=Android Police |date=May 17, 2017 |access-date=May 17, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517190445/http://www.androidpolice.com/2017/05/17/android-device-manager-updated-first-time-two-years-renamed-find-device-apk-download/ |archive-date=May 17, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Welch |title=Google's app for lost Android phones is now called Find My Device |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/17/15654160/google-android-device-manager-app-renamed-find-my-device |website=The Verge |publisher=Vox Media |date=May 17, 2017 |access-date=May 17, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517190755/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/17/15654160/google-android-device-manager-app-renamed-find-my-device |archive-date=May 17, 2017 }}</ref> a service that allows users to remotely track, locate, and wipe their Android device,<ref>{{cite web |first=Emil |last=Protalinski |title=Google announces Android Device Manager coming later this month, an app that helps you find your lost phone |url=https://thenextweb.com/google/2013/08/02/google-announces-android-device-manager-coming-later-this-month-an-app-that-helps-you-find-your-lost-phone/ |website=The Next Web |date=August 2, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064010/https://thenextweb.com/google/2013/08/02/google-announces-android-device-manager-coming-later-this-month-an-app-that-helps-you-find-your-lost-phone/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Kastrenakes |title=Google announces tool to track lost Android phones |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/8/2/4582892/android-lost-device-recovery-tools-device-manager |website=The Verge |publisher=Vox Media |date=August 2, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210030930/http://www.theverge.com/2013/8/2/4582892/android-lost-device-recovery-tools-device-manager |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref> with an Android app for the service released in December.<ref>{{cite web |first=Brian |last=Heater |title=Android Device Manager now available for your downloading pleasure on Google Play |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/12/11/android-device-manager/ |website=Engadget |publisher=AOL |date=December 11, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602021841/https://www.engadget.com/2013/12/11/android-device-manager/ |archive-date=June 2, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Whitwam |title=[New App] Google Releases Android Device Manager App In Play Store |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2013/12/11/new-app-google-releases-android-device-manager-app-in-play-store/ |website=Android Police |date=December 11, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064741/http://www.androidpolice.com/2013/12/11/new-app-google-releases-android-device-manager-app-in-play-store/ |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> In December 2016, Google introduced a Trusted Contacts app, letting users request location-tracking of loved ones during emergencies.<ref>{{cite web |first=Natt |last=Garun |title=Google's new Trusted Contacts app lets you share your location during emergencies |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/5/13842058/google-trusted-contacts-personal-safety-android-app |website=The Verge|publisher=Vox Media |date=December 5, 2016 |access-date=April 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404220136/http://www.theverge.com/2016/12/5/13842058/google-trusted-contacts-personal-safety-android-app |archive-date=April 4, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Frederic |last=Lardinois |title=Google's new Trusted Contacts app lets you share your location in emergencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/05/googles-new-trusted-contacts-app-lets-you-share-your-location-in-emergencies/ |website=TechCrunch |publisher=AOL|date=December 5, 2016 |access-date=April 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622135622/https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/05/googles-new-trusted-contacts-app-lets-you-share-your-location-in-emergencies/ |archive-date=June 22, 2017 }}</ref> In 2020, Trusted Contacts was shut down and the location-sharing feature rolled into Google Maps.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Li|first=Abner|date=October 16, 2020|title=Google shutting down Trusted Contacts location sharing|url=https://9to5google.com/2020/10/16/google-trusted-contacts-shutdown/|access-date=April 29, 2021|website=[[9to5Google]]|language=en-US}}</ref>

On October 8, 2018, Google announced new Google Play store requirements to combat over-sharing of potentially sensitive information, including call and text logs. The issue stems from the fact that many apps request permissions to access users' personal information (even if this information is not needed for the app to function) and some users unquestionably grant these permissions. Alternatively, a permission might be listed in the app manifest as required (as opposed to optional) and the app would not install unless user grants the permission; users can withdraw any, even required, permissions from any app in the device settings after app installation, but few users do this. Google promised to work with developers and create exceptions if their apps require Phone or SMS permissions for "core app functionality". The new policies enforcement started on January 6, 2019, 90 days after policy announcement on October 8, 2018. Furthermore, Google announced a new "target API level requirement" (<code>targetSdkVersion</code> in manifest) at least Android 8.0 (API level 26) for all new apps and app updates. The API level requirement might combat the practice of app developers bypassing some permission screens by specifying early Android versions that had a coarser permission model.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://9to5google.com/2018/10/08/play-store-policy-prevent-leaks/|title=New Play Store policy will help prevent Android call and text data leaks|last=Bradshaw|first=Kyle|date=October 8, 2018|website=[[9to5Google]]|access-date=January 16, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2018/10/providing-safe-and-secure-experience.html|title=Providing a safe and secure experience for our users|website=Android Developers Blog|access-date=January 16, 2019}}</ref>

==== Verified Boot ====
The Android Open Source Project implements a [[UEFI#Secure Boot|verified boot]] chain with intentions to [[Data verification|verify]] that executed code, such as the [[Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] or [[bootloader]], comes from an official source instead of a malicious actor. This implementation establishes a full chain of trust, as it initially starts at a hardware level. Subsequently, the boot loader is verified and system partitions such as <code>system</code> and <code>vendor</code> are checked for [[Data integrity|integrity]].<ref name="verifiedboot">{{cite web |title=Verified Boot |url=https://source.android.com/docs/security/features/verifiedboot |website=Android Open Source Project |publisher=Google |access-date=December 26, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=R. Mayerhofer |display-authors=etal |title=The Android Platform Security Model |journal=Association for Computing Machinery |date=April 2021 |volume=24 |issue=3 |page=10 |doi=10.1145/3448609 |s2cid=119308382 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1904.05572 |issn=2471-2566}}</ref>

Furthermore, this process verifies that a previous version of Android has not been installed. This effectively provides rollback protection, which mitigates exploits that are similar to a [[downgrade attack]].<ref name="verifiedboot" />

===== dm-verity =====
{{See also|Device mapper}}
Android (all supported versions, as far back as version 4.4 of the Android Open Source Project) has the option to provide a [[UEFI#Secure Boot|verified boot]] chain with <code>[[Device mapper#Applications|dm-verity]]</code>. This is a feature in the [[Linux kernel]] that allows for transparent integrity checking of [[Device file#Block devices|block devices]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Implementing dm-verity |url=https://source.android.com/docs/security/features/verifiedboot/dm-verity |website=Android Open Source Project |publisher=Google |access-date=December 26, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=dm-verity |url=https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/admin-guide/device-mapper/verity.html |website=The Linux Kernel documentation |publisher=The kernel development community |access-date=December 26, 2022}}</ref>

This feature is designed to mitigate persistent [[rootkits]].

=== Google Play Services and vendor changes ===
{{See also|Behavioral targeting|DeGoogle}}
Dependence on proprietary [[Google Play Services]] and customizations added on top of the operating system by vendors who license Android from Google is causing privacy concerns.{{What|date=March 2025}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Times|first=Financial|date=April 7, 2021|title=Google illegally tracking Android users, according to new complaint|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2021/04/google-of-illegally-tracking-android-users-according-to-new-complaint/|access-date=October 11, 2021|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=April 7, 2021|title=Google is illegally tracking Android users through adverts, claims privacy group|url=https://stealthoptional.com/news/google-is-illegally-tracking-android-users-through-adverts-claims-privacy-group/|access-date=October 11, 2021|website=Stealth Optional|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Boland|first=Hannah|date=April 7, 2021|title=Google accused of tracking Android users without their consent|language=en-GB|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/04/07/google-accused-tracking-android-users-without-consent/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2021/04/07/google-accused-tracking-android-users-without-consent/ |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=October 11, 2021|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Criticism and controversy ==

=== Privacy and GDPR compliance ===

==== France ====
In 2019, [[Google]] was fined €50 Million by the French [[Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés|CNIL]] for a lack of information regarding their users.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=2019-01-21 |title=Google fined €50 million for GDPR violation in France |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/1/21/18191591/google-gdpr-fine-50-million-euros-data-consent-cnil |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref>

Two years later, in 2021, [[Research|researcher]] Douglas Leith, using a sort of data interception, showed that several data are sent from Android device to [[Google]]'s servers, even when the phone is sleeping (IDLE) with no [[Google]] account registered into it.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Paul Wagenseil |date=2021-03-30 |title=New study reveals iPhones aren't as private as you think |url=https://www.tomsguide.com/news/android-ios-data-collection |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Tom's Guide |language=en}}</ref> Several [[Google]] [[Application software|applications]] send data, such as [[Google Chrome|Chrome]], [[Google Messages|Message]] or [[Google Docs|Docs]], however [[YouTube]] is the only one to add a unique identifier data.<ref>{{Cite web |title=apple_google.pdf |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/doug.leith/apple_google.pdf}}</ref>

In 2022, Leith showed that an Android [[Telephone|phone]] sent various data related to communications, including [[Telephone|phone]] and [[Text messaging|text messages]] to Google. [[Timestamping (computing)|Timestamp]], sender and receiver, plus several other data, are sent to [[Google Play Services]] infrastructure, even if the "Usage and Diag" feature is disabled. Those data are marked with a Unique Identifier of an Android device, and do not comply with [[General Data Protection Regulation|GDPR]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=privacyofdialerandsmsapps.pdf |url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/doug.leith/privacyofdialerandsmsapps.pdf}}</ref>

==== Australia ====
Google was sanctioned about [[Australian dollar|A$]]60 Million (approx 40 Million [[United States dollar|USD]]) in [[Australia]] for having misled its Android customers. It concerns the 2017–2018 period where the issue regarding misleading location tracking settings was discovered, and the case came under Australia’s Competition & Consumer Commission responsibility. The trial concluded in 2021 when the court decided Google broke [[Consumer law]] for about 1.3 million of Google account owners.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lomas |first=Natasha |date=2022-08-12 |title=Google fined $40M+ for misleading location tracking settings |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/08/12/google-android-location-tracking-australia/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== United States of America ====
A similar case to the 2019 French case regarding location tracking, was brought in the U.S. in a  privacy lawsuit filed by a coalition of attorneys general from 40 U.S. states. A penalty of [[United States dollar|USD]] 391 Million was agreed between Google and the [[Ministry of justice|DoJ]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Google will pay $391M to settle Android location tracking lawsuit |url=https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/google/google-will-pay-391m-to-settle-android-location-tracking-lawsuit/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=BleepingComputer |language=en-us}}</ref> [[The New York Times]] released at that time a long-term [[Investigative journalism|investigation]] about those [[privacy]] concerns.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Warzel |first2=Charlie |date=2019-12-19 |title=Opinion {{!}} Twelve Million Phones, One Dataset, Zero Privacy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/12/19/opinion/location-tracking-cell-phone.html |access-date=2024-07-15 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Short software support lifespans ===
{{Related|{{section link|European Ecodesign Directive|Smartphones,_mobile_phones,_cordless_phones_and_tablets}}}}

Android devices, particularly low-end and mid-range models, have been criticized for their short software support lifespans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gunther |first=Cory |date=2024-01-14 |title=Your Android Device Is Too Old to Receive Updates, Now What? |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/your-android-device-is-too-old-to-receive-updates-now-what/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=How-To Geek |language=en}}</ref> Starting in the 2010s, many users found that their devices received only one or two major updates and a limited number of security patches. This lack of long-term support stemmed from manufacturers’ unwillingness to invest in costly software upgrades,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-26 |title=There's a big problem with smartphone software updates |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/smartphone-software-updates-are-a-mess-and-need-to-change/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Digital Trends |language=en}}</ref> which were often tied to contractual agreements with chipset suppliers like [[Qualcomm]]. As a result, Android developed a reputation for rapid device obsolescence.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Reilly |first=Quinton |date=2015-01-09 |title=So far, the latest version of Android is only on a tiny number of devices |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/android-january-2015-1872629-Jan2015/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=TheJournal.ie |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=android-security-warning-one-billion-devices-no-longer-getting-updates/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/android-security-warning-one-billion-devices-no-longer-getting-updates/}}</ref>

To address this concern, Google introduced [[Project Treble]], a framework designed to streamline the development and deployment of Android updates via [[Google Play Services]], reducing manufacturers’ involvement in the update process.

However, for many devices, significant improvements were still limited by the chipset manufacturers. [[Fairphone]], a company focused on sustainability, explained that its inability to extend software support was due to Qualcomm’s policies rather than its own.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=2021-03-25 |title=Fairphone suggests Qualcomm is the biggest barrier to long-term Android support |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/03/the-fairphone-2-hits-five-years-of-updates-with-some-help-from-lineageos/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] executives also highlighted Android’s fragmented update ecosystem in their critiques of the platform, while quietly admitting that Qualcomm had also made it difficult for them to offer updates to the iPhone.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Timothy B. |date=2019-05-30 |title=How Qualcomm shook down the cell phone industry for almost 20 years |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2019/05/how-qualcomm-shook-down-the-cell-phone-industry-for-almost-20-years/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref>

In response problem, several community-driven initiatives emerged to provide alternatives operating systems for unsupported devices including, like [[LineageOS]], [[Sailfish OS]], [[Ubuntu Touch]] and [[PostmarketOS]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qualcomm ends 44 billion NXP bid after failing to win China approval |website=[[Reuters]] |date=July 26, 2018 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/technology/qualcomm-ends-44-billion-nxp-bid-after-failing-to-win-china-approval-idUSKBN1KF18X/ |last1=Martina |first1=Michael |last2=Nellis |first2=Stephen }}</ref>

Starting in 2022, Samsung, the largest Android smartphone manufacturer, announced extended software support from previous two years, first to four years, followed by five years in 2023 and six years in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=samsung-galaxy-os-upgrade-one-ui-android-unpacked-2022/ |url=https://news.samsung.com/us/samsung-galaxy-os-upgrade-one-ui-android-unpacked-2022/}}</ref> 

Shortly thereafter, Qualcomm followed suit, offering extending support timelines for OEM building phones with its chipsets, first to seven years in 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samsung Extends Android and Security Updates to 7 Years |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/samsung-extends-android-and-security-updates-to-7-years/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref> followed by eight years in 2025. However, the support commitment was only for its most powerful chipsets, and did not make a similar commitment for chipsets used in low-end and mid-range phones.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Whitwam |first=Ryan |date=2025-02-25 |title=Qualcomm and Google team up to offer 8 years of Android updates |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2025/02/qualcomm-and-google-team-up-to-offer-8-years-of-android-updates/ |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-US}}</ref>

These changes bring Samsung and potentially some Qualcomm-powered devices closer to competing platforms, such as Apple, whose iPhones have received four to eight years of support.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Haslam |first=Karen |date=October 31, 2024 |title=How long does Apple support iPhones? |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/675021/how-long-does-apple-support-iphones.html |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref>

== Licensing ==
The [[source code]] for Android is [[Open-source software|open-source]]: it is developed in private by Google, with the source code released publicly when a new version of Android is released. Google publishes most of the code (including network and telephony [[solution stack|stacks]]) under the [[non-copyleft]] [[Apache License]] version 2.0. which allows modification and redistribution.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Mobile-and-Wireless/Google-Open-Sources-Android-on-Eve-of-G1-Launch/ |work=[[eWeek]] |title=Google Open-Sources Android on Eve of G1 Launch |first=Clint |last=Boulton |date=October 21, 2008 |access-date=February 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Paul |title=Why Google chose the Apache Software License over GPLv2 for Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/11/why-google-chose-the-apache-software-license-over-gplv2/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=November 6, 2007 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063844/https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/11/why-google-chose-the-apache-software-license-over-gplv2/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> The license does not grant rights to the "Android" trademark, so device manufacturers and wireless carriers have to license it from Google under individual contracts. Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the [[copyleft]] [[GNU General Public License]] version 2, developed by the [[Open Handset Alliance]], with the source code publicly available at all times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://source.android.com/faqs.html#what-is-involved-in-releasing-the-source-code-for-a-new-android-version |title=Frequently Asked Questions: What is involved in releasing the source code for a new Android version? |work=Android Open Source Project |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803005840/http://source.android.com/faqs.html |archive-date=August 3, 2010 }}</ref> The only Android release which was not immediately made available as source code was the tablet-only 3.0 ''Honeycomb'' release. The reason, according to [[Andy Rubin]] in an official Android blog post, was because ''Honeycomb'' was rushed for production of the [[Motorola Xoom]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Bray |first=Tim |url=http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/04/i-think-im-having-gene-amdahl-moment.html |title=I think I'm having a Gene Amdahl moment |publisher=Android Developers Blog |date=April 6, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103150422/http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2011/04/i-think-im-having-gene-amdahl-moment.html |archive-date=January 3, 2012 }}</ref> and they did not want third parties creating a "really bad user experience" by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jerry Hildenbrand |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/google-not-open-sourcing-honeycomb-says-bloomberg |title=Honeycomb won't be open-sourced? Say it ain't so! |publisher=Android Central |date=March 24, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201151102/http://www.androidcentral.com/google-not-open-sourcing-honeycomb-says-bloomberg |archive-date=February 1, 2012 }}</ref>

Only the base Android operating system (including some applications) is open-source software, whereas most Android devices ship with a substantial amount of proprietary software, such as [[Google Mobile Services]], which includes applications such as [[Google Play Store]], Google Search, and [[Google Play Services]]{{snd}}a software layer that provides [[Application programming interface|APIs]] for the integration with Google-provided services, among others. These applications must be licensed from Google by device makers, and can only be shipped on devices which meet its compatibility guidelines and other requirements.<ref name="geek-poweredby">{{cite web|title=Google mandates 'Powered by Android' branding on new devices|url=http://www.geek.com/android/google-mandates-powered-by-android-branding-on-new-devices-1589253/|work=Geek.com|access-date=March 28, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328203431/http://www.geek.com/android/google-mandates-powered-by-android-branding-on-new-devices-1589253/|archive-date=March 28, 2014}}</ref> Custom, certified distributions of Android produced by manufacturers (such as [[Samsung Experience]]) may also replace certain stock Android apps with their own proprietary variants and add additional software not included in the stock Android operating system.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /> With the advent of the [[Google Pixel]] line of devices, Google itself has also made specific Android features timed or permanent exclusives to the Pixel series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/10/20998944/google-pixel-4-software-update-feature-drop-quarterly-photos-call-screening-strategy|title=The Google Pixel will get bigger, more regular software updates you might actually remember|last=Bohn|first=Dieter|date=December 10, 2019|website=The Verge|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pocket-lint.com/phones/news/google/139226-google-pixel-exclusive-features-explored-a-cut-above-the-rest-of-android|title=Google Pixel exclusive features explored: A cut above the rest of Android?|last=Pocket-lint|date=October 19, 2016|website=Pocket-lint|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref> There may also be "[[binary blob]]" [[Driver (software)|drivers]] required for certain hardware components in the device.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /><ref name="Building for devices" /> The best known fully open source Android services are the [[LineageOS]] distribution and [[MicroG]] which acts as an open source replacement of Google Play Services.

