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Double genocide theory

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The double genocide theory (Lithuanian: Dvigubo genocido požiūris, lit. 'Double genocide approach') says that two equally serious genocides happened in World War II (WWII). The first was the Holocaust committed by Nazi Germany against Jews.[1][2] The other was a genocide committed by the Soviet Union against Eastern Europeans (including the Poles, Ukrainians, and Baltic states' population), according to this theory.[3]

Overview

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Historians think that the double genocide theory appeared in Lithuania after the Soviet Union ended in December 1991.[3] After this, formerly Soviet-occupied countries built monuments and museums to show the world the evidence of their suffering under Soviet totalitarianism.[3]

A street art mural at Gdańsk Jasień railway station by Piotr Jaworski and Mateusz Rybka.[4] On the mural, Nazi German Führer Adolf Hitler, Soviet tyrant Joseph Stalin and current Russian dictator Vladimir Putin are placed beside each other, superimposed by the slogan "NO MORE TIME", to imply that their respective ideologies pose similar danger to Eastern Europeans.
20th century Communism equals 21st century Rashism (Rashizm) event by The State Archive of the Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance.

Supporters of the double genocide theory base their views on a series of events that happened in Soviet-occupied countries. The theory is controversial among scholars worldwide.[3] Some say that the double genocide theory is a form of historical revisionism.[3]

The Museum of the Occupation of Latvia, a private museum documenting the crimes against Latvia committed by both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union between 1940 and 1991.[5]

Soviet persecution of Poles

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See the main article: Soviet persecution of Poles during World War II

Josef Stalin's Soviet forces killed at least 150,000 Poles on Polish soil during WWII.[6] Soviet persecution of the Poles continued until the Soviet puppet government in Poland fell in 1989.[7]

Rows of exhumed bodies of Polish officers, killed in the 1940 Katyn massacre, placed on the ground by the mass graves, awaiting examination.

The Great Terror

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During the Great Terror (also called the Great Purge) between 1936-1938, Stalin's forces killed 111,091 Poles living in or near the Soviet Union.[8][9]

Soviet-occupied Poland

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In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland and divided it in two.[10][11] The Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland. Stalin claimed he did this because pre-war Poland was a "crime against revolution [... with] counter-revolutionary activity".[12] Meanwhile, Nazi Germany occupied western Poland.

Soviet-occupied Poland included 52.1% of pre-war Poland (c. 200,000 km2) and over 13,700,000 citizens.[13] Among its citizens who were not Poles, 37% were Ukrainians, 14.5% Belarusians, 8.4% Jews, 0.9% Russians, and 0.6% Germans.[13]

In late June 1941, the Nazi-led Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union.[10][11] By that time, Soviet forces had already arrested 500,000 Poles in the Kresy macroregion.[6]

Katyn massacre

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See the main article: Katyn massacre

In a memo on March 5, 1940, Lavrentiy Beria asked Stalin to order the execution of 25,700 Polish "nationalists and counterrevolutionaries" in the Soviet-occupied zone.[14] Six members of the Soviet Politburo – Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Kliment Voroshilov, Anastas Mikoyan, and Mikhail Kalinin – signed an order authorizing this mass execution.[14]

Memo from Beria to Stalin which proposed the execution of Polish officers, policemen, etc.

Between April and May 1940, the Soviets executed around 22,000 Poles in the Katyn forest (now in Smolensk, Russia).[15][16] Most victims were captured Polish soldiers, Polish police, or members of the intelligentsia.[15][16]

Victims of the Katyń forest massacre victims are exhumed. Soviet authorities ordered the murders in 1940
Photo from the 1943 exhumation of a mass grave of Polish officers killed by the NKVD in the Katyń Forest in 1940. Inside of one of the largest graves.

