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Interracial Intimacy and Relations between Chinese and Africans

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Interracial marriage between Chinese and African individuals is a rising trend, especially in China. This trend aligns with China and Africa's increased trade and migratory relations in a post-Mao age. Official interracial marriage is a relatively new development, but sexual relations between Chinese and Africans and unofficial marriages have occurred throughout history. Some evidence and theory points towards sexual contact since the time of Zheng He's voyages in which Chinese voyagers allegedly settled and married African women.[1] Intimate relations between Chinese and Africans ranges from prostitution to marriage. The topic is currently a site of criticism and debate on various Chinese media platforms.

19th Century Origins in Mauritius

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Chinese migrants first appeared in areas of the Western Indian Ocean such as Mauritius and Madagascar as early as 1829.[2] There, they worked as plantation laborers for European colonial powers. The British captured Mauritius from French colonial rule in 1810 and the island became a major sugar producer worked by multiple racial identities. Laborers included enslaved Africans brought from Madagascar and indentured laborers from British India and China.[3] The transition to indentured labor, while still important around 30,000 slaves to Mauritius alone, overlapped with the Act of Abolition of the Trade in Slaves.[4] Britain's abolition of slavery in 1834 led to increased use of indentured servitude from China when plantation labor previously done by enslaved Africans was in high demand.[5]

Many Chinese indentured laborers left due to poor working conditions and poor financial compensation. Those who stayed established a Chinese community that attracted Chinese merchants. By the end of the 19th century, merchants constituted around 81.3% of the Chinese population in Mauritius.[6] By the 20th century, immigration to Mauritius from China was legalized. Increasing numbers of Chinese men brought their wives and children to Mauritius despite pre-established sexual relations with local Mauritius women. Because interracial marriages were rare, Chinese men had sexual relations with local Mauritius women in addition to their Chinese wives.[6] Children from mixed relationships were often baptized as Catholic in accordance with the religions of their African, or 'Creole,' mothers.[6]

When they arrived to Mauritius as merchants, Hakka people from South China spread their negative views of interracial marriage. In the name of maintaining the 'purity' of the Chinese community in Mauritius, Chinese women in particular demanded that Chinese men married to African women remarried Chinese women or that they go to China and return to Africa with Chinese wives.[7] The enforcement of Chinese 'purity' in Mauritius was a popular sentiment among Chinese migrants to Mauritius during migratory resurgence after 1980 when the People's Republic of China opened its borders. Like in the 20th century, Hakka women came to Mauritius with the goal of marrying Chinese men and starting a family while they took advantage of the textile labor available in Mauritius. In the 1990s, the PRC reversed the direction of immigration by distributing scholarships to Mauritian citizens of non-Chinese origin so that they would study in China. Mauritius students returned from China with Chinese spouses, making up a minority of Sino-Mauritian marriages as younger couples in that community.[8] The interracial population in Mauritius today refer to themselves as Sino-Creole. Major components of their identity include multilingualism and schooling dedicated to Chinese culture. Younger generations practice various Chinese languages such as Hakka, Hokkien, Cantonese, and traditional Mandarin.[9] Demographic studies have shown that around 11.34% of the maternal lineages in Mauritius as of 2014 are derived from East/Southeast Asia.[10]

Prostitution

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20th Century Transvaal Colony

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The Transvaal Colony in South Africa was an officially British-occupied colony from 1902 until 1910. The British endorsed Chinese indentured labor in South Africa because of the abolition of slavery and the discovery of gold there.[11] At the time, the mining center of Johannesburg was 80% men. Most Chinese and African miners, who were young and single, sought out sex work. Discrimination excluded black women from white households, making sex work in the mines one of the few options for black women to earn money.[11] On the Transvaal, unmarried Chinese men would buy sex from white and African prostitutes during their mining breaks to the criticisms of European men. For example, the interracial marriage between a white prostitute named Susan Broderick and a Chinese man named Ho King was criticized by European men.[12] Black miners often used the exclusive sexual labor of European women on their breaks.[13] White male opposition to prostitution on the Transvaal was more directed towards the perceived immorality of interracial intimacy between black men and white women rather than towards Chinese men and black women.[14]