[[Richard Stallman]] and the [[Free Software Foundation]] have been critical of Android and have recommended the usage of alternatives such as [[Replicant (operating system)|Replicant]], because drivers and firmware vital for the proper functioning of Android devices are usually proprietary, and because the Google Play Store application can forcibly install or uninstall applications and, as a result, invite non-free software. In both cases, the use of closed-source software causes the system to become vulnerable to [[Backdoor (computing)|backdoors]].<ref name="stallman2011">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/sep/19/android-free-software-stallman |work=The Guardian |title=Is Android really free software? |first=Richard |last=Stallman |date=September 19, 2011 |access-date=September 9, 2012 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926172133/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/sep/19/android-free-software-stallman |archive-date=September 26, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/android-and-users-freedom.html|title=Android and Users' Freedom – Support the Free Your Android campaign|first=Richard|last=Stallman|publisher=[[Free Software Foundation]]|work=GNU.org|date=August 5, 2012|access-date=September 9, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905074919/http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/android-and-users-freedom.html|archive-date=September 5, 2012}}</ref>

It has been argued that because developers are often required to purchase the Google-branded Android license, this has turned the theoretically open system into a [[freemium]] service.<ref name="JemielniakPrzegalinska2020">{{cite book|author1=Dariusz Jemielniak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ|title=Collaborative Society|author2=Aleksandra Przegalinska|date=February 18, 2020|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-35645-9}}</ref>{{rp|20}}

=== Leverage over manufacturers ===
Google licenses their Google Mobile Services software, along with the Android trademarks, only to hardware manufacturers for devices that meet Google's compatibility standards specified in the Android Compatibility Program document.<ref name=AndroidCompatibility>{{cite book |title=Android Compatibility Definition Document |date=January 11, 2015 |edition=5.0 |access-date=March 3, 2015 |url=http://static.googleusercontent.com/media/source.android.com/en/us/compatibility/android-cdd.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304103236/http://static.googleusercontent.com/media/source.android.com/en/us/compatibility/android-cdd.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2014 }}</ref> Thus, forks of Android that make major changes to the operating system itself do not include any of Google's non-free components, stay incompatible with applications that require them, and must ship with an alternative software marketplace in lieu of Google Play Store.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /> A prominent example of such an Android fork is [[Amazon.com|Amazon]]'s [[Fire OS]], which is used on the [[Kindle Fire]] line of tablets, and oriented toward Amazon services.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /> The shipment of Android devices without GMS is also common in mainland [[China]], as Google does not do business there.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/9/19/20873690/huawei-mate-30-series-phones-google-android-ban-apps-block|title=Huawei confirms the new Mate 30 Pro won't come with Google's Android apps|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=September 19, 2019|website=The Verge|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/phonemakers-make-android-china-friendly/|title=Phonemakers make Android China-friendly|last=Qing|first=Liau Yun|date=October 15, 2012|website=[[ZDNet]]|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013024718/http://www.zdnet.com/article/phonemakers-make-android-china-friendly/|archive-date=October 13, 2016|access-date=March 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/17/17988564/chinese-phone-software-android-iphone-copy-ui|title=How China rips off the iPhone and reinvents Android|last=Byford|first=Sam|date=October 17, 2018|website=The Verge|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref>

In 2014, Google also began to require that all Android devices which license the Google Mobile Services software display a prominent "Powered by Android" logo on their boot screens.<ref name="geek-poweredby" /> Google has also enforced preferential bundling and placement of Google Mobile Services on devices, including mandated bundling of the entire main suite of Google applications, mandatory placement of shortcuts to Google Search and the Play Store app on or near the main home screen page in its default configuration,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/02/new-android-oem-licensing-terms-leak-open-comes-with-restrictions/|title=New Android OEM licensing terms leak; "Open" comes with a lot of restrictions|work=Ars Technica|access-date=March 26, 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326161103/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/02/new-android-oem-licensing-terms-leak-open-comes-with-restrictions/|archive-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> and granting a larger share of search revenue to OEMs who agree to not include third-party app stores on their devices.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welch|first=Chris|date=August 19, 2021|title=Google gave phone makers extra money to ditch third-party app stores|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/19/22632806/google-epic-premier-device-program-lg-motorola-hmd|access-date=August 20, 2021|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref> In March 2018, it was reported that Google had begun to block "uncertified" Android devices from using Google Mobile Services software, and display a warning indicating that "the device manufacturer has preloaded Google apps and services without certification from Google". Users of custom ROMs can register their device ID to their Google account to remove this block.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/03/google-starts-blocking-uncertified-android-devices-from-logging-in/|title=Google starts blocking "uncertified" Android devices from logging in|work=Ars Technica|access-date=March 26, 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326161228/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/03/google-starts-blocking-uncertified-android-devices-from-logging-in/|archive-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref>

Some stock applications and components in AOSP code that were formerly used by earlier versions of Android, such as Search, Music, Calendar, and the location API, were [[deprecation|abandoned]] by Google in favor of [[proprietary software|non-free]] replacements distributed through Play Store (Google Search, YouTube Music, and Google Calendar) and [[Google Play Services]], which are no longer open-source. Moreover, open-source variants of some applications also exclude functions that are present in their non-free versions.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title="Google Now Launcher" hits Play Store, brings Google homescreen to GPE & Nexus devices |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/02/google-now-launcher-hits-play-store-brings-google-homescreen-to-gpe-nexus-devices/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=February 26, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064123/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/02/google-now-launcher-hits-play-store-brings-google-homescreen-to-gpe-nexus-devices/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://www.anandtech.com/show/7516/android-44-factory-images-now-available-for-nexus-4-7-2012-and-2013-and-10
 |title = Android 4.4 Factory Images Now Available for Nexus 4, 7 (2012 and 2013), and 10
 |date = November 14, 2013
|access-date = November 19, 2013
|author = Brian Klug
 |publisher = [[AnandTech]]
 |url-status = dead
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131119003547/http://www.anandtech.com/show/7516/android-44-factory-images-now-available-for-nexus-4-7-2012-and-2013-and-10
 |archive-date = November 19, 2013
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=The Nexus 5's "exclusive" launcher suspiciously receives support for other devices |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/11/the-nexus-5s-exclusive-launcher-suspiciously-receives-support-for-other-devices/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=November 14, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063635/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/11/the-nexus-5s-exclusive-launcher-suspiciously-receives-support-for-other-devices/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> These measures are likely intended to discourage forks and encourage commercial licensing in line with Google requirements, as the majority of the operating system's core functionality is dependent on proprietary components licensed exclusively by Google, and it would take significant development resources to develop an alternative suite of software and APIs to replicate or replace them. Apps that do not use Google components would also be at a functional disadvantage, as they can only use APIs contained within the OS itself. In turn, third-party apps may have dependencies on Google Play Services.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2014/02/neither-microsoft-nokia-nor-anyone-else-should-fork-android-its-unforkable/|title=Neither Microsoft, Nokia, nor anyone else should fork Android. It's unforkable.|website=[[Ars Technica]]|publisher=[[Condé Nast]]|access-date=March 12, 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313092126/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2014/02/neither-microsoft-nokia-nor-anyone-else-should-fork-android-its-unforkable/|archive-date=March 13, 2018}}</ref>

Members of the Open Handset Alliance, which include the majority of Android OEMs, are also contractually forbidden from producing Android devices based on forks of the OS;<ref name="ars-irongrip" /><ref name="Compatibility_FAQ">{{cite web|url=http://source.android.com/faqs.html#compatibility |title=Android Open Source Project Frequently Asked Questions: Compatibility |work=source.android.com |access-date=March 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803005840/http://source.android.com/faqs.html |archive-date=August 3, 2010 }}</ref> in 2012, [[Acer Inc.]] was forced by Google to halt production on a device powered by [[Alibaba Group]]'s [[Aliyun OS]] with threats of removal from the OHA, as Google deemed the platform to be an incompatible version of Android. Alibaba Group defended the allegations, arguing that the OS was a distinct platform from Android (primarily using [[HTML5]] apps), but incorporated portions of Android's platform to allow backwards compatibility with third-party Android software. Indeed, the devices did ship with an application store which offered Android apps; however, the majority of them were [[Software piracy|pirated]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Edward |last=Moyer |title=Alibaba: Google just plain wrong about our OS |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/alibaba-google-just-plain-wrong-about-our-os/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=September 15, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312072844/https://www.cnet.com/news/alibaba-google-just-plain-wrong-about-our-os/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Brodkin |title=Google blocked Acer's rival phone to prevent Android "fragmentation" |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/09/google-blocked-acers-rival-phone-to-prevent-android-fragmentation/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=September 15, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063238/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/09/google-blocked-acers-rival-phone-to-prevent-android-fragmentation/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Brodkin |title=Pirated Android apps featured prominently on Aliyun app store |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/09/pirated-android-apps-featured-prominently-on-aliyun-app-store/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=September 17, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064327/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/09/pirated-android-apps-featured-prominently-on-aliyun-app-store/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref>

== Reception ==
Android received a lukewarm reaction when it was unveiled in 2007. Although analysts were impressed with the respected technology companies that had partnered with Google to form the Open Handset Alliance, it was unclear whether mobile phone manufacturers would be willing to replace their existing operating systems with Android.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7080758.stm |title=Technology &#124; Q&A: Google's Android |work=BBC News |date=November 6, 2007 |access-date=November 9, 2012}}</ref> The idea of an open-source, Linux-based [[Computing platform|development platform]] sparked interest,<ref>{{cite web |first=Marguerite |last=Reardon |title=Google Android prototypes debut at MWC |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-android-prototypes-debut-at-mwc/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=February 11, 2008 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312072814/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-android-prototypes-debut-at-mwc/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> but there were additional worries about Android facing strong competition from established players in the smartphone market, such as Nokia and Microsoft, and rival Linux mobile operating systems that were in development.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/biztech/androids-outing-at-barcelona/2008/02/12/1202760277773.html |title=Android's outing at Barcelona – BizTech – Technology |publisher=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=February 12, 2008 |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308205217/http://www.smh.com.au/news/biztech/androids-outing-at-barcelona/2008/02/12/1202760277773.html |archive-date=March 8, 2013 }}</ref> These established players were skeptical: Nokia was quoted as saying "we don't see this as a threat", and a member of Microsoft's Windows Mobile team stated "I don't understand the impact that they are going to have."<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Miller |title=Symbian, Nokia, Microsoft and Apple downplay Android relevance |url=https://www.engadget.com/2007/11/05/symbian-nokia-microsoft-and-apple-downplay-android-relevance/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=November 5, 2007 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419084812/https://www.engadget.com/2007/11/05/symbian-nokia-microsoft-and-apple-downplay-android-relevance/ |archive-date=April 19, 2017 }}</ref>

Since then Android has grown to become the most widely used smartphone operating system<ref name="ars5th">{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Brodkin |title=On its 5th birthday, 5 things we love about Android |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/11/on-androids-5th-birthday-5-things-we-love-about-android/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=November 5, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063315/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/11/on-androids-5th-birthday-5-things-we-love-about-android/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="reisinger2015">{{cite news | author=Reisinger, Don | date=January 16, 2015 | title=Driverless Cars and Green Tech: What Google Is Doing Outside of Search | at=slide 2 | work=[[eWeek]] | url=http://www.eweek.com/mobile/slideshows/driverless-cars-and-green-tech-what-google-is-doing-outside-of-search.html }}</ref> and "one of the fastest mobile experiences available".<ref name="syrup">{{cite web |url=http://mobilesyrup.com/2012/11/05/on-its-fifth-birthday-android-is-closer-to-our-actual-vision-for-mobile-supremacy/ |title=On its fifth birthday, Android is "closer to our actual vision" for mobile supremacy |date=November 5, 2012 |publisher=MobileSyrup.com |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109090340/http://mobilesyrup.com/2012/11/05/on-its-fifth-birthday-android-is-closer-to-our-actual-vision-for-mobile-supremacy/ |archive-date=November 9, 2012 }}</ref> Reviewers have highlighted the open-source nature of the operating system as one of its defining strengths, allowing companies such as Nokia (Nokia X family),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-selling-nokia-x-android-phones-2014-4 |title=Microsoft Selling Nokia X Android Phones |publisher=Business Insider |date=April 28, 2014 |access-date=May 26, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504050655/http://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-selling-nokia-x-android-phones-2014-4 |archive-date=May 4, 2014 }}</ref> Amazon (Kindle Fire), [[Barnes & Noble]] ([[Barnes & Noble Nook|Nook]]), [[Ouya]], [[Baidu]] and others to [[fork (software development)|fork]] the software and release hardware running their own customised version of Android. As a result, it has been described by technology website ''[[Ars Technica]]'' as "practically the default operating system for launching new hardware" for companies without their own mobile platforms.<ref name="ars5th" /> This openness and flexibility is also present at the level of the end user: Android allows extensive customisation of devices by their owners and apps are freely available from non-Google app stores and third party websites. These have been cited as among the main advantages of Android phones over others.<ref name="ars5th" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/best-apps-customizing-personalizing-android-phones-100685/ |title=Best Android apps for personalizing and customizing your phone |publisher=Androidauthority.com |date=July 13, 2012 |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112021822/http://www.androidauthority.com/best-apps-customizing-personalizing-android-phones-100685/ |archive-date=November 12, 2012 }}</ref>

