Draft:Irregular Latin & Greek pluralization rules in English
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Introduction
[edit]A noun is one of the basic types of English words, used in everyday conversation. Nouns (and determiners) almost always have plural forms (except for uncountable nouns). In English, the standard way to pluralize a rule is by adding -s (or -es) (e.g., sock -> socks; toilet -> toilets; sandal -> sandals; sixth -> sixths; etc...)[1]
English has borrowed a variety of Classical Latin and Classical Greek words, some of these being nouns. Latin has a very complex system of declining nouns and adjectives. Greek has a simpler system, although not as simple as that of English.[2]
Latin Declension
[edit]In Latin, there are five distinct declensions, some divided up by different genders; others being only one. There are three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) in the Latin declension system. Latin also uses different grammatical cases to vary the ending of a noun or adjective. These different declensions, grammatical cases, and genders affect the way a noun is pluralized.[3]
Here is an example with the Latin word 'index', from the masculine/feminine third declension of Latin.[4]
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | index | indicēs |
| Genitive | indinis | indicum |
| Dative | indicis | indicibus |
| Accusative | indicī | indicēs |
| Ablative | indicem | indicibus |
| Vocative | index | indicēs |
Greek Declension
[edit]In Greek, there are three distinct declensions, some divided up by different genders; others being only one. There are three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) in the Greek declension system. As Latin does, Greek also uses different grammatical cases to vary the ending of a noun or adjective. These different declensions, grammatical cases, and genders affect the way a noun is pluralized.[5]
Here is an example with the Greek word 'omphalós', from the masculine second declension of Greek.[6]
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | omphalós | omphaloi |
| Genitive | omphalou | omphalou |
| Dative | omphalō | omphalois |
| Accusative | omphalon | omphalous |
| Vocative | omphalós | omphaloi |
Anglicization
[edit]Many nouns from Latin and Greek are anglicized. To anglicize a word is to alter the word itself, and its various inflections, to fit the common rules of modern-day English.[7]
As a result of a noun being anglicized, it can have only one accepted plural, (e.g., campus -> campuses (not campi); omen -> omens (not omina); etc...) or it can have two accepted plurals, both the anglicized and Latinate plurals, (e.g., miasma -> miasmas/miasmata; appendix -> appendixes/appendices; etc...)[8]
Some nouns however have not been anglicized, and the English plural is depreciated, if not unused, (e.g., apsis -> apsides (apsises not used); perihelion -> perihelia (perihelions depreciated); etc...[9]
English Examples
[edit]As aforementioned previously in this article, some nouns did not undergo the process of anglicization; thus, they use their traditional plural form, (other nouns have two different plural forms).[10]
The charts below will list one example of each irregular pluralization rule (by language origin, declension, then gender) that occurs in English, from both Greek and Latin.[11]
Latin Rules
[edit]| Delcension | Singular | Plural | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st (Fem.) | -a | -ae | Alga -> Algae |
| 2nd (Masc.) | -us | -i | Rhombus -> Rhombi |
| 2nd (Nt.) | -um | -a | Fulcrum -> Fulcra |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ax | -aces | Thorax -> Thoraces |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ex | -eges | Lex -> Leges |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ex | -ices | Vertex -> Vertices |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ix | -ices | Helix -> Helices |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -lx | -lces | Calx -> Calces |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -nx | -nges | Pharynx -> Pharynges |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ox | -oces | Vox -> Voces |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -ux | -uces | Crux -> Cruces |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -yx | -yces | Calyx -> Calyces |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -yx | -yges | Coccyx -> Coccyges |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -s | -des | Glans -> Glandes |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -s | -tes | Pons -> Pontes |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -o | -ones | Comedo -> Comedones |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -us | -udes | Incus -> Incudes |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -e | -ia | Rete -> Retia |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -en | -ina | Lumen -> Lumina |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -us | -era | Viscus -> Viscera |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -us | -ora | Corpus -> Corpora |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -us | -ura | Crus -> Crura |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -ur | -ora | Femur -> Femora |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -os | -ora | Os -> Ora |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -ut | -ita | Caput -> Capita |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -s | -sa | Vas -> Vasa |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -s | -ssa | Os -> Ossa |
| 4th (Masc.) | -us | -us | Sinus -> Sinus |
| 4th (Nt.) | -u | -ua | Genu -> Genua |
| 5th (Fem.) | -ices | -ices | Species -> Species |
Notes
Almost all fourth declension masculine nouns in English do not stay the same (including the example, sinus); instead, these nouns are pluralized by adding '-es' after '-us'.[12]
A lot of these examples also have an anglicized plural, (e.g., helix -> helices (or helixes); femur -> femora (or femurs); etc...)[13]
Greek Rules
[edit]| Delcension | Singular | Plural | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st (Fem.) | -a | -ai | Hetaira -> Hetairai |
| 1st (Fem.) | -e | -ai | Kore -> Korai |
| 2nd (Masc.) | -os | -oi | Mythos -> Mythoi |
| 2nd (Nt.) | -on | -a | Automaton -> Automata |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -is | -es | Pelvis -> Pelves |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -is | -ides | Iris -> Irides |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -olis | -oleis | Polis -> Poleis |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -as | -antes | Atlas -> Atlantes |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -os | -otes | Rhinoceros -> Rhinocerotes |
| 3rd (M/F.) | -us | -odes | Octopus -> Octopodes |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -ma | -mata | Miasma -> Miasmata |
| 3rd (Nt.) | -m | -mata | Coelom -> Coelomata |
Note
A lot of these examples also have an anglicized plural, (e.g., automaton -> automata (or automatons); coelom -> coelomata (or coeloms); etc...)[14]
See Also
[edit]- ^ "Plural Nouns: Rules and Examples". Grammarly. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "The Greek and Latin Roots of English". Medium. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "Declining a Latin Noun". dummies. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "index - Wiktionary, the free dictionary". Wiktionary. Retrieved May 28, 2025.
- ^ "Lesson 3. Nouns.-Introductory". A Digital Tutorial for Ancient Greek Based on John William White's First Greek Book. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "OMPHALOS Definition & Meaning". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "anglicization, n. meanings, etymology and more". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "Plural Words With Multiple Spellings". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "apsis - Wiktionary, the free dictionary". Wiktionary. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "grammatical number - Word for nouns with multiple plural forms - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange". English Stack Exchange. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "A Guide to Pluralizing Foreign Words". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ Smith, Peter (15 December 2016). "§20. Latin Nouns of the Fourth Declension". Greek and Latin Roots Part I Latin. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "grammatical number - Anglicized plural and zero plural - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange". English Stack Exchange. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
- ^ "Anglicized Latin Plural Forms And Those That Survived Their Singular Forms Respectively". STORIES OF THE WANDERING FEET & MIND. 13 March 2015. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
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