Between February 10, 1940 and June 1941, as many as 1,200,000 Poles were deported to mainland Russia.[17] The deportation happened while Polish and Jewish property across the occupied zone were taken away by the Soviets.[18] Polish Jews made up 30% of the Poles deported to Siberia,[19][20] making them statistically the most targeted group among the deportees.[19][20]

The Katyn massacre was part of the Soviets' campaign to erase Poland's culture and identity.[15][16] The Soviets thought the Poles were "avowed enemies of Soviet authority", according to German-American historian Gerhard Weinberg.[21] Weinberg also wrote:[21]

Stalin could be certain that any revived Poland would be unfriendly [. ...] depriving it of a large proportion of its military and technical elite would make it weaker.

Destruction of Polish society

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In both the Nazi- and Soviet-occupied zones, Poles were oppressed because of anti-Polish racism[11][22] (also called anti-Polonism[23] or Polonophobia[24]). This racism was not new; it existed even before the Soviet Union did.[22][25]

In their zone, the Soviets forced Russian culture onto the Poles. They made Polish universities focus on Russian studies, suppress Polish studies, and teach according to Soviet rules (called the Statute Books for Soviet Higher Schools).[13] They systematically erased traces of Polish history.[13] They dissolved all Polish political parties and organizations.[13] They also made the Polish currency invalid,[13] which caused the whole population to lose their life savings overnight.[26]

NKVD prisoner massacres

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See the main article: NKVD prisoner massacres

Before June 1941 (when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union), the Soviets were holding hundreds of thousands of political prisoners in NKVD prisons across its occupied Eastern European territories.[27] Right after the invasion began, the NKVD was ordered to kill or evacuate 140,000 prisoners from Soviet-occupied eastern Poland.[27]

The NKVD hastily killed two-thirds of these prisoners.[27] Among the victims, at least 9,800 were reportedly executed in prisons and 1,443 executed during evacuation.[27] Geographically, 20,000–30,000 of them died in Soviet-occupied eastern Poland. Around 9,000 died in the Ukrainian SSR,[27] which had just gone through the Holodomor[28][29] and Great Purge-related massacres in the 1930s.[30][31] They were targeted for mass murder over their Polish or Ukrainian identity.[27][31]

Historian Yury Boshyk wrote:[30]

It was not only the numbers of the executed, but also the manner in which they died that shocked the populace. When the families of the arrested rushed to the prisons after the Soviet evacuation, they were aghast to find bodies so badly mutilated that many could not be identified. It was evident that many of the prisoners had also been tortured before death; others were killed en masse.

Soviet puppet state in Poland

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After Nazi Germany was defeated, the Soviet Union set up a puppet state in Poland.[32] Around 25,000 Polish Home Army soldiers[33] were deported to Gulags in mainland Russia.[33] Soviet soldiers also raped as many as 100,000 Polish women right after the war.[34]

The Soviet Union ruled Poland with communist totalitarianism until 1989,[35][36] and Soviet troops did not leave Poland until 1993.[37]

Polish resistance

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Some anti-communist Poles fought against the Soviets.[38] However, the armed resistance failed because it had no support from foreign countries.[38] Tens of thousands of Polish resistance members were deported to mainland Russia.[38] The victims included around 6,000 Poles who had been jailed in Borowicze (now Borovichi, Russia) and another 6,300 in Stalinogorsk (now Novomoskovsk, Russia).[38]

Most were sent to Gulags in Workutstroj,[39] Pieczorłag, or Uchtiżemłag, located in the Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in northwestern Russia.[38] Historians cannot tell exactly how many died, because nobody has access to all of the Soviet documents.[38] Just a few survived, at most.[38]

The Poles resisted the Soviet puppet regime throughout the Cold War, often peacefully. The government often used violence, arrests, and police brutality to respond to protests, even peaceful ones.[40][41] However, strikes and protests by the Polish people contributed to the fall of the puppet regime in 1989.[7]

Polish resistance efforts included:

Soviet persecution of Baltic states' population

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The Baltic states also suffered under both the Nazis and the Soviets.[48] Under Nazi occupation, Estonia lost 25% of its pre-war Jewish population,[49] Latvia lost 75%,[50] and Lithuania lost over 95%.[51][52]