Despite Android's popularity, including an activation rate three times that of iOS, there have been reports that Google has not been able to leverage their other products and web services successfully to turn Android into the money maker that analysts had expected.<ref>{{cite web |first=Adrianne |last=Jeffries |title=Disconnect: why Andy Rubin and Android called it quits |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/3/19/4120208/why-andy-rubin-android-called-it-quits |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 19, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210025440/http://www.theverge.com/2013/3/19/4120208/why-andy-rubin-android-called-it-quits |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref> ''[[The Verge]]'' suggested that Google is losing control of Android due to the extensive customization and proliferation of non-Google apps and services{{snd}}Amazon's Kindle Fire line uses [[Fire OS]], a heavily modified fork of Android which does not include or support any of Google's proprietary components, and requires that users obtain software from its competing [[Amazon Appstore]] instead of Play Store.<ref name="ars-irongrip" /><!-- Google SVP [[Andy Rubin]], who was replaced as head of the Android division in March 2013, has been blamed for failing to establish a lucrative partnership with cell phone makers. The chief beneficiary of Android has been [[Samsung]], whose [[Samsung Galaxy|Galaxy]] brand has surpassed that of Android in terms of brand recognition since 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slashgear.com/watch-out-google-samsungs-galaxy-brand-has-eclipsed-android-05268159/ |title=Watch out Google: Samsung's Galaxy brand has eclipsed Android |publisher=SlashGear |date=February 5, 2013 |access-date=April 3, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Eran |first=Daniel |url=https://appleinsider.com/articles/13/03/15/samsungs-galaxy-s4-distracts-attention-away-from-android |title=Samsung's Galaxy S4 distracts attention away from Android |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=March 15, 2013 |access-date=April 3, 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, other Android manufacturers have struggled since 2011, such as LG, HTC, and Google's own [[Motorola Mobility]] (whose partnership with [[Verizon Wireless]] to push the "DROID" brand has faded since 2010).--> In 2014, in an effort to improve prominence of the Android brand, Google began to require that devices featuring its proprietary components display an Android logo on the boot screen.<ref name="geek-poweredby" />

Android has suffered from "fragmentation",<ref>{{cite web |author=Steve Kovach |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/android-fragmentation-report-2013-7 |title=Android Fragmentation Report |publisher=Business Insider |date=July 30, 2013 |access-date=October 19, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007085442/http://www.businessinsider.com/android-fragmentation-report-2013-7 |archive-date=October 7, 2013 }}</ref> a situation where the variety of Android devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently across the ecosystem harder than rival platforms such as iOS where hardware and software varies less. For example, according to data from [[OpenSignal]] in July 2013, there were 11,868 models of Android devices, numerous screen sizes and eight Android OS versions simultaneously in use, while the large majority of iOS users have upgraded to the latest iteration of that OS.<ref name="guardianfrag">{{cite web|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title=Android fragmentation 'worse than ever' – but OpenSignal says that's good|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|work=The Guardian|access-date=August 1, 2013|date=July 30, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801214513/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jul/30/android-fragmentation-visualised-opensignal|archive-date=August 1, 2013}}</ref> Critics such as ''[[Apple Insider]]'' have asserted that fragmentation via hardware and software pushed Android's growth through large volumes of low end, budget-priced devices running older versions of Android. They maintain this forces Android developers to write for the "lowest common denominator" to reach as many users as possible, who have too little incentive to make use of the latest hardware or software features only available on a smaller percentage of devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eran |first=Daniel |url=https://appleinsider.com/articles/13/10/16/strong-demand-of-apples-iphone-5-series-driving-an-anti-fragmentation-of-ios |title=Strong demand of Apple's iPhone 5 series driving an "anti-fragmentation" of iOS |publisher=Appleinsider.com |date=October 16, 2013 |access-date=October 19, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016110035/http://appleinsider.com/articles/13/10/16/strong-demand-of-apples-iphone-5-series-driving-an-anti-fragmentation-of-ios |archive-date=October 16, 2013 }}</ref> However, OpenSignal, who develops both Android and iOS apps, concluded that although fragmentation can make development trickier, Android's wider global reach also increases the potential reward.<ref name="guardianfrag" />

=== Market share ===
{{Main|Usage share of operating systems}}

Android is the largest mobile OS with 76% market share as of Q1 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Smartphone Sales Share by Operating System |url=https://www.counterpointresearch.com/insights/global-smartphone-os-market-share/ |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=www.counterpointresearch.com}}</ref> Android is the most used operating system on phones in many countries, with some countries, such as India, having over 96% market share.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mobile Operating System Market Share Worldwide|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/mobile/worldwide/|access-date=January 4, 2021|website=StatCounter Global Stats }}</ref> On tablets, usage is more even, as iOS is a bit more popular globally.

Research company Canalys estimated in the second quarter of 2009, that Android had a 2.8% share of worldwide [[smartphone]] shipments.<ref name="Insider_1">{{cite news |title=Canalys: iPhone outsold all Windows Mobile phones in Q2 2009 |url=https://www.appleinsider.com/articles/09/08/21/canalys_iphone_outsold_all_windows_mobile_phones_in_q2_2009.html |first=Prince |last=McLean |newspaper=[[AppleInsider]] |date=August 21, 2009 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117031702/http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/09/08/21/canalys_iphone_outsold_all_windows_mobile_phones_in_q2_2009.html |archive-date=January 17, 2012 }}</ref> By May 2010, Android had a 10% worldwide smartphone market share, overtaking [[Windows Mobile]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/c055479e-6342-11df-99a5-00144feab49a |title=Android Overtakes Windows in Smartphones |website=Financial Times |date=May 19, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818004521/https://www.ft.com/content/c055479e-6342-11df-99a5-00144feab49a |archive-date=August 18, 2017 }}</ref> whilst in the US Android held a 28% share, overtaking [[iPhone OS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tugagency.com/blog/2010/05/11/android-overtakes-iphone-market-share-in-the-us/|title=Android Overtakes iPhone Market Share in the US – Tug Agency|website=www.tugagency.com|date=May 11, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817204501/https://www.tugagency.com/blog/2010/05/11/android-overtakes-iphone-market-share-in-the-us/|archive-date=August 17, 2017}}</ref> By the fourth quarter of 2010, its worldwide share had grown to 33% of the market becoming the top-selling smartphone platform,<ref name="canalysQ42010">{{cite web |url=http://www.canalys.com/newsroom/google%E2%80%99s-android-becomes-world%E2%80%99s-leading-smart-phone-platform |title=Google's Android becomes the world's leading smart phone platform |work=Canalys |date=January 31, 2011 |access-date=February 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225091704/http://www.canalys.com/newsroom/google%E2%80%99s-android-becomes-world%E2%80%99s-leading-smart-phone-platform |archive-date=February 25, 2012 }}</ref> overtaking [[Symbian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/Android-steals-Symbians-Top-Smartphone-OS-crown_id16332 |title=Android steals Symbian's top smartphone OS crown |date=February 2011 |publisher=Phone arena |access-date=May 14, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509190009/http://www.phonearena.com/news/Android-steals-Symbians-Top-Smartphone-OS-crown_id16332 |archive-date=May 9, 2013 }}</ref> In the US it became the top-selling platform in April 2011, overtaking [[BlackBerry OS]] with a 31.2% smartphone share, according to ''comScore''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/03/07/technology/android/index.htm|title=Android surpasses BlackBerry as No. 1 U.S. smartphone OS – Mar. 7, 2011|first=David|last= Goldman|website=money.cnn.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818004354/https://money.cnn.com/2011/03/07/technology/android/index.htm|archive-date=August 18, 2017}}</ref>

By the third quarter of 2011, [[Gartner]] estimated that more than half (52.5%) of the smartphone sales belonged to Android.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1848514 |title=Gartner Says Sales of Mobile Devices Grew 5.6 Percent in Third Quarter of 2011; Smartphone Sales Increased 42 Percent |website=gartner.com |publisher=[[Gartner]] |date=November 15, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516181608/http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1848514 |archive-date=May 16, 2012 }}</ref> By the third quarter of 2012 Android had a 75% share of the global smartphone market according to the research firm IDC.<ref name="idcQ3" />

In July 2011, Google said that 550,000 Android devices were being activated every day,<ref name="a550">{{cite web |first=Greg |last=Kumparak |title=Android Now Seeing 550,000 Activations Per Day |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/07/14/android-now-seeing-550000-activations-per-day/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=July 14, 2011 |access-date=June 25, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707145053/https://techcrunch.com/2011/07/14/android-now-seeing-550000-activations-per-day/ |archive-date=July 7, 2017 }}</ref> up from 400,000 per day in May,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/google-activates-500-000-android-devices-day-may-145858294.html |title=Google activates 500,000 Android devices a day, may reach 1 million in October |work=Yahoo News |first=Jeffrey |last=Van Camp |date=June 28, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225233608/http://news.yahoo.com/google-activates-500-000-android-devices-day-may-145858294.html |archive-date=December 25, 2012 }}</ref> and more than 100&nbsp;million devices had been activated<ref name="i/o 2011 stats">{{cite web |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2011/05/android-momentum-mobile-and-more-at.html |title=Android: momentum, mobile and more at Google I/O |first=Hugo |last=Barra |work=The Official Google Blog |date=May 10, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130052353/http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2011/05/android-momentum-mobile-and-more-at.html |archive-date=January 30, 2012 }}</ref> with 4.4% growth per week.<ref name="a550" /> In September 2012, 500&nbsp;million devices had been activated with 1.3&nbsp;million activations per day.<ref name="Google Team">{{cite web|title=500 million devices activated globally, and over 1.3 million added every single day |publisher=official Android Engineering teams |date=September 12, 2012 |url=https://plus.google.com/u/0/110023707389740934545/posts/R5YdRRyeTHM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005054446/https://plus.google.com/u/0/110023707389740934545/posts/R5YdRRyeTHM |archive-date=October 5, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Eric Schmidt" /> In May 2013, at Google I/O, Sundar Pichai announced that 900&nbsp;million Android devices had been activated.<ref>{{cite web |first=Chris |last=Welch |title=Google: 900 million Android activations to date, 48 billion app installs |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/5/15/4333584/total-android-activations-900-million |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=May 15, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210041749/http://www.theverge.com/2013/5/15/4333584/total-android-activations-900-million |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref>

Android market share varies by location. In July 2012, "mobile subscribers aged 13+"<!-- seems to be "installed base" although article says "market share"--> in the United States using Android were up to 52%,<ref>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Fingas |title=ComScore: Android tops 52 percent of US smartphone share, iPhone cracks the 33 percent mark |url=https://www.engadget.com/2012/09/04/comscore-android-tops-52-percent-of-us-smartphone-share/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=September 4, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063535/https://www.engadget.com/2012/09/04/comscore-android-tops-52-percent-of-us-smartphone-share/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> and rose to 90% in China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.techinasia.com/android-market-share-china-2012/ |title=Report: Android Rises to 90% of Smartphone Market in China |publisher=Techinasia.com |access-date=November 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122010703/http://www.techinasia.com/android-market-share-china-2012/ |archive-date=November 22, 2012 }}</ref> During the third quarter of 2012, Android's worldwide smartphone shipment market share was 75%,<ref name="idcQ3">{{cite web|url=https://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS23771812 |title=Android Marks Fourth Anniversary Since Launch with 75.0% Market Share in Third Quarter, According to IDC – prUS23771812 |publisher=Idc.com |access-date=November 3, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103041944/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS23771812 |archive-date=November 3, 2012 }}</ref> with 750&nbsp;million devices activated in total. In April 2013, Android had 1.5&nbsp;million activations per day.<ref name="Eric Schmidt">{{cite web |first=Donald |last=Melanson |title=Eric Schmidt: Google now at 1.5 million Android activations per day |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/04/16/eric-schmidt-google-now-at-1-5-million-android-activations-per/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063459/https://www.engadget.com/2013/04/16/eric-schmidt-google-now-at-1-5-million-android-activations-per/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> {{As of|2013|5|post=,}} 48&nbsp;billion application ("app") installation have been performed from the Google Play store,<ref name="48bn">{{cite news|title=BBC Google activations and downloads update May 2013|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22542725|work=BBC News|access-date=May 16, 2013|date=May 15, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516014337/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22542725|archive-date=May 16, 2013}}</ref> and by September 2013, one billion Android devices had been activated.<ref name="1bn">{{cite web |url=http://plus.google.com/+VicGundotra/posts/8CVJ79nPQwN |first=Vic |last=Gundotra <!--work=? Google+ --> |title=Just back from a whirlwind trip to Asia visiting our… |access-date=September 3, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003152939/https://plus.google.com/+VicGundotra/posts/8CVJ79nPQwN |archive-date=October 3, 2013 }}</ref>

{{As of|2020|08|post=,}} the [[Google Play]] store had over 3&nbsp;million Android applications published,<ref name="3 million apps"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/266210/number-of-available-applications-in-the-google-play-store/|title=Number of available applications in the Google Play Store from December 2009 to March 2020 <!--Number of Google Play Store apps 2019 {{!}} Statista -->|website=Statista |access-date=May 10, 2020}}</ref> and {{as of|2016|05|lc=y|post=,}} apps had been downloaded more than 65&nbsp;billion times.<ref>{{cite web |first=Nick |last=Statt |title=Android Users Have Installed More Than 65 Billion Apps from Google Play in the Last Year |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/5/18/11673942/google-users-number-2016-android-auto-wear-tv-io |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=May 18, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041742/http://www.theverge.com/2016/5/18/11673942/google-users-number-2016-android-auto-wear-tv-io |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> The operating system's success has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the so-called "[[Smartphone patent wars|smartphone wars]]" between technology companies.<ref>{{cite web |first=Marguertite |last=Reardon |title=Google just bought itself patent protection |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-just-bought-itself-patent-protection/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=August 15, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312072823/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-just-bought-itself-patent-protection/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Douglas |last=Perry |title=Google Android Now on 135 Million Devices |url=http://www.tomsguide.com/us/google-android-installations-app-downloads,news-11861.html |website=Tom's Guide |publisher=[[Purch Group]] |date=July 16, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620072155/http://www.tomsguide.com/us/google-android-installations-app-downloads,news-11861.html |archive-date=June 20, 2017 }}</ref>

Android devices account for more than half of smartphone sales in most markets, including the US, while "only in Japan was Apple on top" (September–November 2013 numbers).<ref>{{cite web |first=Lance |last=Whitney |title=iPhone market share shrinks as Android, Windows Phone grow |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/iphone-market-share-shrinks-as-android-windows-phone-grow/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=January 6, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311021646/https://www.cnet.com/news/iphone-market-share-shrinks-as-android-windows-phone-grow/ |archive-date=March 11, 2017 }}</ref> At the end of 2013, over 1.5&nbsp;billion Android smartphones had been sold in the four years since 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/266219/global-smartphone-sales-since-1st-quarter-2009-by-operating-system/|title=Global smartphone sales by operating system 2009–2016, by quarter|work=Statista|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817063252/http://www.statista.com/statistics/266219/global-smartphone-sales-since-1st-quarter-2009-by-operating-system/|archive-date=August 17, 2014}}</ref><!--219.6 (estimate confirmed by Gartner's full year results)+205.02+177.9+156.19)+144.72+124.55+98.66+83.68+77.05+60.49+46.78+36.35+30.8+20.54+10.65+5.23=1498.21.--><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2665715|title=Gartner Says Annual Smartphone Sales Surpassed Sales of Feature Phones for the First Time in 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214043007/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2665715|archive-date=February 14, 2014}}</ref> making Android the most sold phone and tablet OS. Three billion Android smartphones were estimated to be sold by the end of 2014 (including previous years). According to Gartner research company, Android-based devices outsold all contenders, every year since 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2645115|title=Gartner Says Worldwide Traditional PC, Tablet, Ultramobile and Mobile Phone Shipments On Pace to Grow 7.6 Percent in 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619072505/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2645115|archive-date=June 19, 2014}}</ref> In 2013, it outsold Windows 2.8:1 or by 573&nbsp;million.<ref name="more than Windows">{{cite press release |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2875017 |title=Gartner Says Sales of Tablets Will Represent Less Than 10 Percent of All Devices in 2014: Smartphones to Represent 71 Percent of the Global Mobile Phone Market in 2014: Android Device Shipments to Reach One Billion in Emerging Markets in 2015 |publisher=Gartner |date=October 15, 2014 |access-date=October 19, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017151529/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2875017 |archive-date=October 17, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ingrid |last=Lunden |title=Tablet Sales Growth Plummets In 2014 As Android Smartphones Continue To Soar: Gartner |url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/15/tablet-sales-growth-plummets-in-2014-as-android-smartphones-continue-to-soar-gartner/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 15, 2014 |access-date=June 25, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127095547/https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/15/tablet-sales-growth-plummets-in-2014-as-android-smartphones-continue-to-soar-gartner/ |archive-date=November 27, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25187214 |title=Global PC Shipments Exceed Forecast with Mild Improvement in Consumer Demand, While Apple Moves to #5 Spot, According to IDC |website=IDC.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011215307/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25187214 |archive-date=October 11, 2014 }}</ref> {{As of|2015|post=,}} Android has the largest [[installed base]] of all operating systems;<ref name="Murky road despite dominance" /> Since 2013, devices running it also sell more than Windows, iOS and Mac OS&nbsp;X devices combined.<ref name="best_selling" />