The Red-Light Districts in 21st Century Cameroon

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In the 21st century, prostitution between Africans and Chinese mostly consists of Chinese women from Shanghai and the Guangdong Province providing cheap sex work for African men in African cities, such as the red-light districts of Cameroon.[15] Prostitution by Chinese women is a form of entrepreneurialism resented by competing African sex workers in Africa. There has been an influx of Chinese prostitutes migrating to Africa alongside the influx in Chinese businessmen and male traders seeking financial success outside of China. Female Chinese sex workers are called "beautés de Shanghai" by locals.[15] African red-light districts that have been converted into Chinese commercial sex sites have created competition between African and Chinese sex workers, resulting in many instances of xenophobic hate towards Chinese prostitutes.[16] Commercialized sexual relations between Chinese and Africans are usually conducted by Chinese pimps who traffic a sex trade to Africa. Many Chinese pimps deceive Chinese women into believing that they should migrate to Africa for regular jobs and then force them into sex work when there are no alternative business opportunities for the women in Africa.[16] High demand for Chinese prostitutes by African men is fueled by an exotic characterization of Chinese women as magical. The term "bitch-witch" is used by African women and men alike to refer to Chinese women. Africans characterize them as desirably sensual, yet also evil in their sensuality.[17] This is a supplement to other forms of Sinophobic rhetoric used in Africa to discriminate against Chinese women.

Douala in particular promoted the sexualization of Chinese women in Africa before it became what is called a "Chinese sexoscape."[18] Douala contains many shops dedicated to selling Chinese aphrodisiacs and pornographic videos and images of Chinese women.[18] Chinese pimps used the hypersexual ideas of Chinese women that existed and circulated in Africa to expand Chinese transnational sex work migration, reaching a large base of African consumers.[18]

21st Century Chinese Mining Fathers in Ghana

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Illegal, artisanal gold mining sites in Ghana have attracted thousands of Chinese citizens called galamseys to the mining opportunities there, as many as 50,000 gold prospectors since 2005.[19] Without permits or visas, Chinese miners come to Ghana and buy or rent land there to xenophobic responses from locals, some locals fearful of the environmental impacts of this type of mining.[19] Before the government crackdown on illegal mining and resulting mass deportation of Chinese miners in 2013, many Chinese miners had fathered interracial children with West African women. After this crackdown, the Chinese miners were forced to flee, leaving their children behind.[20][21] A video produced by a BBC Pidgin reporter documents the poverty and neglect of interracial children and the desire from multiple African perspectives to create government social aid programs for these children Chinese-African children and their mothers face prejudice and discrimination in Ghana for their interraciality. Ghanian reporters characterize this as a “psychological cost” of the flight of Chinese fathers.[22]

Interracial Marriage and Guangzhou

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Guangzhou has historically been the epicenter of China’s foreign-trade cities. Its economic centrality has persisted after the institution of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.[23] The PRI increased Guangzhou’s economic and commercial importance by launching the Belt and Road initiative in the 21st century, a revitalization of the Silk Road trade route through the building of port, bridge, industry, and railway infrastructure that traverses 53 African countries.[24][25] Guangzhou’s transportation network was used to facilitate the construction of the Belt and Road initiative.[26] Partly because of China’s focus on globalizing and opening borders, African businessmen and traders have migrated to Guangzhou and established what those living in Guangzhou call a “Little Africa” there. African migration within China has led to larger African settlements in Guangzhou since 2004.[23] African traders have been successful in selling their products at ethnic shops and restaurants in Guangzhou.[23] In comparison to African merchants who stay in China with visas for a set period of time, some have permanently settled in Guangzhou after marrying and having children with Chinese women. This topic has become a media-centered controversy in China amidst fear that African men are occupying Chinese jobs and interfering with China’s ethnic ‘purity’ through interracial marriage.[23] Data from the PRC’s Ministry of Civil Affairs reflects an overall statistic of 79,000 foreign marriage couples in 2001, a number that had been increasing since 1979.[27] These marriages are mainly between Chinese women and foreign men.[27] The number of foreign-related divorces are highest in areas such as Guangzhou, where foreign-related marriages are more common.[27]

The Bureau of Exit and Entry Administration of the Ministry of Public Security in China reported around 52.67 million foreign entries and exits to Guangzhou in 2014.[28] African residents compose 16,000 of the foreign residents in Guangzhou in 2014 according to the Guangzhou Public Security Bureau.[28] Overall, Africans make up 14% of the foreign population in Guangzhou.[28] African spouses are primarily traders from areas such as Senegal, Mali, and Nigeria.[28] The two religious practices that they bring are Islam and Christianity.[28] African migrants typically do business in various countries, leaving their Chinese partners and children in China in the meantime. They are reliant on their Chinese families to gain legal status and socioeconomic stability.[27] Many transnational marriages arise through matchmaking programs meant to promote family building and marriage-related migration for those seeking upward economic mobility.[27]

Chinese and African Marriage Practices

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Chinese marriage and family practices have changed dramatically in the 21st century, straying away from arranged marriages and contractual relationships between Chinese families.[27] Post-socialist China has embraced, to a certain extent, a privatization of marriage.[29] The growing financial independence of Chinese women has contributed to this as they receive educations and enter the workforce. A rise in female education occurred between the 1950s and mid-1970s, spanning urban to rural areas.[30] The Cultural Revolution helped stimulate the increase in women’s secondary education through the mid-1960s.[30] These educational trends coincided with cultural efforts to postpone marriage and childbearing in women after 1970.[30]