1940–41

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The Soviets first occupied the Baltic states between June 1940 and June 1941.[53] During that time, they deported around 124,467 people to mainland Russia.[53] The deportees included modern Latvia's founder, Kārlis Ulmanis (1877 – 1942); he died of dysentery in a Gulag in Soviet Turkmenistan.[54] Baltic states' soldiers who refused to join the Red Army were shot.[55][56] More were arrested and deported by the NKVD.[55][56]

Historian Robert Conquest called these selective deportations a policy of "decapitation" by killing off Polish elites, "as was later evidently to be the motive for the Katyn massacre [in which about 22,000 Poles were killed]".[57] Meanwhile, Estonians and Latvians viewed this deadly year as the "year of horror".[55][56]

1941–44

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Many Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians accepted the Nazi takeover.[55][56] They did not know that the Holocaust was happening, and they viewed the Nazis as the only alternative to the oppressive Soviets.[55][56] By July 1944, the Nazis had forced 160,000 people in occupied Latvia to fight for Adolf Hitler by July 1944.[55][58] In Nazi-occupied Lithuania, they conscripted at least 20,000 people.[58][59]

Though the Nazis had forced these people to fight, they claimed the conscripts were volunteers. This made the conscripts look like Nazi supporters to people in foreign countries who were watching,[56] including pro-Soviet Western scholars who are influential in academia and history writing.[60][61]

1944–91

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The plan of deportations of the civilian population in Lithuania during the Operation Priboi created by the Soviet MGB.

After World War II ended, the Soviets re-took control of the Baltic states. Between 1944 and 1956, many Baltic people resisted Soviet ethnic cleansing and totalitarianism.[62][63] In response, the Soviets deported at least 505,000 people from the Baltic states to Gulags in mainland Russia (including 124,000 Estonians, 136,000 Latvians, and 245,000 Lithuanians).[48] The Baltic states lost 20% of their total population as a result.[48] This included 250,000 who people who fled to Western countries to escape the Soviets.[48]

To scare the local people into obeying them, the Soviets would sometimes kill resistance members and dump their bodies in local villages.[65] On October 15, 1956, Adolfas Ramanauskas ("Vanagas"), chief commander of the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters,[65] released a report describing the tortures some of them had suffered:[65][66]

The right eye is covered with haematoma [a bruise], on the eyelid there are six stab wounds made, judging by their diameter, by a thin wire or nail going deep into the eyeball. Multiple haematomas in the area of the stomach, a cut wound on a finger of the right hand. The genitalia reveal the following: a large tear wound on the right side of the scrotum and a wound on the left side, both testicles and spermatic ducts are missing.

Colonization during the Cold War

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The Soviet regime imported millions of colonizers into the Baltic states from other parts of the Soviet Union.[67] This changed the Baltic states' ethnic composition forever:[67]

Ethnic breakdown 1939 1970 1989
Estonians in Estonia 88%[67] 60%[67] 61.5%[68]
Latvians in Latvia 75%[67] 57%[67] 50.7%[67]
Lithuanians in Lithuania 85%[69] 84.6%[69] 80.6%[69]

The occupied Baltic states did not benefit from the decades-long Soviet colonization; they were exploited by it.[70] Declassified archives show that the Soviets took much more money from the occupied Baltic states than they ever invested back.[70] They used huge amounts of this money for military infrastructure to oppress the native population.[70] The myth of "generous Soviet aid in developing the Baltics" is propaganda invented to justify Soviet colonization, under which the Baltic states went through decades of oppressive rule.[70]

Baltic states' residents holding hands during the Baltic Way, a cross-border peaceful demonstration, on August 23, 1989.
A protest sign from the 1980s calling on the United Nations to abolish Soviet colonialism in the Baltic states.
"27 years ago, 2 million people across Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia joined hands forming an unbroken chain between their capitals. They showed the Baltic Way and the eternal, indomitable spirit of their people in the face of Soviet occupation. They inspired the world. They inspired all oppressed people. Vice President Biden joined each of their Presidents to lay a wreath at the Freedom Monument in Latvia to celebrate this remarkable history and look to the future of the Baltic people." Joe Biden (1942 ‒ ), August 24, 2016.