According to [[StatCounter]], which tracks only the use for browsing the web, Android is the most popular mobile operating system since August 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/#mobile+tablet-os-ww-monthly-201208-201509 |title=Mobile/Tablet Browser Market Share by OS |access-date=September 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://gs.statcounter.com/%23mobile_browser-ww-monthly-201012-201111-bar#mobile+tablet-os-ww-monthly-201208-201509 |archive-date=May 26, 2012 }}</ref> Android is the most popular operating system for web browsing in India and several other countries (e.g. virtually all of Asia, with Japan and North Korea exceptions). According to StatCounter, Android is most used on phones in all African countries, and it stated "mobile usage has already overtaken desktop in several countries including India, South Africa and Saudi Arabia",<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/press/mobile-internet-usage-soars-by-67-perc |title=Mobile internet usage soars by 67% |access-date=October 21, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013223930/https://gs.statcounter.com/press/mobile-internet-usage-soars-by-67-perc |archive-date=October 13, 2014 }}</ref> with all countries in Africa having done so already in which mobile (including tablets) usage is at 90.46% (Android only, accounts for 75.81% of all use there).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/#all-os-KE-monthly-201401-201608|title=StatCounter Global Stats – Browser, OS, Search Engine including Mobile Usage Share|last=StatCounter|access-date=November 30, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://gs.statcounter.com/%23mobile_browser-ww-monthly-201012-201111-bar#all-os-KE-monthly-201401-201608|archive-date=May 26, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/#all-comparison-KE-monthly-201401-201608 |publisher=StatCounter |title=Global Stats – Browser, OS, Search Engine including Mobile Usage Share |access-date=September 23, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://gs.statcounter.com/%23mobile_browser-ww-monthly-201012-201111-bar#all-comparison-KE-monthly-201401-201608 |archive-date=May 26, 2012 }}</ref>

While Android phones in the [[Western world]] almost always include Google's proprietary code (such as Google Play) in the otherwise open-source operating system, Google's proprietary code and trademark is increasingly not used in emerging markets; "The growth of [[Android Open Source Project|AOSP]] Android devices goes way beyond just China [..] ABI Research claims that 65 million devices shipped globally with open-source Android in the second quarter of [2014], up from 54 million in the first quarter"; depending on country, percent of phones estimated to be based only on AOSP source code, forgoing the Android trademark: Thailand (44%), Philippines (38%), Indonesia (31%), India (21%), Malaysia (24%), Mexico (18%), Brazil (9%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/google-certification-over-aosp-541700 |title=Google hoping to lure smaller manufacturers to Google's Android, over AOSP |first=Andrew |last=Grush |date=October 21, 2014 |work=Android Authority |access-date=October 22, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022015948/http://www.androidauthority.com/google-certification-over-aosp-541700/ |archive-date=October 22, 2014 }}/</ref>

According to a January 2015 [[Gartner]] report, "Android surpassed a billion shipments of devices in 2014, and will continue to grow at a double-digit pace in 2015, with a 26 percent increase year over year." This made it the first time that any general-purpose operating system has reached more than one billion end users within a year: by reaching close to 1.16&nbsp;billion end users in 2014, Android shipped over four times more than [[iOS]] and [[OS&nbsp;X]] combined, and over three times more than [[Microsoft Windows]]. Gartner expected the whole mobile phone market to "reach two billion units in 2016", including Android.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2954317 |publisher=Gartner |title=Tablet Sales Continue to Be Slow in 2015: Tablet Sales to Reach 8 Percent Growth in 2015 While PC Market to Grow 1 Percent |date=January 5, 2015 |access-date=January 23, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208082554/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2954317 |archive-date=February 8, 2015 }}</ref> Describing the statistics, Farhad Manjoo wrote in ''[[The New York Times]]'' that "About one of every two computers sold today is running Android. [It] has become Earth's dominant computing platform."<ref name="Murky road despite dominance" />

According to a [[Statistica]]'s estimate, Android smartphones had an installed base of 1.8&nbsp;billion units in 2015, which was 76% of the estimated total number of smartphones worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/385001/smartphone-worldwide-installed-base-operating-systems/ |title=Installed base of smartphones by operating system in 2015 (in million units) |publisher=Statistica |access-date=November 1, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012045013/https://www.statista.com/statistics/385001/smartphone-worldwide-installed-base-operating-systems/ |archive-date=October 12, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/385022/smartphone-worldwide-installed-base-operating-systems-share/ |title=Market share of smartphone OS of total smartphone installed base in 2013 and 2014 |publisher=Statistica |access-date=February 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218183636/http://www.statista.com/statistics/385022/smartphone-worldwide-installed-base-operating-systems-share/ |archive-date=February 18, 2015 }}</ref>{{Efn|To put the Statistica's numbers in context: by Strategy Analytics estimates, [[Windows]], the most popular "desktop" operating system, was estimated to have an installed base of about 1.3 billion at best;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.strategyanalytics.com/default.aspx?mod=pressreleaseviewer&a0=5608 |title=Replacement Demand to Boost PC Sales in 2015, says Strategy Analytics: More than 70 percent of Developed Market Households Will Continue to Own PCs through 2018 |publisher=Strategy Analytics |access-date=February 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218191002/https://www.strategyanalytics.com/default.aspx?mod=pressreleaseviewer&a0=5608 |archive-date=February 18, 2015 }}</ref> they also estimate the overall tablet installed base to be already of comparable size to the PC market and predict tablets will have surpassed them by 2018.}} Android has the largest installed base of any [[mobile operating system]] and, since 2013, the highest-selling operating system overall<ref name="more than Windows" /><ref name="best_selling">{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/androids-share-of-the-computing-market-2014-3 |title=This Chart Shows Google's Incredible Domination Of The World's Computing Platforms |first=Jay |last=Yarow |date=March 28, 2014 |access-date=April 23, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425031734/http://www.businessinsider.com/androids-share-of-the-computing-market-2014-3 |archive-date=April 25, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="mahapatra1">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/android-vs-ios-whats-most-popular-mobile-operating-system-your-country-1464892 |title=Android Vs. iOS: What's The Most Popular Mobile Operating System In Your Country? |first=Lisa |last=Mahapatra |website=[[International Business Times]] |date=November 11, 2013 |access-date=January 30, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222195559/http://www.ibtimes.com/android-vs-ios-whats-most-popular-mobile-operating-system-your-country-1464892 |archive-date=February 22, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="elmer1">{{cite news|url=http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2014/01/10/apple-android-kantar-comscore/ |title=Don't mistake Apple's market share for its installed base |publisher=CNN |first=Philip |last=Elmer-DeWitt |date=January 10, 2014 |access-date=January 30, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130052343/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2014/01/10/apple-android-kantar-comscore/ |archive-date=January 30, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="sammobile1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sammobile.com/2014/05/01/samsung-sells-more-smartphones-than-all-major-manufacturers-combined-in-q1/|title=Samsung sells more smartphones than all major manufacturers combined in Q1|date=May 2014 |access-date=May 12, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512215847/http://www.sammobile.com/2014/05/01/samsung-sells-more-smartphones-than-all-major-manufacturers-combined-in-q1/|archive-date=May 12, 2014}}</ref> with sales in 2012, 2013 and 2014<ref>{{cite news |url=http://mobithinking.com/mobile-marketing-tools/latest-mobile-stats/a |title=Global mobile statistics 2014 Part A: Mobile subscribers; handset market share; mobile operators |publisher=mobiThinking |date=May 2014 |access-date=September 9, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906115310/http://mobithinking.com/mobile-marketing-tools/latest-mobile-stats/a |archive-date=September 6, 2014 }}</ref><!--950.5 (2014) + 793.6 (2013) + 500.1 (2012) + 121.0 (2013 tablet) + 53.3 (2012 tablet) = 2,418.5 millions (1,468&nbsp;m excluding the 2014 estimate)--> close to the installed base of all PCs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://readwrite.com/2013/12/10/smartphone-pcs-install-base-2014 |title=The Post-PC Era Begins In Earnest Next Year: In 2014, smartphones will most likely eclipse PCs in terms of the number of devices in use around the world |first=Dan |last=Rowinski |work=ReadWrite |date=December 10, 2013 |access-date=September 9, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909043835/http://readwrite.com/2013/12/10/smartphone-pcs-install-base-2014 |archive-date=September 9, 2014 }}</ref>

In the second quarter of 2014, Android's share of the global smartphone shipment market was 84.7%, a new record.<ref>{{cite web |first=Juan |last=Martinez |title=84.7% of all global smartphone shipments run Android |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/84-7-of-all-global-smartphone-shipments-feature-the-android-platform-1261548 |website=[[TechRadar]] |publisher=[[Future plc]] |date=August 14, 2014 |access-date=October 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011181332/http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/mobile-phones/84-7-of-all-global-smartphone-shipments-feature-the-android-platform-1261548 |archive-date=October 11, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Ruddock |title=IDC: Android Now Accounts For 84.7% Of All Smartphone Shipments, Grew 33.3% Year-Over-Year This Quarter |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2014/08/14/idc-android-now-accounts-for-84-7-of-all-smartphone-shipments-grew-33-3-year-over-year-this-quarter/ |website=Android Police |publisher=Illogical Robot |date=August 14, 2014 |access-date=October 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011181910/http://www.androidpolice.com/2014/08/14/idc-android-now-accounts-for-84-7-of-all-smartphone-shipments-grew-33-3-year-over-year-this-quarter/ |archive-date=October 11, 2017 }}</ref> This had grown to 87.5% worldwide market share by the third quarter of 2016,<ref>{{cite web |first=Derek |last=Walter |title=Report: Nearly 90 percent of smartphones worldwide run Android |url=https://www.greenbot.com/article/3138394/android/report-nearly-90-percent-of-smartphones-worldwide-run-android.html |website=Greenbot |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=November 3, 2016 |access-date=October 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011232456/https://www.greenbot.com/article/3138394/android/report-nearly-90-percent-of-smartphones-worldwide-run-android.html |archive-date=October 11, 2017 }}</ref> leaving main competitor [[iOS]] with 12.1% market share.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ananya |last=Bhattacharya |title=Android just hit a record 88% market share of all smartphones |url=https://qz.com/826672/android-goog-just-hit-a-record-88-market-share-of-all-smartphones/ |website=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |publisher=[[Atlantic Media]] |date=November 3, 2016 |access-date=October 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011182249/https://qz.com/826672/android-goog-just-hit-a-record-88-market-share-of-all-smartphones/ |archive-date=October 11, 2017 }}</ref>

According to an April 2017 [[StatCounter]] report, Android overtook Microsoft Windows to become the most popular operating system for total Internet usage.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Russell |title=Report: Android overtakes Windows as the internet's most used operating system |url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/04/03/statcounter-android-windows/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=April 3, 2017 |access-date=September 3, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903165410/https://techcrunch.com/2017/04/03/statcounter-android-windows/ |archive-date=September 3, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Emil |last=Protalinski |title=StatCounter: Android overtakes Windows as world's most-used operating system |url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/04/03/statcounter-android-overtakes-windows-as-worlds-most-used-operating-system/ |website=[[VentureBeat]] |date=April 3, 2017 |access-date=September 3, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170152/https://venturebeat.com/2017/04/03/statcounter-android-overtakes-windows-as-worlds-most-used-operating-system/ |archive-date=September 3, 2017 }}</ref> It has maintained the plurality since then.<ref>{{cite web |title=Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share#monthly-201701-201708 |website=[[StatCounter]] |access-date=September 3, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831021037/https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share#monthly-201701-201708 |archive-date=August 31, 2017 }}</ref>

In September 2015, [[Google]] announced that Android had 1.4&nbsp;billion monthly active users.<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Vincent |title=Android is now used by 1.4 billion people |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/29/9409071/google-android-stats-users-downloads-sales |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=September 29, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114223942/http://www.theverge.com/2015/9/29/9409071/google-android-stats-users-downloads-sales |archive-date=January 14, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Natasha |last=Lomas |title=Android Now Has 1.4 Billion 30-Day Active Users Globally |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/09/29/android-now-has-1-4bn-30-day-active-devices-globally/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=September 29, 2015 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313124212/https://techcrunch.com/2015/09/29/android-now-has-1-4bn-30-day-active-devices-globally/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> This changed to 2&nbsp;billion monthly active users in May 2017.<ref>{{cite web |first=Emil |last=Protalinski |title=Android passes 2 billion monthly active devices |url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/05/17/android-passes-2-billion-monthly-active-devices/ |website=[[VentureBeat]] |date=May 17, 2017 |access-date=May 17, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517174144/https://venturebeat.com/2017/05/17/android-passes-2-billion-monthly-active-devices/ |archive-date=May 17, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Alfred |last=Ng |title=Google's Android now powers more than 2 billion devices |url=https://www.cnet.com/au/news/google-boasts-2-billion-active-android-devices/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=May 17, 2017 |access-date=May 17, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517183448/https://www.cnet.com/au/news/google-boasts-2-billion-active-android-devices/ |archive-date=May 17, 2017 }}</ref>

=== Adoption on tablets ===
[[File:Front view of Nexus 7 (cropped).png|thumb|150px|The [[Nexus 7 (2012 version)|first-generation Nexus 7]] tablet, running Android 4.1 Jelly Bean]]

Despite its success on smartphones, initially Android tablet adoption was slow,<ref>{{cite web |author=Wilson Rothman |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/technology/technolog/why-ipad-stomping-android-tabs-24-1-121875 |title=Why iPad is stomping Android tabs 24 to 1 – Technology on |publisher=Nbcnews.com |date=October 24, 2012 |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126130856/http://www.nbcnews.com/technology/technolog/why-ipad-stomping-android-tabs-24-1-121875 |archive-date=January 26, 2013 }}</ref> then later caught up with the iPad, in most countries. One of the main causes was the [[chicken or the egg]] situation where consumers were hesitant to buy an Android tablet due to a lack of high quality tablet applications, but developers were hesitant to spend time and resources developing tablet applications until there was a significant market for them.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kevin C. Tofel |url=http://gigaom.com/mobile/what-devs-say-about-ipad-but-not-android-tablets/ |title=What devs say about iPad (but not Android tablets) |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=March 19, 2012 |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815095230/http://gigaom.com/mobile/what-devs-say-about-ipad-but-not-android-tablets/ |archive-date=August 15, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="tabs">{{cite web |first=James |last=Kendrick |title=Why there aren't more Android tablet apps, by the numbers |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-there-arent-more-android-tablet-apps-by-the-numbers/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=March 21, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051107/http://www.zdnet.com/article/why-there-arent-more-android-tablet-apps-by-the-numbers/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> The content and app "ecosystem" proved more important than hardware [[Specification (technical standard)|specs]] as the selling point for tablets. Due to the lack of Android tablet-specific applications in 2011, early Android tablets had to make do with existing smartphone applications that were ill-suited to larger screen sizes, whereas the dominance of Apple's [[iPad]] was reinforced by the large number of tablet-specific [[iOS]] applications.<ref name="tabs" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2412997,00.asp |first=Damon |last=Poeter |date=December 7, 2012 |title=Goldman Highlights Microsoft's Shrinking Market Share |publisher=PC Magazine |access-date=December 10, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212080514/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2412997,00.asp |archive-date=December 12, 2012 }}
* [https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2413605,00.asp Damon Poeter (December 27, 2012) "Non-Apple Tablets Making Small Gains on iPad" ''PC Magazine''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605213319/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0%2C2817%2C2413605%2C00.asp |date=June 5, 2013 }}
* [http://business.financialpost.com/2011/12/24/massacre-of-the-tablets/ Matt Hartley (December 24 2011) "Massacre of the Tablets" ''Financial Post''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619060321/http://business.financialpost.com/2011/12/24/massacre-of-the-tablets/ |date=June 19, 2013 }}</ref>