There are fundamental cultural differences between Chinese and African marriages.[27] The only legitimate form of marriage in China goes through the Civil Affair Bureau, while there are multiple ways to legitimate marriage in Africa.[31] Marriage in China also holds fewer religious implications than marriage in Africa.[27] Legitimately recognized African marriages include civil or church marriages, Islamic marriages, polygamous marriages, and consensual unions.[31] Customary marriage is the most common system of marriage in Africa, many matches made through family relationships that focus on paternal legacies. Marriage under Civil Law is more Christian-based and promotes strict monogamy.[31] Polygamous marriage is illegal under Chinese law, meaning that Africans engaged in Chinese transnational marriage must conform to their monogamous marriage laws.[27]

Chinese-African Marriages and Hukou

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Chinese-foreign marriage was historically restricted until 1979, when an open door policy was passed.[32] China’s increased involvement in the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, opened borders, and receptiveness to foreign investment has created a byproduct of transnational marriage due to this economic globalization.[32] The majority of foreign marriages in China are between Chinese women and foreigners, such as African men. Media responses to interracial marriages are very gendered, labelling Chinese women who travel to Africa as “materialistic” and “morally corrupt.”[33] However, when they remain in China and take on African spouses, their marriages are viewed as admirable and financially strategic.[33] Chinese international or foreign marriage is called zhongwaihunyin, and foreigners who physically appear to be non-Chinese are colloquially called Waiguoren.[34]

Hukou is a document issued by the Chinese government that registers a legal acknowledgment of residence in a particular area.[35] It has economic value because it provides access to good schooling, job opportunities, and welfare benefits.[35] Hukou status is passed down through progeny.[35] Hukou intermarriage between urban and rural residents has grown in popularity since 1985, but this does not include interracial marriage between Chinese and Africans.[35] The hukou system does not extend to foreigners, even if they have lived in Guangzhou for a prolonged period of time. One reason is because their parents are not of Chinese origin. Another reason is that they are considered part of the ‘floating population’ of Guangzhou, meaning they are non-citizens.[36] This poses challenges to African partners without social security or acknowledged residency. The Marriage Law of the Republic of China asserts that two foreigners can get married in China as long as they meet two marriage requirements under the Bureau of Civil Affairs—the Certificate of Marriageability and at least one partner having a Chinese residence permit.[37] Due to the commonality of African men having wives outside of their Chinese partners, many foreign couples do not apply for a marriage permit. Additionally, the majority of Chinese wives of foreign spouses are internal migrants who are similarly barred from hukou.[38] Most children from African-Chinese interracial marriages do not inherit hukou.[28]

Policing of Foreign Marriages

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With increasing African immigration to hub areas like Guangzhou, the Chinese government and public are alerted to three illegal practices: illegal entry, illegal stay, and illegal work.[39] A 2013 immigration law attempted to combat these three illegal practices by increasing police surveillance of African businesses and individuals in Guangzhou.[39] Visas are also made difficult to obtain. Guangzhou’s Public Security Bureau released a report showing that from the early 2010s until 2018, Guangzhou’s African population has declined from around 20,000 to just 13,100.[38] Visa policing is accompanied by cultural policing. Chinese are skeptical of African religious practices, such as the practice of Christianity, and what it means to incorporate African culture into marriage with Chinese women.[39] Foreign spouses are barred from the right to work legally in China, leaving them reliant on their Chinese wives to apply for a business license.[38] Deportation is threatened against foreigners engaged in any of these illegal activities.[38]

Media Reactions to Interracial Marriage

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Starting in the 1980s, more Chinese women were in sexual contact with Western men, either through marriage or, more frequently, prostitution. While these forms of interracial sexuality have become more accepted into the mainstream, anti-Black racism and criticisms of Chinese-African relationships still persist.[38] Anti-black racism in China is also directed towards Chinese wives who are pressured by family members to consider alternate marriage options.[38]

Lou Jing, a biracial woman with a Chinese mother and an African father, sparked debates and outrage in 2009 when featured as a contestant on a Shanghai television show called Let’s Go! Oriental Angel.[40] Online debates were centered around her ethnic identity. Many denied her claims to a Chinese nationality because of her darker complexion and black parentage.[40] There were also online, racist references to her as a ‘black chimpanzee’ and a ‘black devil.’ Jing’s mother was shamed for having sexual relations with a black man and accused of having an extramarital affair with him.[40]

References

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