Deportations of Chechens and Ingush

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Routes of the deportations of Chechens and Ingush from the Northern Caucasus in February 1944.

After the Soviets retook the part of Chechnya previously occupied by Nazi Germans, they mass-deported Chechen and Ingush people from the Northern Caucasus. They falsely accused these people of collaborating with the Nazis.[71] The Soviets forced as many as 400,000 Chechens and 91,250 Ingush from the area within 8 days.[71]

Fearing that the area's mountainous terrain favors guerrilla war, the Soviets entrapped the Chechens and Ingush by inviting them to join the Red Army Day celebrations on February 23, 1944.[71] Once they showed up, they were arrested by soldiers armed with machine guns.[71] The Chechen and Ingush deportees were sent to camps across Central Asia and Siberia.[71] They were not allowed to return to Chechnya until 1957.[71]

The Chechens and Ingush lost as much as 33% of their total pre-war population under the Soviet invasion.[72] This is around the same percentage of population that Cambodia lost during the Cambodian genocide (1975‒79) under the pro-Soviet Khmer Rouge regime.[73]

Debates about the double genocide theory

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Dovid Katz

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American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz wrote that the double genocide theory is a form of Holocaust revisionism. He thought the theory resulted from a "recent initiative that seeks to create a moral equivalence between Soviet atrocities committed against the Baltic region and the Holocaust in European history".[74]

Michael Shafir

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Romanian-Israeli political scientist Michael Shafir shared Dovid Katz's views.[75] He said the double genocide theory was partly "competitive martyrdom".[75]

Timothy Snyder

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American historian Timothy Snyder discussed the double genocide theory in his 2010 book Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Some left-wing scholars, including Dovid Katz and Efraim Zuroff,[76] have accused Snyder of "suggesting a moral equivalence between Soviet mass murders and the Nazi Holocaust". In response, Snyder said:[77]

I coincide with Zuroff and Katz on the centrality of the Holocaust, but we must not overlook how Stalin enabled Hitler's crimes.

While accusing Snyder of trivializing the Holocaust, Zuroff himself denied the Holodomor[78][28] and Bosnian genocide,[79] despite the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) having ruled that the Bosnian genocide was indeed a genocide.[80][81]

In addition, scholars who hold similar views to Zuroff often accuse the NATO of "inventing" the Bosnian genocide to justify the bombing and "destruction" of Yugoslavia,[80][81] or blame the Bosnian genocide victims for their own suffering.[80][81] The leading Bosnian genocide deniers include but not limited to Michael Parenti, Edward S. Herman, David Peterson, Jared Israel, Tariq Ali, Mick Hume and Diana Johnstone,[80][81] most of whom also reject the double genocide theory.[80][81]

James Kirchick

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In a review of Snyder's book, American reporter James Kirchick said that Western intellectuals do not pay much attention to the Holodomor because of "the machinations of that [Soviet] regime in crafting the internationally agreed-upon legal definition of the term [genocide]".[82]

While the United Nations were drafting the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the Soviets reportedly prevented "social" and "political" groups from being included in the list of possible genocide victims.[82] This kept the Soviets' crimes from being classified as genocide.[82] The victims belonged to several ethnic groups randomly labelled as "reactionary" or "counterrevolutionary", who were killed until Stalin chose to stop.[82]

Kirchick defended Snyder against accusations that he was "minimizing the Holocaust".[82] Snyder documented Nazi and Soviet atrocities equally, Kirchick said.[82] He also wrote that Stalin enabled Hitler's war in Europe by:[82]