Despite app support in its infancy, a considerable number of Android tablets, like the [[Barnes & Noble Nook]] (alongside those using other operating systems, such as the [[HP TouchPad]] and [[BlackBerry PlayBook]]) were rushed out to market in an attempt to capitalize on the success of the iPad.<ref name="tabs" /> ''InfoWorld'' has suggested that some Android manufacturers initially treated their first tablets as a "Frankenphone business", a short-term low-investment opportunity by placing a smartphone-optimized Android OS (before Android 3.0 ''Honeycomb'' for tablets was available) on a device while neglecting user interface. This approach, such as with the [[Dell Streak]], failed to gain market traction with consumers as well as damaging the early reputation of Android tablets.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gruman |first=Galen |url=http://www.infoworld.com/d/mobile-technology/googles-tighter-control-over-android-good-thing-845 |title=Why Google's tighter control over Android is a good thing &#124; Mobile Technology |publisher=InfoWorld |date=April 5, 2011 |access-date=March 14, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603113731/http://www.infoworld.com/d/mobile-technology/googles-tighter-control-over-android-good-thing-845 |archive-date=June 3, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gruman |first=Galen |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1159578/anatomy_of_failure_rim_microsoft_nokia.html |title=Anatomy of failure: Mobile flops from RIM, Microsoft, and Nokia |publisher=Macworld |date= April 30, 2011|access-date=May 14, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501133704/http://www.macworld.com/article/1159578/anatomy_of_failure_rim_microsoft_nokia.html |archive-date=May 1, 2013 }}</ref> Furthermore, several Android tablets such as the [[Motorola Xoom]] were priced the same or higher than the [[iPad]], which hurt sales. An exception was the [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] [[Kindle Fire]], which relied upon lower pricing as well as access to Amazon's ecosystem of applications and content.<ref name="tabs" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Hiner |first=Jason |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/hiner/why-android-tablets-failed-a-postmortem/10011 |title=Why Android tablets failed: A postmortem |publisher=TechRepublic |date=January 5, 2012 |access-date=November 9, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017042333/http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/hiner/why-android-tablets-failed-a-postmortem/10011 |archive-date=October 17, 2012 }}</ref>

This began to change in 2012, with the release of the affordable [[Nexus 7 (2012 version)|Nexus&nbsp;7]] and a push by Google for developers to write better tablet applications.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Cunningham |title=Google to Android devs: make nicer tablet apps, pretty please? |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/10/google-to-android-devs-make-nicer-tablet-apps-pretty-please/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=October 8, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064956/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/10/google-to-android-devs-make-nicer-tablet-apps-pretty-please/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> According to International Data Corporation, shipments of Android-powered tablets surpassed iPads in Q3 2012.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kovach|first=Steve|title=Android Now Ahead Of Apple's iOS In Tablet Market Share|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/android-ahead-of-ios-tablet-market-share-2013-5|publisher=Business Insider|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503053105/http://www.businessinsider.com/android-ahead-of-ios-tablet-market-share-2013-5|archive-date=May 3, 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Nook Color Showing Wikipedia Index On Dolphin Browser HD.jpg|150px|left|thumb|[[Barnes & Noble Nook]] running Android]]
As of the end of 2013, over 191.6&nbsp;million Android tablets had sold in three years since 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2674215|title=Gartner Says Worldwide Tablet Sales Grew 68 Percent in 2013, With Android Capturing 62 Percent of the Market|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417073251/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2674215|archive-date=April 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/1980115|title=Gartner Says Worldwide Media Tablets Sales to Reach 119 Million Units in 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524004147/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/1980115|archive-date=May 24, 2014}}</ref> This made Android tablets the most-sold type of tablet in 2013, surpassing iPads in the second quarter of 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abiresearch.com/press/android-ecosystem-takes-the-baton-from-apple-ipad- |title=Android Ecosystem Takes the Baton from Apple iPad in the Tablet Race |publisher=ABIresearch |date=September 27, 2013 |access-date=September 10, 2014 }}</ref>

According to StatCounter's web use statistics, {{as of|2020|lc=y|df=US}}, Android tablets represent the majority of tablet devices used in [[Africa]] (70%), [[South America]] (65%), while less than half elsewhere, e.g. Europe (44%), Asia (44%), North America (34%) and Oceania/Australia (18%). There are countries on all continents where Android tablets are the majority, for example, Mexico.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tablet Operating System Market Share Worldwide|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/tablet/worldwide/|access-date=December 16, 2020|website=StatCounter Global Stats}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

=== Platform information ===
{{Main|Android version history}}
Android has 72% market share <!-- with Samsung's 0.28% --> vs Apple's iOS/iPadOS at 28% (on [[tablet computer|tablets]] alone Android is slightly ahead of Apple's iPadOS globally, with Android at 50.47%, and iPadOS at 49.27%,<ref name="tablet stats">{{Cite web |title=Tablet Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/tablet/worldwide/ |access-date=2025-08-06 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> some continents are slightly ahead for either platform, and some are far ahead for either tablet platform, Android tablets area ahead in virtually all countries,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tablet Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/tablet/worldwide/#monthly-202504-202504-map |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> e.g. India, and in Europe, with some notable exceptions such as the US (iPadOS 53%), and in China (iPadOS 64%)<!-- exceptions the US, Canada, thus likely North America, only continent? And China, Australia, plus few others, e.g. not India. -->). Of all operating systems Android is first at 43%, followed by Windows at 29%, then iOS at 17%. Android 15 is the most popular Android version on smartphones and Android 14 on tablets.

{{As of|2025|08}}, Android 15 is most popular Android version on smartphones at 27%,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Android Version Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/android-version-market-share/mobile/worldwide/#monthly-202403-202504 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> followed by Android 14 (at 19%, down from 37% peak), 13, 12, 11 and 10. Android is more used than iOS is virtually all countries, with few exceptions such as iOS has a 58% share in the US. Android 15 is the most-used version on 3 continents, and many countries, including US/North America (38%), Europe, Asia, India, China and Japan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Android Version Market Share China |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/android-version-market-share/mobile/china/#daily-20250501-20250520 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Android Version Market Share China |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/android-version-market-share/mobile/china/#daily-20250401-20250430 |access-date=2025-05-02 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> Usage of Android 13 and newer, i.e. supported versions, is at 61%<!-- thereof Android 16 at 0.81% -->, the rest of users are not supported with security updates; with recently supported Android 12 (last security updates in 2025), use is at 73%<!-- and with Android 11 at 84%-->.

On tablets, Android 14 is the most popular version overall (also in e.g. India, Russia, Australia, Europe and South America), at 20%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tablet Android Version Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/android-version-market-share/tablet/worldwide/#monthly-202403-202504 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tablet Android Version Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/android-version-market-share/tablet/worldwide/#daily-20221001-20221030 |access-date=November 1, 2022 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> Usage of Android 13 and newer, i.e. supported versions, is at 41% <!-- thereof Android 16 at 0.02% --> on Android tablets, and with Android 12, until recently supported, at 51%<!-- and with Android 11 at 66% -->. The usage share varies a lot by country<!-- : e.g. Android 9.0 Pie is still the version with the greatest usage share in the United States (also in the UK) at 35% (Android 14 at 19% there), while countries ahead, using mostly recent supported versions e.g. China mostly using Android 13; India, Russia, Mexico, Canada, Australia and the Nordic countries use Android 14 mostly. -->. 73% of US users use insecure Android tablets, and 78% of UK users, and the very old Android 9.0 Pie is still the most commonly used tablet version in both countries.

{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header"
|-
! Version
! Release date
! API level
! Kernel
! Launched with
|-
! [[Android 16|16]]
| {{dts|2025|06|10}}
| 36
| ?
| ?
|-
! [[Android 15|15]]
| {{dts|2024|08|13}}
| 35
| 6.6
| ?
|-
! [[Android 14|14]]
| {{dts|2023|10|04}}
| 34
| 6.1 <!-- (also 5.15?!) -->
| [[Pixel 4a|Pixel 4a (5G)]], [[Pixel 5]], [[Pixel 5a]], [[Pixel 6]], Pixel 6 Pro, [[Pixel 7]], [[Pixel 7 Pro]], [[Pixel 7a]], [[Pixel 8]], [[Pixel 8|Pixel 8 Pro]], iQOO 11 Pro, Lenovo Tab Extreme Wi-Fi, [[Nothing Phone 1]], [[OnePlus 11]], Oppo Find N2, Oppo Find N2 Flip, Realme GT 2 Pro, Tecno Camon 20 series, [[Vivo X90|Vivo X90 Pro]], Xiaomi 12T, [[Xiaomi 13]], Xiaomi 13 Pro, Xiaomi Pad 6<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hazarika |first=Skanda |date=2023-05-11 |title=Android 14 beta tacker: List of major phones getting the latest update |url=https://www.xda-developers.com/android-14-beta-oem-tracker/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=XDA Developers |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! [[Android 13|13]]
| {{dts|2022|08|15}}
| 33
| 5.x
| [[Pixel 4]], Pixel 4 XL, [[Pixel 4a]], [[Pixel 4a|Pixel 4a (5G)]], [[Pixel 5]], [[Pixel 5a]], [[Pixel 6]], Pixel 6 Pro, [[Pixel 7]], [[Pixel 7 Pro]], [[Pixel 7a]], [[Asus ZenFone 8]], Lenovo P12 Pro, [[OnePlus 10 Pro]], [[Oppo Find X5|Oppo Find X5 Pro]], [[Vivo X80|Vivo X80 Pro]], Realme GT2 Pro, [[Xiaomi 12]], Xiaomi 12 Pro, [[Xiaomi Pad 5]], [[Redmi K50|Redmi K50 Pro]], Sharp AQUOS sense6, Tecno Camon 19 Pro, ZTE Axon 40 Ultra<ref>{{Cite web |title=Android 13 Beta devices |url=https://developer.android.com/about/versions/13/devices |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=Android Developers |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! [[Android 12#Android 12.1/12L|12L]]
<!-- | rowspan="2" |[[Android 12|12]] -->
| {{dts|2022|03|07}}
| 32
| 5.x
| [[Pixel 3]], Pixel 3 XL, [[Pixel 3a]], Pixel 3a XL, [[Pixel 4]], Pixel 4 XL, [[Pixel 4a]], [[Pixel 5]], [[Pixel 5a]]

<!-- drop unsupported:

|-
! [[Android 12|12]]
| {{dts|2021|10|04}}
| 31
| 5.x
| [[Pixel 3]], Pixel 3 XL, [[Pixel 3a]], Pixel 3a XL, [[Pixel 4]], Pixel 4 XL, [[Pixel 5]], [[Pixel 6]], Pixel 6 Pro, [[Asus ZenFone 8]], Nokia X20, [[OnePlus 9]], OnePlus 9 Pro, [[Oppo Find X3|Oppo Find X3 Pro]], iQOO 7 Legend, Realme GT,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Realme GT gets Android 12 Beta 1 this month |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/realme_gt_gets_android_12_beta_1_this_month-news-49172.php |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=GSMArena.com |language=en-US}}</ref> TCL 20 Pro 5G, [[Xiaomi Mi 11]], [[Xiaomi Mi 11 Ultra]], [[Redmi K40|Xiaomi Mi 11i/Mi 11X Pro]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Android 12 Beta 1 is Now Available for Mi 11, Mi 11 Ultra, Mi 11i/Mi 11X Pro. Download Now! – MIUI ROM – Xiaomi Community – Xiaomi |url=https://c.mi.com/thread-3708908-1-0.html |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=c.mi.com |language=en-IN}}</ref> [[Tecno Camon 17]], ZTE Axon 30 Ultra

<!- dropping outdated info, since not very relevant (and to also simplify the table), Pie 9 isn't really used except on tablets (e.g. in the US...), but this is mostly on phone anyway:

|-
! [[Android 11|11]]
| [[Android 11|11]]
| {{dts|2020|09|08}}
| 30
| 5.x
| [[Pixel 2]], Pixel 2 XL, [[Pixel 3]], Pixel 3 XL, [[Pixel 3a]], Pixel 3a XL, [[Pixel 4]], Pixel 4 XL,<ref>{{cite web |title=Get Android 11 |url=https://developer.android.com/preview/get#on_pixel |website=Android Developers |access-date=February 21, 2020 }}</ref> [[OnePlus 8]], OnePlus 8 Pro, [[Oppo Find X2]], Oppo Find X2 Pro, Vivo NEX 3S, [[Xiaomi Mi 10]], Xiaomi Mi 10 Pro, [[Redmi K30 Pro|POCO F2 Pro]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Android 11 Beta 1 is Now Available for Mi 10, Mi 10 Pro and POCO F2 Pro. Download Now!! – General – Xiaomi Community – Xiaomi |url=https://c.mi.com/thread-3151707-1-0.html |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=c.mi.com |language=en-IN}}</ref> [[Realme X50 Pro]], Sharp AQUOS Zero 2
|-
! [[Android 10|10]]
| [[Android 10|10]]
| {{dts|2019|09|03}}
| 29
| 5.x
| [[Asus ZenFone 5|Asus ZenFone 5Z]], [[Essential Phone]], [[Pixel (1st generation)|Pixel, Pixel XL]], [[Pixel 2]], Pixel 2 XL, [[Pixel 3]], Pixel 3 XL, [[Pixel 3a]], Pixel 3a XL, [[OnePlus 6]], [[OnePlus 6T]], [[OnePlus 7]], OnePlus 7 Pro, [[Oppo Reno]], [[Vivo X27]], [[Vivo NEX|Vivo NEX S]], Vivo NEX A, [[Xiaomi Mi MIX 3|Xiaomi Mi MIX 3 5G]], [[Xiaomi Mi 9]], [[Tecno Spark 3 Pro]], [[Huawei Mate 20|Huawei Mate 20 Pro]], [[LG G8 ThinQ|LG G8]], [[Nokia 8.1]], [[Realme 3|Realme 3 Pro]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Android Beta Program |website=www.google.com |url=https://www.google.com/android/beta#faq |access-date=September 7, 2019}}</ref>
|-
! [[Android Pie|9]]
| [[Android Pie|Pie]]
| {{dts|2018|08|06}}
| 28
| 4.x
| [[Essential Phone]], [[Pixel (1st generation)|Pixel, Pixel XL]], [[Pixel 2]], Pixel 2 XL, [[Nokia 7 Plus]], [[OnePlus 6]], [[Oppo R15 Pro]], [[Sony Xperia XZ3]], [[Vivo X21UD]], [[Vivo X21]], [[Xiaomi Mi MIX 2S|Xiaomi Mi Mix 2S]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Android P Beta Devices |website=Android Developers |url= https://developer.android.com/preview/devices/ |access-date=July 13, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180510195727/https://developer.android.com/preview/devices/ |archive-date=May 10, 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 8.1 Oreo (API 27)|8.1]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Android Oreo|Oreo]]
| {{dts|2017|12|05}}
| 27
| 4.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]]
| [[Pixel (1st generation)|Pixel, Pixel XL]], [[Nexus 6P]], [[Nexus 5X]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 8.0 Oreo (API 26)|8.0]]
| {{dts|2017|08|21}}
| 26
| 4.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]]
| {{n/a}}
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 7.1 Nougat|7.1]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Android Nougat|Nougat]]
| {{dts|2016|10|04}}
| 25
| 4.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]] 
| [[Pixel (1st generation)|Pixel, Pixel XL]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 7.0 Nougat|7.0]]
| {{dts|2016|8|22}}
| 24
| 4.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]]
| [[Nexus 5X]], [[Nexus 6P]], [[LG V20]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 6.0 Marshmallow|6.0]]
| [[Android Marshmallow|Marshmallow]]
| {{dts|2015|10|5}}
| 23
| 4.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]]
| [[Nexus 5X]], [[Nexus 6P]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 5.1 Lollipop|5.1]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Android Lollipop|Lollipop]]
| {{dts|2015|3|9}}
| 22
| 3.x
| [[Android Runtime|ART]]
| [[Android One]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 5.0 Lollipop|5.0]]
| {{dts|2014|11|3}}
| 21
| 3.x
| ART 2.1.0
| [[Nexus 6]], [[Nexus 9]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 4.4 KitKat|4.4]]
| [[Android KitKat|KitKat]]
| {{dts|2013|10|31}}
| 19
| 3.x
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]] (and ART&nbsp;1.6.0)
| [[Nexus 5]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 4.3 Jelly Bean|4.3]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Android Jelly Bean|Jelly Bean]]
| {{dts|2013|7|24}}
| 18
| 3.x
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]]
| [[Nexus 7 (2013)|Nexus 7 2013]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 4.2 Jelly Bean|4.2]]
| {{dts|2012|11|13}}
| 17
| 3.x
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]]
| [[Nexus 4]], [[Nexus 10]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 4.1 Jelly Bean|4.1]]
| {{dts|2012|7|9}}
| 16
| 3.x
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]]
| [[Nexus 7 (2012)|Nexus 7]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich|4.0]]
| [[Android Ice Cream Sandwich|Ice Cream Sandwich]]
| {{dts|2011|10|19}}
| 15
| 3.x
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]]
| [[Galaxy Nexus]]
|-
! [[Android version history#Android 2.3.3 Gingerbread|2.3]]
| [[Android Gingerbread|Gingerbread]]
| {{dts|2011|2|9}}
| 10
| 2.6.32
| [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]] 1.4.0
| [[Nexus S]], [[LG DoublePlay]]<ref>{{cite web |title=LG DoublePlay |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/lg_doubleplay-4257.php |website=GSMARENA |access-date=September 8, 2023}}</ref>
-->
|}

Since April 2024, 85.0% of devices have [[Vulkan]] graphics support (77.6% support Vulkan 1.1 or higher, thereof 6.6% supporting Vulkan 1.3),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Distribution dashboard |url=https://developer.android.com/about/dashboards |date=April 23, 2024 |access-date=July 21, 2024 |website=Android Developers |language=en}}</ref> the successor to OpenGL. At the same time 100.0% of the devices have support for {{nowrap|[[OpenGL ES 2.0]]}} or higher, 95.9% are on {{nowrap|[[OpenGL ES 3.0]]}} or higher, and 88.6% are using the latest version {{nowrap|OpenGL ES 3.2}}.

=== Application piracy ===
Paid Android applications in the past were simple to [[copyright infringement of software|pirate]].<ref name="piracy">{{cite news |author=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.com/gamelife/2012/05/wired-uk-android-game-piracy/ |title=Op-Ed: Android Piracy Is Huge Problem for Game Devs &#124; Game&#124;Life |publisher=Wired.com |date=May 3, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906232033/http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2012/05/wired-uk-android-game-piracy |archive-date=September 6, 2012 }}</ref> In a May 2012 interview with [[Eurogamer]], the developers of ''[[Football Manager]]'' stated that the ratio of pirated players vs legitimate players was 9:1 for their game ''Football Manager Handheld''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Yin |first=Wesley |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-04-24-football-manager-dev-hopes-to-stick-with-android-despite-9-1-piracy-rate |title=Football Manager dev hopes to stick with Android despite 9:1 piracy rate |publisher=Eurogamer.net |date=April 24, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916013703/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-04-24-football-manager-dev-hopes-to-stick-with-android-despite-9-1-piracy-rate |archive-date=September 16, 2012 }}</ref> However, not every developer agreed that piracy rates were an issue; for example, in July 2012 the developers of the game ''[[Wind-up Knight]]'' said that piracy levels of their game were only 12%, and most of the piracy came from China, where people cannot purchase apps from Google Play.<ref>{{cite web |last=Armasu |first=Lucian |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/piracy-rates-are-higher-ios-android-wind-up-knight-developer-104305/ |title=Wind-up Knight developer: Piracy rates on iOS and Android are comparable, China is the main source |publisher=Androidauthority.com |date=July 30, 2012 |access-date=October 6, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020200141/http://www.androidauthority.com/piracy-rates-are-higher-ios-android-wind-up-knight-developer-104305/ |archive-date=October 20, 2012 }}</ref>

In 2010, Google released a tool for validating authorized purchases for use within apps, but developers complained that this was insufficient and trivial to [[Software cracking|crack]]. Google responded that the tool, especially its initial release, was intended as a sample framework for developers to modify and build upon depending on their needs, not as a finished piracy solution.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Paul |title=Android antipiracy cracked, Google says devs used it wrong |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2010/08/google-cracked-android-anti-piracy-system-used-wrong-by-devs/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 25, 2010 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064841/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2010/08/google-cracked-android-anti-piracy-system-used-wrong-by-devs/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Android "Jelly Bean" introduced the ability for paid applications to be encrypted, so that they may work only on the device for which they were purchased.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Update: Google posts DRM workaround for paid Android Wear apps |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/07/google-drm-bug-blocks-paid-android-wear-apps/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=July 9, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210102605/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/07/google-drm-bug-blocks-paid-android-wear-apps/ |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=McAllister |first=Neil |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/08/08/android_drm_disabled/ |title=Android app DRM quietly disabled due to bug |publisher=The Register |date=August 8, 2012 |access-date=June 10, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811005729/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/08/08/android_drm_disabled/ |archive-date=August 11, 2012 }}</ref>

== Legal issues ==
{{Further|Smartphone patent wars|Patent troll}}
The success of Android has made it a target for [[patent]] and [[copyright]] litigation between technology companies, both Android and Android phone manufacturers having been involved in numerous patent lawsuits and other legal challenges.

=== Patent lawsuit with Oracle ===
{{Main|Oracle v. Google}}
On August 12, 2010, [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] sued Google over claimed infringement of copyrights and patents related to the [[Java (programming language)|Java]] programming language.<ref name="computerworld">{{cite web |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9180678/Update_Oracle_sues_Google_over_Java_use_in_Android |title=Update: Oracle sues Google over Java use in Android |first=James |last=Niccolai |date=August 12, 2010 |work=Computerworld |publisher=IDG |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106140213/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9180678/Update_Oracle_sues_Google_over_Java_use_in_Android |archive-date=January 6, 2012 }}</ref> Oracle originally sought damages up to $6.1&nbsp;billion,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oracle-google-lawsuit-idUSTRE75H0FP20110618|title=Oracle seeks up to $6.1 billion in Google lawsuit|publisher=Reuters|date=June 18, 2011|access-date=September 7, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902164626/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/18/us-oracle-google-lawsuit-idUSTRE75H0FP20110618|archive-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> but this valuation was rejected by a United States federal judge who asked Oracle to revise the estimate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_18532705|title=Judge tosses Oracle's $6.1 billion damage estimate in claim against Google|work=MercuryNews.com|date=July 22, 2011|access-date=September 7, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118213044/http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_18532705|archive-date=January 18, 2012}}</ref> In response, Google submitted multiple lines of defense, counterclaiming that Android did not infringe on Oracle's patents or copyright, that Oracle's patents were invalid, and several other defenses. They said that Android's Java runtime environment is based on [[Apache Harmony]], a [[clean room design|clean room]] implementation of the Java class libraries, and an independently developed virtual machine called [[Dalvik (software)|Dalvik]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/10/google-oracle-android/ |title=Calling Oracle Hypocritical, Google Denies Patent Infringement |first=Ryan |last=Singel |date=October 5, 2010 |magazine=Wired |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128003845/http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/10/google-oracle-android/ |archive-date=November 28, 2011 }}</ref> In May 2012, the jury in this case found that Google did not infringe on Oracle's patents, and the trial judge ruled that the structure of the Java APIs used by Google was not copyrightable.<ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |title=Jury clears Google of infringing on Oracle patents |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/jury-clears-google-of-infringing-on-oracle-patents/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=May 23, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423231925/http://www.zdnet.com/article/jury-clears-google-of-infringing-on-oracle-patents/ |archive-date=April 23, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Mullin |title=Google wins crucial API ruling, Oracle's case decimated |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/05/google-wins-crucial-api-ruling-oracles-case-decimated/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 31, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312065520/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/05/google-wins-crucial-api-ruling-oracles-case-decimated/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> The parties agreed to zero dollars in [[statutory damages]] for a small amount of copied code.<ref name="damages">{{cite web
 |title = Oracle agrees to 'zero' damages in Google lawsuit, eyes appeal
 |url = http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9228298/Oracle_agrees_to_zero_damages_in_Google_lawsuit_eyes_appeal
 |access-date = June 23, 2012
|first = James
 |last = Niccolai
 |work = Computerworld
 |date = June 20, 2012
|url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121117001109/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9228298/Oracle_agrees_to_zero_damages_in_Google_lawsuit_eyes_appeal
 |archive-date = November 17, 2012
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> On May 9, 2014, the [[Federal Circuit]] partially reversed the district court ruling, ruling in Oracle's favor on the copyrightability issue, and [[Remand (court procedure)|remanding]] the issue of [[fair use]] to the district court.<ref>{{cite web |first=Seth |last=Rosenblatt |title=Court sides with Oracle over Android in Java patent appeal |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/court-sides-with-oracle-over-android-in-java-patent-appeal/ |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=May 9, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419063834/https://www.cnet.com/news/court-sides-with-oracle-over-android-in-java-patent-appeal/ |archive-date=April 19, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="cafc 13-1021">{{cite web|url=http://www.cafc.uscourts.gov/images/stories/opinions-orders/13-1021.Opinion.5-7-2014.1.PDF |title=ORACLE AMERICA, INC., Plaintiff – Appellant, v. GOOGLE INC., Defendant – Cross – Appellant. |publisher=Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit |date=May 9, 2014 |access-date=May 10, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601064614/http://www.cafc.uscourts.gov/images/stories/opinions-orders/13-1021.Opinion.5-7-2014.1.PDF |archive-date=June 1, 2014 }}</ref>

In December 2015, Google announced that the next major release of Android ([[Android Nougat]]) would switch to [[OpenJDK]], which is the official open-source implementation of the Java platform, instead of using the now-discontinued Apache Harmony project as its runtime. Code reflecting this change was also posted to the AOSP source repository.<ref name="ars-njdk" /> In its announcement, Google claimed this was part of an effort to create a "common code base" between Java on Android and other platforms.<ref name="vb-openjdk" /> Google later admitted in a court filing that this was part of an effort to address the disputes with Oracle, as its use of OpenJDK code is governed under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) with a [[GPL linking exception|linking exception]], and that "any damages claim associated with the new versions expressly licensed by Oracle under OpenJDK would require a separate analysis of damages from earlier releases".<ref name="ars-njdk">{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title=Android N switches to OpenJDK, Google tells Oracle it is protected by the GPL |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/01/android-n-switches-to-openjdk-google-tells-oracle-it-is-protected-by-the-gpl/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=January 6, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312065019/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/01/android-n-switches-to-openjdk-google-tells-oracle-it-is-protected-by-the-gpl/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> In June 2016, a United States federal court ruled in favor of Google, stating that its use of the APIs was fair use.<ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Mullin |title=Google beats Oracle—Android makes "fair use" of Java APIs |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/05/google-wins-trial-against-oracle-as-jury-finds-android-is-fair-use/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=May 26, 2016 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526202002/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/05/google-wins-trial-against-oracle-as-jury-finds-android-is-fair-use/ |archive-date=May 26, 2016 }}</ref>

In April 2021, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Google's use of the Java APIs was within the bounds of fair use, reversing the Federal Circuit Appeals Court ruling and remanding the case for further hearing. The majority opinion began with the assumption that the APIs may be copyrightable, and thus proceeded with a review of the factors that contributed to fair use.<ref name="scotusblog decision">{{cite web | url = https://www.scotusblog.com/2021/04/justices-validate-googles-use-of-java-platform-in-android-software-code/ | title = Justices validate Google's use of Java platform in Android software code | first= Ronald | last = Mann | date = April 6, 2021 | accessdate = April 7, 2021 | work = [[SCOTUSBlog]] }}</ref>

=== Anti-competitive challenges in Europe ===
{{Main|European Union vs. Google}}
In 2013, [[FairSearch]], a lobbying organization supported by [[Microsoft]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and others, filed a complaint regarding Android with the [[European Commission]], alleging that its free-of-charge distribution model constituted anti-competitive [[predatory pricing]]. The [[Free Software Foundation Europe]], whose donors include Google, disputed the Fairsearch allegations.<ref name="fsfe">{{cite web|url=http://fsfe.org/activities/policy/eu/20130729.EC.Fairsearch.letter.en.html|title=FSFE objects to claims of 'predatory pricing' in Free Software|work=FSFE - Free Software Foundation Europe |publisher=Free Software Foundation Europe|access-date=September 28, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002030346/http://fsfe.org/activities/policy/eu/20130729.EC.Fairsearch.letter.en.html|archive-date=October 2, 2013}}</ref> On April 20, 2016, the EU filed a formal [[European Union competition law|antitrust complaint]] against Google based upon the FairSearch allegations, arguing that its leverage over Android vendors, including the mandatory bundling of the entire suite of proprietary Google software, hindering the ability for competing search providers to be integrated into Android, and barring vendors from producing devices running forks of Android, constituted anti-competitive practices.<ref name="bbc-euandroidantitrust">{{cite news|title=Google faces EU charge over Android 'abuse of dominance'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-36092441|access-date=April 20, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420114627/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-36092441|archive-date=April 20, 2016|date=April 20, 2016|last1=Rawlinson|first1=Kevin}}</ref> In August 2016, Google was fined US$6.75&nbsp;million by the Russian [[Federal Antimonopoly Service]] (FAS) under similar allegations by [[Yandex]].<ref name="verge-russiafine">{{cite web|title=Russia fines Google $6.75 million for preinstalling apps on Android|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/8/12/12450192/russia-google-antitrust-fine-android|website=The Verge|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=March 23, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324084204/http://www.theverge.com/2016/8/12/12450192/russia-google-antitrust-fine-android|archive-date=March 24, 2017|date=August 12, 2016}}</ref> The European Commission issued its decision on July 18, 2018, determining that Google had conducted three operations related to Android that were in violation of antitrust regulations: bundling Google's search and Chrome as part of Android, blocking phone manufacturers from using forked versions of Android, and establishing deals with phone manufacturers and network providers to exclusively bundle the Google search application on handsets (a practice Google ended by 2014). The EU fined Google for {{€|4.3 billion}} (about {{USD|5 billion}}) and required the company to end this conduct within 90 days.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.theverge.com/2018/7/18/17580694/google-android-eu-fine-antitrust | title = Google fined a record $5 billion by the EU for Android antitrust violations | first = Tom | last = Warren | date = July 18, 2018 | access-date = July 18, 2018 | work =[[The Verge]] }}</ref> Google filed its appeal of the ruling in October 2018, though will not ask for any interim measures to delay the onset of conduct requirements.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-appeals-5-billion-eu-fine-in-android-case-1539109713 | title= Google Appeals $5 Billion EU Fine in Android Case | first = Sam | last = Schechner | date = October 9, 2018 | access-date = October 9, 2018 | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] }}</ref>

On October 16, 2018, Google announced that it would change its distribution model for Google Mobile Services in the EU, since part of its revenues streams for Android which came through use of Google Search and Chrome were now prohibited by the EU's ruling. While the core Android system remains free, OEMs in Europe would be required to purchase a paid license to the core suite of Google applications, such as Gmail, Google Maps and the Google Play Store. Google Search will be licensed separately, with an option to include Google Chrome at no additional cost atop Search. European OEMs can bundle third-party alternatives on phones and devices sold to customers, if they so choose. OEMs will no longer be barred from selling any device running incompatible versions of Android in Europe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/16/17984074/google-eu-android-licensing-bundle-chrome-search|title=Google will start charging Android device makers a fee for using its apps in Europe|work=[[The Verge]]|date =October 16, 2018 | access-date = October 17, 2018 | first1= Jacob |last1 = Kastrenakes | first2 = Nilay | last2 = Patel }}</ref>

=== Others ===
In addition to lawsuits against Google directly, various [[proxy war]]s have been waged against Android indirectly by targeting manufacturers of Android devices, with the effect of discouraging manufacturers from adopting the platform by increasing the costs of bringing an Android device to market.<ref name="pcworld">{{cite web |last=Newman |first=Jared |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/240783/microsoftsamsung_patent_deal_great_news_for_windows_phones.html |title=Microsoft-Samsung Patent Deal: Great News for Windows Phones |publisher=PCWorld |date=September 28, 2011 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129124406/http://www.pcworld.com/article/240783/microsoftsamsung_patent_deal_great_news_for_windows_phones.html |archive-date=January 29, 2012 }}</ref> Both [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and Microsoft have sued several manufacturers for patent infringement, with Apple's [[Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd.|legal action against Samsung]] being a particularly high-profile case. In January 2012, Microsoft said they had signed patent license agreements with eleven Android device manufacturers, whose products account for "70 percent of all Android smartphones" sold in the US<ref>{{cite press release |title=Microsoft and LG Sign Patent Agreement Covering Android and Chrome OS Based Devices |date=January 12, 2012 |url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2012/jan12/01-12lgpr.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420221321/http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2012/jan12/01-12lgpr.aspx |archive-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref> and 55% of the worldwide revenue for Android devices.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Brodkin |title=Microsoft collects license fees on 50% of Android devices, tells Google to "wake up" |url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2011/10/microsoft-collects-license-fees-on-50-of-android-devices-tells-google-to-wake-up/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=October 23, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063637/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2011/10/microsoft-collects-license-fees-on-50-of-android-devices-tells-google-to-wake-up/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> These include [[Samsung]] and [[HTC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9220357/Microsoft_signs_Android_licensing_deal_with_Samsung |title=Microsoft signs Android licensing deal with Samsung |author=Mikael Ricknäs |work=Computerworld |date=September 28, 2011 |access-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107001830/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9220357/Microsoft_signs_Android_licensing_deal_with_Samsung |archive-date=January 7, 2012 }}</ref> Samsung's patent settlement with Microsoft included an agreement to allocate more resources to developing and marketing phones running Microsoft's Windows Phone operating system.<ref name="pcworld" /> Microsoft has also [[Tying (commerce)|tied]] its own Android software to patent licenses, requiring the bundling of [[Microsoft Office Mobile]] and [[Skype]] applications on Android devices to subsidize the licensing fees, while at the same time helping to promote its software lines.<ref name="supersite-androidpatents">{{cite web|last1=Trent|first1=Rod|title=Microsoft Inside: 20 New Android Device Manufacturers Sign-on to Pre-Install Office and Skype|url=http://winsupersite.com/mobile/microsoft-inside-20-new-android-device-manufacturers-sign-pre-install-office-and-skype|website=SuperSite for Windows|publisher=Penton|access-date=August 23, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828093727/http://winsupersite.com/mobile/microsoft-inside-20-new-android-device-manufacturers-sign-pre-install-office-and-skype|archive-date=August 28, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Tom |last=Warren |title=Xiaomi will bundle Microsoft's Office and Skype apps on its Android devices |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/6/1/11827268/microsoft-xiaomi-skype-office-android-apps-patent-deal |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=June 1, 2016 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216110327/http://www.theverge.com/2016/6/1/11827268/microsoft-xiaomi-skype-office-android-apps-patent-deal |archive-date=February 16, 2017 }}</ref>