  • Making Soviet communism absolutist and totalitarian; this allowed Hitler to justify militarizing German society to confront the Soviet Union
  • Telling the German communists to treat the Social Democratic Party as "social fascists"; this divided the left-wing Germans who could have prevented the Nazi takeover
  • Signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact
  • Invading Poland and occupying it until June 1941, when Hitler invaded the Soviet Union

Dovilė Budrytė

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Dovilė Budrytė, a Lithuanian-American political scientist, wrote in 2016 that Ukrainians and Baltic people describe Soviet crimes with the word "genocide" as a form of "nation-building myths rooted in traumas".[83] She cited studies done by other scholars to support this theory.[84] She saw those views as "postcolonial trauma narratives".[83] She warned against any "unquestioning acceptance" of these ideas.[83]

In 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine. According to Budrytė, the Baltic states strongly support Ukraine because they have a shared history of suffering "genocides" under Soviet rule.[85]

She also wrote that people's lived experiences do not divide neatly between "Western" and "non-Western".[85] She highlighted the need to consider "power structures, broader political contexts and existing local and international norms" in order to judge how valid some of their claims are.[85]

Kristen Ghodsee

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American ethnographer Kristen Ghodsee wrote about the double genocide theory in 2014. She had previously claimed that "East German women had better sex under communism".[86] She argued that "economic and political elites" promoted the double genocide theory because they "fear[ed] a leftist resurgence in the face of [...] extreme social inequalities [... and] the excesses of neoliberal capitalism".[87] She accused these "elites" of "focusing almost exclusively on Joseph Stalin's crimes" when discussing communism, and "linking all leftist ideals to the excesses of Stalinism".[87]

Debates about the Katyn massacre

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Historians have debated whether the Katyn massacre ‒ a major Soviet war crime[17] ‒ could be called a genocide under the double genocide theory. Many Polish scholars have described the massacre as a genocide, including historian Adam Basak,[17][88] jurist Cezary Mik,[17][89] Karolina Kosińska,[17][90] and prosecutor Małgorzata Kuźniar-Plota,[17][91] who investigated the massacre.[17][91]

Basak wrote:[17][88]

[The Soviet Politburo's] intent was to destroy a part of the Polish national group [...] twenty-six thousand representatives of the intellectual elite, selected because of their social status and social function.

Mik called the massacre "genocidal murder of the Polish elite in Katyn and other places".[17][89]

Kosińska said:[17][90]

If we talk about a specific plan to destroy a group, we can undoubtedly point to the USSR's policy [. ...] various genocidal acts against the Polish nation, acts the most spectacular of which was the Katyn Massacre.

More importantly, Kuźniar-Plota,[17][91] who investigated the massacre,[17][91] ruled that:[17][91]

[The Katyn massacre] had all the characteristics of the crime of genocide specified in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.[92]

Debates about the Holodomor

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Passer-bys ignore corpses of starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, Ukraine, 1933.
Poster by Ukrainian-Australian artist Leonid Denysenko to commemorate the Holodomor.
See the main article: Holodomor

Some scholars who debate the double genocide theory discuss the Holodomor.[28][29] This was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine between 1932-1933.[28][29] As many as 7,000,000 people died of starvation under Stalin's policies.[28][29] As of 2025, over 30 countries recognize that the Holodomor was a genocide against the Ukrainian people:[93]

Map Countries which officially recognize the Holodomor as genocide

 Andorra,  Argentina,  Australia,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Bulgaria,  Canada,  Colombia,  Czech Republic,  Ecuador,
 Estonia,  France,  Georgia,  Germany,  Hungary,  Iceland,  Ireland,  Italy,  Latvia,
 Lithuania,  Mexico,  Moldova,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Poland,  Portugal,  Romania,  Slovakia,  Spain,  Ukraine,  United Kingdom,  United States,   Vatican City

Many Western scholars who reject the double genocide theory have denied the Holodomor.[94][95] This denial comes from communist sympathies, which prevent them from recognizing the worth of Ukrainians as equal humans, according to other scholars.[94][95]

Holodomor denial is considered racist and dehumanizing.[94][95] Jurij Dobczansky, a senior Library of Congress cataloging specialist,[96] said:[97]

Holodomor denial [...] consists of especially vitriolic anti-Western and anti-Ukrainian tirades [...] accusations of foreign influence and Nazi sympathies, or ulterior motives.