Google has publicly expressed its frustration for the current patent landscape in the United States, accusing Apple, Oracle and Microsoft of trying to take down Android through patent litigation, rather than innovating and competing with better products and services.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacqui |last=Cheng |title=Google publicly accuses Apple, Microsoft, Oracle of patent bullying |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2011/08/google-publicly-accuses-apple-microsoft-oracle-of-patent-bullying/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 3, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226190237/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2011/08/google-publicly-accuses-apple-microsoft-oracle-of-patent-bullying/ |archive-date=February 26, 2017 }}</ref> In August 2011, Google purchased [[Motorola Mobility]] for US$12.5&nbsp;billion, which was viewed in part as a defensive measure to protect Android, since Motorola Mobility held more than 17,000 patents.<ref>{{cite web |first=Casey |last=Johnston |title=Google, needing patents, buys Motorola wireless for $12.5 billion |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/08/google-to-buy-motorola-in-effort-to-defend-itself-from-patent-bullies/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=August 15, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174502/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/08/google-to-buy-motorola-in-effort-to-defend-itself-from-patent-bullies/ |archive-date=September 20, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Robin |last=Wauters |title=Google Buys Motorola Mobility For $12.5B, Says "Android Will Stay Open" |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/08/15/breaking-google-buys-motorola-for-12-5-billion/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=August 15, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609042131/https://techcrunch.com/2011/08/15/breaking-google-buys-motorola-for-12-5-billion/ |archive-date=June 9, 2017 }}</ref> In December 2011, Google bought over a thousand patents from [[IBM]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Ryan |last=Paul |title=Google buys another round of IBM patents as its Oracle trial nears |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/01/google-buys-another-round-of-ibm-patents-as-oracle-trial-nears/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=January 4, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312064232/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/01/google-buys-another-round-of-ibm-patents-as-oracle-trial-nears/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref>

Turkey's competition authority investigations about the default search engine in Android, started in 2017, led to a US$17.4 million fine in September 2018 and a fine of 0.05 percent of Google's revenue per day in November 2019 when Google did not meet the requirements.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Porter|first=Jon|date=December 16, 2019|title=New Android phones in Turkey to lose Google services in antitrust dispute|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/16/21024311/google-android-phone-turkey-antitrust-default-search|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=The Verge}}</ref> In December 2019, Google stopped issuing licenses for new Android phone models sold in Turkey.<ref name=":0" />

== Other uses ==
[[File:OUYA-Console-set-h.png|thumb|right|[[Ouya]], a [[video game console]] which runs Android]]
Google has developed several variations of Android for specific use cases, including Android Wear, later renamed [[Wear OS]], for wearable devices such as wrist watches,<ref>{{cite web |first=Dante |last=D'Orazio |title=Google reveals Android Wear, an operating system for smartwatches |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/3/18/5522226/google-reveals-android-wear-an-operating-system-designed-for |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 18, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210034323/http://www.theverge.com/2014/3/18/5522226/google-reveals-android-wear-an-operating-system-designed-for |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Brad |last=Molen |title=Google announces Android Wear, a Nexus-like platform for wearables |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/03/18/google-android-wear/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=March 18, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313124744/https://www.engadget.com/2014/03/18/google-android-wear/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> [[Android TV]] for televisions,<ref>{{cite web |first=Kwame |last=Opam |title=Google officially unveils Android TV |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/6/25/5840424/google-announces-android-tv |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207134816/http://www.theverge.com/2014/6/25/5840424/google-announces-android-tv |archive-date=December 7, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Ong |title=Google announces Android TV to bring 'voice input, user experience and content' to the living room |url=https://thenextweb.com/google/2014/06/25/android-tv-google-io-2014/ |website=The Next Web |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313130445/https://thenextweb.com/google/2014/06/25/android-tv-google-io-2014/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> [[Android Things]] for smart or [[Internet of things]] devices and [[Android Automotive]] for cars.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Kastrenakes |title=Android Things is Google's new OS for smart devices |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/13/13924996/android-things-announced-smart-home-iot-operating-system |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=December 13, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217131058/http://www.theverge.com/2016/12/13/13924996/android-things-announced-smart-home-iot-operating-system |archive-date=February 17, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Frederic |last=Lardinois |title=Google launches first developer preview of Android Things, its new IoT platform |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/13/google-launches-developer-preview-of-android-things-its-new-iot-platform/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=December 13, 2016 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041206/https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/13/google-launches-developer-preview-of-android-things-its-new-iot-platform/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> Additionally, by providing infrastructure that combines dedicated hardware and dedicated applications running on regular Android, Google have opened up the platform for its use in particular usage scenarios, such as the [[Android Auto]] app for cars,<ref>{{cite web |first=Alex |last=Wilhelm |title=Google Announces Android Auto, Promises Enabled Cars By The End Of 2014 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/06/25/google-announces-android-auto-promises-enabled-cars-by-end-of-2014/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622135917/https://techcrunch.com/2014/06/25/google-announces-android-auto-promises-enabled-cars-by-end-of-2014/ |archive-date=June 22, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Tim |last=Moynihan |title=Google Announces Android Auto, Its Answer to Apple's CarPlay |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/06/android-auto/ |journal=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=June 25, 2014 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313213830/https://www.wired.com/2014/06/android-auto/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> and [[Google Daydream|Daydream]], a Virtual Reality platform.<ref name=daydream />

The open and customizable nature of Android allows [[original equipment manufacturer|device makers]] to use it on other electronics as well, including laptops, [[netbook]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Herrman |title=Acer Planning an Android Netbook For Q3 of This Year |url=https://gizmodo.com/5275329/acer-planning-an-android-netbook-for-q3-of-this-year |website=[[Gizmodo]] |publisher=[[Univision Communications]] |date=June 2, 2009 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313130724/http://gizmodo.com/5275329/acer-planning-an-android-netbook-for-q3-of-this-year |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Boutin |title=HP announces Android netbook |url=https://venturebeat.com/2010/02/12/hp-android-netbook/ |website=[[VentureBeat]] |date=February 12, 2010 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313133135/http://venturebeat.com/2010/02/12/hp-android-netbook/ |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> and desktop computers,<ref name="desktop 3">{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Brown |title=Android on the big screen: We chew up and spit out three Jelly Bean all-in-one PCs |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2152540/android-on-the-big-screen-we-chew-up-and-spit-out-three-jelly-bean-all-in-one-pcs.html |website=[[PC World]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=May 8, 2014 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808120332/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2152540/android-on-the-big-screen-we-chew-up-and-spit-out-three-jelly-bean-all-in-one-pcs.html |archive-date=August 8, 2017 }}</ref> cameras,<ref>{{cite web |first=Vlad |last=Savov |title=Samsung Galaxy Camera announced: 16 megapixels, 21x optical zoom, and Android 4.1 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/8/29/3276302/samsung-galaxy-camera-announcement |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=August 29, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313131334/http://www.theverge.com/2012/8/29/3276302/samsung-galaxy-camera-announcement |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> headphones,<ref>{{cite web |first=Rik |last=Myslewski |title=Android-powered touchscreen Wi-Fi headphones offered |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/01/12/now_audio_admiral_touch |website=[[The Register]] |date=January 12, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313125329/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/01/12/now_audio_admiral_touch |archive-date=March 13, 2017 }}</ref> [[home automation]] systems, game consoles,<ref name="Mirror">{{cite web |first=Bogdan |last=Petrovan |title=Android Everywhere: 10 Types of Devices That Android Is Making Better |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/android-everywhere-10-types-of-devices-that-android-is-making-better-57012/ |website=Android Authority |date=February 26, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501215537/http://www.androidauthority.com/android-everywhere-10-types-of-devices-that-android-is-making-better-57012 |archive-date=May 1, 2017 }}</ref> media players,<ref>{{cite web |first=Will |last=G. |title=Top Android MP3 Players for 2011 |url=http://www.androidauthority.com/top-android-mp3-players-for-2011-36523/ |website=Android Authority |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=March 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620192147/http://www.androidauthority.com/top-android-mp3-players-for-2011-36523/ |archive-date=June 20, 2017 }}</ref> satellites,<ref>{{cite web |first=Leah |last=Yamshon |title=Android Phones Will Power NASA's New Fleet of Mini-Satellites |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/261331/android_phones_will_power_nasas_new_fleet_of_mini_satellites.html |website=[[PC World]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=August 23, 2012 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515123802/http://www.pcworld.com/article/261331/android_phones_will_power_nasas_new_fleet_of_mini_satellites.html |archive-date=May 15, 2017 }}</ref> [[router (computing)|routers]],<ref>{{cite web |first=Bertel Jr. |last=King |title=Soap Android-Powered Smart Router With Touch Display Surpasses 80k Kickstarter Funding Goal |url=http://www.androidpolice.com/2014/03/03/soap-android-powered-smart-router-with-touch-display-surpasses-80k-kickstarter-funding-goal/ |website=Android Police |date=March 3, 2014 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111042229/http://www.androidpolice.com/2014/03/03/soap-android-powered-smart-router-with-touch-display-surpasses-80k-kickstarter-funding-goal/ |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> [[printer (computing)|printers]],<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Callaham |title=Samsung announces first Android-based printers for businesses |url=https://www.androidcentral.com/samsung-announces-first-android-based-printers |website=Android Central |date=September 4, 2014 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111094716/https://www.androidcentral.com/samsung-announces-first-android-based-printers |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> [[payment terminal]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=Pan |last=Yue |title=Xiaomi-Backed Smart POS Terminal Developer Sunmi Raises New Funding Round |url=https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2017/09/06/xiaomi-backed-smart-pos-terminal-developer-sunmi-raises-new-funding-round |website=China Money Network |date=September 6, 2017 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111100139/https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2017/09/06/xiaomi-backed-smart-pos-terminal-developer-sunmi-raises-new-funding-round |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> [[automated teller machine]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=Larry |last=Dignan |title=NCR launches Kalpana, an Android, cloud ATM |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/ncr-launches-kalpana-an-android-cloud-atm/ |website=[[ZDNet]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=April 15, 2015 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103224508/http://www.zdnet.com/article/ncr-launches-kalpana-an-android-cloud-atm/ |archive-date=January 3, 2018 }}</ref> [[inflight entertainment|inflight entertainment systems]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/global/activites/aeronautique/lexperience-thales-inflyt/flight-entertainment |title=In-Flight Entertainment &#124; Thales Group }}</ref> and [[robot]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thuy |last=Ong |title=Sony's Xperia Hello robotic assistant can now be an expensive member of your family |url=https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/10/24/16533086/sonys-xperia-hello-home-robot-assistant |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205194638/https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/10/24/16533086/sonys-xperia-hello-home-robot-assistant |archive-date=December 5, 2017 }}</ref> Additionally, Android has been installed and run on a variety of less-technical objects, including calculators,<ref>{{cite news |first=Ricardo |last=Trevizo |title=Android Ported Into TI Nspire CX Calculator |url=https://www.androidheadlines.com/2015/06/android-ported-ti-nspire-cx-calculator.html |website=Android Headlines |date=June 23, 2015 |access-date=December 4, 2017}}</ref> [[single-board computer]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=Christian |last=Cawley |title=10 Operating Systems You Can Run With Raspberry Pi |url=http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/7-operating-systems-you-can-run-with-raspberry-pi/ |website=MakeUseOf |date=August 14, 2017 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042235/http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/7-operating-systems-you-can-run-with-raspberry-pi/ |archive-date=December 5, 2017 }}</ref> [[feature phone]]s,<ref>{{cite web |title=This debit card-sized feature phone runs on Android; charges wirelessly |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/technology/in-other-news/071117/this-debit-card-sized-feature-phone-runs-on-android-charges-wirelessly.html |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=November 7, 2017 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171127050715/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/technology/in-other-news/071117/this-debit-card-sized-feature-phone-runs-on-android-charges-wirelessly.html |archive-date=November 27, 2017 }}</ref> [[electronic dictionary|electronic dictionaries]],<ref>{{cite web |first=Christian |last=Crisostomo |title=Japan's magnificent electronic dictionary |url=https://vrworld.com/2015/01/19/japans-magnificent-electronic-dictionary/ |website=VRWorld |date=January 19, 2015 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111043529/https://vrworld.com/2015/01/19/japans-magnificent-electronic-dictionary/ |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> [[alarm clock]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Sirianni |title=Archos Shows Off Their Android Based Home Connect Alarm Clock and Internet Radio Device |url=http://www.talkandroid.com/83542-archos-shows-off-their-android-based-home-connect-alarm-clock-and-internet-radio-device/ |website=Talk Android |date=January 13, 2012 |access-date=December 4, 2017}}</ref> refrigerators,<ref>{{cite web |first=Dean |last=Takahashi |title=Samsung smart fridge: It runs Android apps like Evernote (video demo) |url=https://venturebeat.com/2013/01/11/samsung-smart-fridge-it-runs-android-apps-like-evernote-video-demo/ |website=[[VentureBeat]] |date=January 11, 2013 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122164714/https://venturebeat.com/2013/01/11/samsung-smart-fridge-it-runs-android-apps-like-evernote-video-demo/ |archive-date=November 22, 2017 }}</ref> [[landline]] telephones,<ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Devine |title=Archos Smart Home Phone now available – get Android on your landline |url=http://www.androidcentral.com/archos-smart-home-phone-now-available-get-android-your-landline |website=Android Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |date=January 19, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408185335/http://www.androidcentral.com/archos-smart-home-phone-now-available-get-android-your-landline |archive-date=April 8, 2017 }}</ref> coffee machines,<ref>{{cite web |first=Al |last=Sacco |title=The Android-Powered Coffee Machine for Java Aficionados (UPDATED) |url=https://www.cio.com/article/2370080/android-os/the-android-powered-coffee-machine-for-java-aficionados--updated-.html |website=[[CIO magazine|CIO]] |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |date=March 24, 2014 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111042434/https://www.cio.com/article/2370080/android-os/the-android-powered-coffee-machine-for-java-aficionados--updated-.html |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> [[bicycle]]s,<ref>{{cite web |first=Sean |last=O'Kane |title=LeEco's new Android-powered smart bikes are coming to the US |url=https://www.theverge.com/ces/2017/1/3/14148308/leeco-android-smart-road-bike-mountain-bikeos-ces-2017 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 3, 2017 |access-date=December 4, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111042141/https://www.theverge.com/ces/2017/1/3/14148308/leeco-android-smart-road-bike-mountain-bikeos-ces-2017 |archive-date=November 11, 2017 }}</ref> and mirrors.<ref name="Mirror" />

[[Ouya]], a video game console running Android, became one of the most successful [[Kickstarter]] campaigns, [[crowdfunding]] US$8.5m for its development,<ref name="ouya">{{cite web |url=http://www.destructoid.com/ouya-interview-julie-uhrman-tackles-consoles-critics-231474.phtml |title=OUYA interview: Julie Uhrman tackles consoles & critics |date=July 16, 2012 |publisher=Destructoid |access-date=November 2, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020042149/http://www.destructoid.com/ouya-interview-julie-uhrman-tackles-consoles-critics-231474.phtml |archive-date=October 20, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Erik Kain |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2012/07/16/an-interview-with-ouya-founder-julie-uhrman-on-a-new-breed-of-video-game-console/ |title=An Interview With 'Ouya' Founder Julie Uhrman On A New Breed Of Video Game Console |work=Forbes |date=April 18, 2012 |access-date=November 2, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104162920/http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2012/07/16/an-interview-with-ouya-founder-julie-uhrman-on-a-new-breed-of-video-game-console/ |archive-date=November 4, 2012 }}</ref> and was later followed by other Android-based consoles, such as [[Nvidia]]'s [[Shield Portable]]{{snd}}an Android device in a [[video game controller]] form factor.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sean |last=Buckley |title=NVIDIA Shield ships July 31st, barely meets delayed launch window |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/07/21/nvidia-shield-ships-july-31st/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=July 21, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708002014/http://www.engadget.com/2013/07/21/nvidia-shield-ships-july-31st/ |archive-date=July 8, 2014 }}</ref>

In 2011, Google demonstrated "Android@Home", a home automation technology which uses Android to control a range of household devices including light switches, power sockets and thermostats.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas |last=Ricker |title=Editorial: Android@Home is the best worst thing that could happen to home automation |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/05/11/editorial-android-home-is-the-best-worst-thing-that-could-happe/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=May 11, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312063241/https://www.engadget.com/2011/05/11/editorial-android-home-is-the-best-worst-thing-that-could-happe/ |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref> Prototype light bulbs were announced that could be controlled from an Android phone or tablet, but Android head Andy Rubin was cautious to note that "turning a lightbulb on and off is nothing new", pointing to numerous failed home automation services. Google, he said, was thinking more ambitiously and the intention was to use their position as a [[cloud computing|cloud]] services provider to bring Google products into customers' homes.<ref>{{cite web |first=Nilay |last=Patel |title=Home in the clouds: Google's home automation platform to have major services integration |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/2/27/2827615/android-home-automation-cloud-services-andy-rubin |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=February 27, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312061301/http://www.theverge.com/2012/2/27/2827615/android-home-automation-cloud-services-andy-rubin |archive-date=March 12, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gigaom.com/2013/05/07/why-the-time-has-come-for-android-home-to-finally-make-a-splash/|title=Why the time has come for Android @Home to finally make a splash by Janko Roettgers|work=Gigaom |date=May 7, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907222859/http://gigaom.com/2013/05/07/why-the-time-has-come-for-android-home-to-finally-make-a-splash/|archive-date=September 7, 2013 |last1=Roettgers |first1=Janko }}</ref>

[[File:Android x86 on EeePC 701 4G.jpg|thumb|right|[[Android-x86]] running on an ASUS [[Asus Eee PC|Eee PC]] netbook]]
[[Parrot SA|Parrot]] unveiled an Android-based [[automotive head unit|car stereo]] system known as Asteroid in 2011,<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Miller |title=Parrot Asteroid car receiver packs Android and apps into your dash |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/01/04/parrot-asteroid-car-receiver-packs-android-and-apps-into-your-da/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=January 4, 2011 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616214243/https://www.engadget.com/2011/01/04/parrot-asteroid-car-receiver-packs-android-and-apps-into-your-da/ |archive-date=June 16, 2017 }}</ref> followed by a successor, the touchscreen-based Asteroid Smart, in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Gorman |title=Parrot unveils Asteroid Smart, Tablet and Mini car infotainment systems, we go hands-on |url=https://www.engadget.com/2012/10/04/parrot-asteroid-smart-tablet-and-mini-car-infotainment-system/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 4, 2012 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616214905/https://www.engadget.com/2012/10/04/parrot-asteroid-smart-tablet-and-mini-car-infotainment-system/ |archive-date=June 16, 2017 }}</ref> In 2013, [[Clarion (company)|Clarion]] released its own Android-based car stereo, the AX1.<ref>{{cite web |first=Aloysius |last=Low |title=Clarion launches new Android-based AX1 car stereo |url=http://asia.cnet.com/clarion-launches-new-android-based-ax1-car-stereo-62222376.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914202847/http://asia.cnet.com/clarion-launches-new-android-based-ax1-car-stereo-62222376.htm |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=September 13, 2013 |archive-date=September 14, 2013 |access-date=March 11, 2017}}</ref> In January 2014, at the [[Consumer Electronics Show]] (CES), Google announced the formation of the [[Open Automotive Alliance]], a group including several major automobile makers ([[Audi]], [[General Motors]], [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]], and [[Honda]]) and [[Nvidia]], which aims to produce Android-based [[in-car entertainment]] systems for automobiles, "[bringing] the best of Android into the automobile in a safe and seamless way."<ref>{{cite web |first=Aaron |last=Souppouris |title=Google launches the Android-based Open Automotive Alliance with Audi, Honda, GM, and more |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/1/6/5279116/google-open-automotive-alliance-android-car-announcement |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 6, 2014 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210042240/http://www.theverge.com/2014/1/6/5279116/google-open-automotive-alliance-android-car-announcement |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref>

{{Anchor|DESKTOP}}
Android comes preinstalled on a few laptops (a similar functionality of running Android applications is also available in Google's [[ChromeOS]]) and can also be installed on [[personal computer]]s by end users.<ref name="desktop 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.android-x86.org/|title=Android-x86 – Porting Android to x86|work=android-x86.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106043632/http://www.android-x86.org/|archive-date=January 6, 2012|access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref><ref name="desktop 1">{{Cite web|title=12L and new Android APIs and tools for large screens|url=https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2021/10/12L-preview-large-screens.html|access-date=November 15, 2021|website=Android Developers Blog|language=en|quote=The four reference devices represent phones, large foldable inner displays, tablets, and desktops.}}</ref> On those platforms Android provides additional functionality for physical [[Computer keyboard|keyboards]]<ref name=keyboard>{{cite web |url=https://source.android.com/devices/input/keyboard-devices.html |title=Keyboard Devices |work=developer.android.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121112754/https://source.android.com/devices/input/keyboard-devices.html |archive-date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref> and [[Mouse (computing)|mice]], together with the "[[Alt-Tab]]" key combination for switching applications quickly with a keyboard. In December 2014, one reviewer commented that Android's notification system is "vastly more complete and robust than in most environments" and that Android is "absolutely usable" as one's primary desktop operating system.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.networkworld.com/article/933000/the-linux-desktop-a-week-review-android-as-a-desktop-environment.html |first=Bryan |last=Lunduke |title=The Linux desktop-a-week review: Android as a desktop environment |date=December 1, 2014 |access-date=March 24, 2015 |work=Network World |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152701/http://www.networkworld.com/article/2851031/opensource-subnet/the-linux-desktop-a-week-review-android-as-a-desktop-environment.html |archive-date=April 2, 2015 }}</ref>

In October 2015, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Android will serve as Google's future main laptop operating system, with the plan to fold ChromeOS into it by 2017.<ref name=chromeconfusion>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/article_email/alphabets-google-to-fold-chrome-operating-system-into-android-1446151134-lMyQjAxMTA1NzIxOTAyMzk4Wj|title=Alphabet's Google to Fold Chrome Operating System Into Android|author=Alistair Barr|date=October 30, 2015|work=WSJ|access-date=November 5, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106221435/http://www.wsj.com/article_email/alphabets-google-to-fold-chrome-operating-system-into-android-1446151134-lMyQjAxMTA1NzIxOTAyMzk4Wj|archive-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref><ref name="samtran">{{cite web|url=http://www.omgchrome.com/chrome-os-will-be-merged-into-android/|title=Chrome OS Will Be Merged Into Android – OMG! Chrome!|author=Sam Tran|work=OMG! Chrome!|date=October 29, 2015|access-date=November 14, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020231/http://www.omgchrome.com/chrome-os-will-be-merged-into-android/|archive-date=November 17, 2015}}</ref> Google's Sundar Pichai, who led the development of Android, explained that "mobile as a computing paradigm is eventually going to blend with what we think of as desktop today."<ref name=chromeconfusion /> Also, back in 2009, Google co-founder Sergey Brin himself said that ChromeOS and Android would "likely converge over time."<ref>{{cite web |first=Sam |last=Byford |title=Google is 'very committed' to Chrome OS after Android merger reports |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/10/30/9641952/google-chrome-os-not-dead-hiroshi-lockheimer |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=October 30, 2015 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210041201/http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/30/9641952/google-chrome-os-not-dead-hiroshi-lockheimer |archive-date=February 10, 2017 }}</ref> Lockheimer, who replaced Pichai as head of Android and ChromeOS, responded to this claim with an official Google blog post stating that "While we've been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out ChromeOS [which has] guaranteed auto-updates for five years".<ref name="Google: Chrome OS here to stay">{{cite news|last=Lockheimer|first=Hiroshi|title=Chrome OS is here to stay|url=http://chrome.blogspot.com/2015/11/chrome-os-is-here-to-stay.html|access-date=November 27, 2015|date=November 2, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126181844/http://chrome.blogspot.com/2015/11/chrome-os-is-here-to-stay.html|archive-date=November 26, 2015}}</ref> <!--note, new sentence, not [[WP:SYNTH]]:-->That is unlike Android where support is shorter with "[[End-of-life (product)|EOL]] dates [being..] at least 3 years [into the future] for Android tablets for education".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://support.google.com/chrome/a/answer/6220366|title=Android End of Life policy – Chrome for Work and Education Help|website=Google Help Center|access-date=March 12, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310091733/https://support.google.com/chrome/a/answer/6220366|archive-date=March 10, 2017}}</ref>

At Google I/O in May 2016, Google announced [[Google Daydream|Daydream]], a [[virtual reality]] platform that relied on a smartphone and provided VR capabilities through a [[virtual reality headset]] and controller designed by Google itself.<ref name=daydream>{{cite web |url=https://www.yahoo.com/tech/Android-will-offer-virtual-reality-205210468.html |title=New Google Virtual Reality |last=Howley |first=Daniel |date=May 18, 2016 |website=[[Yahoo! Tech]] |access-date=May 19, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519152304/https://www.yahoo.com/tech/Android-will-offer-virtual-reality-205210468.html |archive-date=May 19, 2016 }}</ref> However, this did not catch on and was discontinued in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/15/20915609/google-pixel-4-no-daydream-support-view-vr-headset-discontinued|title=Google is discontinuing the Daydream View VR headset, and the Pixel 4 won't support Daydream|website=[[The Verge]]|first=Adi|last=Robertson|date=October 15, 2019|access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref>

== Mascot ==
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = Android robot 2014.svg
| caption1          = 2D Android robot logo (2008–2023)
| image2            = Android-robot-googleplex-2008.jpg
| caption2          = A giant Android mascot at the [[Googleplex]] in 2008
}}

The mascot of Android is a green [[Android (robot)|android robot]], as related to the software's name. Although it had no official name for a long time, the Android team at Google reportedly call it "Bugdroid".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neatorama.com/2012/11/29/8-Famous-Mascots-Whose-Names-You-Didnt-Know/ |title=8 Famous Mascots Whose Names You Didn't Know |date=November 29, 2012 |access-date=December 31, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101082254/http://www.neatorama.com/2012/11/29/8-Famous-Mascots-Whose-Names-You-Didnt-Know/ |archive-date=January 1, 2018 }}</ref>
In 2024, a Google blog post revealed its official name, "The Bot".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.google/products/android/google-ces-2024-android-experience/ |title=CES 2024: Top 4 Android experiences to try out – 1. Let The Bot be your guide |date=January 9, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://9to5google.com/2024/01/10/android-the-bot/ |title=Android's 3D bugdroid mascot is called 'The Bot' |work=9to5Google |date=January 10, 2024 |last1=Li |first1=Abner }}</ref>

It was designed by then-Google graphic designer [[Irina Blok]] on November 5, 2007, when Android was announced. Contrary to reports that she was tasked with a project to create an icon,<ref>{{cite web |first=Pagan |last=Kennedy |title=Who Made That Android Logo? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/13/magazine/who-made-that-android-logo.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 11, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064717/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/13/magazine/who-made-that-android-logo.html |archive-date=March 14, 2017 }}</ref> Blok confirmed in an interview that she independently developed it and made it [[Open-source software|open source]]. The robot design was initially not presented to Google, but it quickly became commonplace in the Android development team, with various variations of it created by the developers there who liked the figure, as it was free under a [[Creative Commons]] license.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/where-the-green-android-robot-came-from-2015-5?r=US&IR=T |title=The real story behind Android's little green robot mascot |website=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=December 31, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101135319/http://uk.businessinsider.com/where-the-green-android-robot-came-from-2015-5?r=US&IR=T |archive-date=January 1, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Brand Guidelines |title=Android Open Source Project |url=https://source.android.com/setup/start/brands#logo-android |website=Android Open Source Project }}</ref> Its popularity amongst the development team eventually led to Google adopting it as an official icon as part of the Android logo when it launched to consumers in 2008.
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Free and open-source software|Computer programming}}
* [[Booting process of Android devices]]
* [[Comparison of mobile operating systems]]
* [[Index of Android OS articles]]
* [[List of Android smartphones]]
* [[Custom firmware#Android|Custom Firmware § Android]]
* [[HarmonyOS]]

== References ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<!--unused
<ref name="Programming Languages">{{cite web |title=Android Language Breakdown |url=https://www.openhub.net/p/android/analyses/latest/languages_summary |publisher=[[Open Hub]] |date=October 25, 2017 |access-date=December 15, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214124807/https://www.openhub.net/p/android/analyses/latest/languages_summary |archive-date=December 14, 2017 }}</ref>
<ref name="Languages">{{cite web |url=https://www.android.com/versions/nougat-7-0/ |title=Android 7.0 Nougat |quote=Internationalization<br>Multi-locale support [..]<br>New languages supported: Coupled with allowing you to select multiple languages preferences, Android Nougat allows you to select from 100 new languages and 25 locales for commonly used languages such as English, Spanish, French, and Arabic. This enables Apps to better support and understanding your language preferences even if your devices lacks official support for it. |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822165625/https://www.android.com/versions/nougat-7-0/ |archive-date=August 22, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="License">{{cite web |title=Licenses |url=https://source.android.com/source/licenses.html |website=Android Source |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215180642/http://source.android.com/source/licenses.html |archive-date=December 15, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="Bionic Userland">{{cite web|url=https://android.googlesource.com/platform/bionic/+/master/libc/|title=android/platform/bionic/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203194018/https://android.googlesource.com/platform/bionic/+/master/libc/|archive-date=December 3, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Korn Userland">{{cite web|url=https://android.googlesource.com/platform/external/mksh/+/master |title=android/platform/external/mksh/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121112754/https://android.googlesource.com/platform/external/mksh/%2B/master |archive-date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="Toybox Userland">{{cite web|url=https://android.googlesource.com/platform/external/toybox/+/master/toys/|title=android/platform/external/toybox/toys/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314013620/https://android.googlesource.com/platform/external/toybox/+/master/toys/|archive-date=March 14, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Toybox Userland 2">{{cite web|url=https://lwn.net/Articles/629362/|title=Android gets a toybox|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204730/https://lwn.net/Articles/629362/|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="First Release">{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Morrill |title=Announcing the Android 1.0 SDK, release 1 |url=https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2008/09/announcing-android-10-sdk-release-1.html |website=Android Developers Blog |date=September 23, 2008 |access-date=March 11, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305061323/https://android-developers.googleblog.com/2008/09/announcing-android-10-sdk-release-1.html |archive-date=March 5, 2017 }}</ref>
<ref name="Latest Preview Date">{{cite web |title=Android P |url=https://developer.android.com/preview/download.html |website=Android Developers |publisher=[[Google]] |date=March 9, 2018 |access-date=March 9, 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817224047/http://developer.android.com/preview/download.html |archive-date=August 17, 2015 }}</ref>-->
}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Android (operating system)}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://developer.android.com/ Android Developers]
* [https://source.android.com/ Android Open Source Project]

{{Android}}
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{{Mobile operating systems}}
{{Linux distributions}}
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[[Category:Android (operating system)| ]]
[[Category:2008 software]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mountain View, California]]
[[Category:Alphabet Inc.]]
[[Category:ARM operating systems]]
[[Category:Cloud clients]]
[[Category:Computing platforms]]
[[Category:Embedded Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Free mobile software]]
[[Category:Google acquisitions]]
[[Category:Google software]]
[[Category:Linux distributions without systemd]]
[[Category:Mobile Linux]]
[[Category:Operating system families]]
[[Category:Smartphone operating systems]]
[[Category:Software using the Apache license]]
[[Category:Tablet operating systems]]
[[Category:Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Independent Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Operating systems based on the Linux kernel]]
[[Category:IA-32 operating systems]]
[[Category:X86-64 operating systems]]