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References

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  1. ↑ * Shapiro, P.A. (2007). "Faith, murder, resurrection: The Iron Guard and the Romanian Orthodox Church". Antisemitism, Christian Ambivalence, and the Holocaust. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253116741. OCLC 191071016. Retrieved November 4, 2024.
  2. ↑ * Polonsky, Antony (1989). "Polish-Jewish relations and the Holocaust". Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry. 4: 226–242. doi:10.3828/polin.1989.4.226. Retrieved October 16, 2024.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 * Moses, Anthony Dirk (May 2012). "The Canadian Museum for Human Rights: The 'Uniqueness of the Holocaust' and the Question of Genocide". Journal of Genocide Research. 14 (2): 215–238. doi:10.1080/14623528.2012.677762. S2CID 216139226.
    • Brook, Daniel (2015-07-26). "Double Genocide". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
    • Budrytė, Dovilė (2018). "Memory, War, and Mnemonical In/Security: A Comparison of Lithuania and Ukraine". In Budrytė, Dovilė; Buhari-Gulmez, Didem; Resende, Erica (eds.). Crisis and Change in Post-Cold War Global Politics: Ukraine in a Comparative Perspective. Springer International Publishing. pp. 155–177. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78589-9_7. ISBN 978-3-319-78589-9.
  4. ↑ Vidar (10 March 2022). "No more time (by TUSE in Gdansk, Poland)". Street Art Utopia.
  5. ↑ "Museum of the Occupation of Latvia". Latvijas Okupācijas muzejs. Retrieved March 18, 2025.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 *DAVID ENGEL, FACING A HOLOCAUST: THE POLISH GOVERNMENT-IN-EXILE AND THE JEWS, 1943–1945, at 71 (1993) (“The German broadcast [announcing the discovery of the Katyn graves] charged that these officers had been shot by the Soviets in March 1940 . . . .”).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 *Turning the tables? by Andy Zebrowski “The second massive wave of strikes this year has shaken the Polish regime to such an extent that it doesn't know which way to turn”
  8. ↑ McLoughlin, Barry, and McDermott, Kevin (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, December 2002. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8, p. 164
  9. ↑ Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the enemy: denunciation and terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Telegrams sent by Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg, German ambassador to the Soviet Union, from Moscow to the German Foreign Office: No. 317 Archived 2009-11-07 at the Wayback Machine of 10 September 1939, No. 371 Archived 2007-04-30 at the Wayback Machine of 16 September 1939, No. 372 Archived 2007-04-30 at the Wayback Machine of 17 September 1939. The Avalon Project, Yale Law School. Retrieved 14 November 2006.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 1939 wrzesień 17, Moskwa Nota rządu sowieckiego nie przyjęta przez ambasadora Wacława Grzybowskiego (Note of the Soviet government to the Polish government on 17 September 1939, refused by Polish ambassador Wacław Grzybowski). Retrieved 15 November 2006.
  12. ↑ Władysław Anders (1995). Bez ostatniego rozdziału (in Polish). Lublin: Test. p. 540. ISBN 83-7038-168-5.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta (1998) [1997]. Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.). Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939-1941 [Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-1941]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294. ISBN 83-7133-100-2.. Also in: Trela-Mazur 1997, Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie, Wrocław.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Brown, Archie (2009). The Rise and Fall of Communism. HarperCollins. p. 140. ISBN 978-0061138799. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Sanford, George (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre of 1940. Routledge. pp. 20–24. ISBN 0415338735.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12
  18. ↑ (in Polish) Represje 1939-41 Aresztowani na Kresach Wschodnich Archived 2006-10-21 at the Wayback Machine (Repressions 1939–41. Arrested on the Eastern Borderlands.) Ośrodek Karta. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Grabowski, Jan; Klein, Shira (February 9, 2023). "Wikipedia's Intentional Distortion of the History of the Holocaust". The Journal of Holocaust Research. 37 (2): 133–190. doi:10.1080/25785648.2023.2168939. Retrieved January 20, 2025.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolution from Abroad (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), pp. 196–98.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Weinberg, Gerhard (2005). A World at Arms. Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0521618267.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Myron Weiner, Sharon Stanton Russell, ed. (2001). "Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies". Demography and National Security. Berghahn Books. pp. 308–315. ISBN 1-57181-339-X.
  23. ↑ Thaddeus C. Radzilowski, Anti-Polonism Archived 15 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ↑ Ilya Prizel (13 August 1998). National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-57697-0.
  25. ↑ Myroslav Shkandrij, Russia and Ukraine: literature and the discourse of empire from Napoleonic to postcolonial times, McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 2001, 354 pages. ISBN 0-7735-2234-4 Page 69.
  26. ↑ Karolina Lanckorońska (2001). "I - Lwów". Wspomnienia wojenne; 22 IX 1939 - 5 IV 1945 (in Polish). Kraków: ZNAK. p. 364. ISBN 83-240-0077-1.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5
    • Popiński, Krzysztof; Kokurin, Aleksandr; Gurjanow, Aleksandr (1995). Drogi śmierci. Ewakuacja więzień sowieckich z Kresów Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej w czerwcu i lipcu 1941 [Roads of death. Evacuation of Soviet prisons from the Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic in June and July 1941] (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo "Karta". ISBN 83-900676-9-2.
    • Mikoda, Janina, ed. (1997). Zbrodnicza ewakuacja więzień i aresztów NKWD na Kresach Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej w czerwcu – lipcu 1941 roku. Materiały z sesji naukowej w 55. rocznicę ewakuacji więźniów NKWD w głąb ZSRR, Łódź 10 czerwca 1996 r. [Criminal evacuation of NKVD prisons and detention centers in the Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic in June–July 1941. Materials from the scientific session on the 55th anniversary of the evacuation of NKVD prisoners deep into the USSR, Łódź, June 10, 1996] (in Polish). Warszawa: Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu – Instytut Pamięci Narodowej. ISBN 83-903356-6-2.
    • Musiał, Bogdan (2001). Rozstrzelać elementy kontrrewolucyjne. Brutalizacja wojny niemiecko-sowieckiej latem 1941 roku [Shoot the counter-revolutionary elements. The brutalization of the German-Soviet war in the summer of 1941] (in Polish). Warszawa: Stowarzyszenie Kulturalne Fronda. ISBN 83-88747-40-1.
    • Berkhoff, Karel Cornelis (2004). Harvest of Despair. p. 14. ISBN 0674020782. Retrieved 2013-12-30.
    • Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Richard Rhodes (2002). Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40900-9. Rather than releasing their prisoners as they hurriedly retreated during the first week of the war, the Soviet secret police killed most of them. In the first week of the invasion, the NKVD prisoner executions totaled some 10,000 in western Ukraine and more than 9,000 in Vinnytsia, eastward toward Kyiv. Comparable numbers of prisoners were executed in eastern Poland, Byelorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. The Soviet areas had already sustained hundreds of thousands of executions during the 1937–1938 Great Purge.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Valery Vasiliev, Yuriy Shapoval, "Stages of «Great Terror»: The Vinnytsia Tragedy", Zerkalo Nedeli, No. 31 (406), August 17–23, 2002, (in Russian Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine, in Ukrainian Archived 2009-05-18 at the Wayback Machine)
  32. ↑ The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs By William Bullitt, Francis P. Sempa  
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Paczkowski, Andrzej (1999). "Enemy Nation". Black Book of Communism. Crimes, Terror, Repression. London: Harvard University Press. pp. 372‒375. Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2025.
  34. ↑ Joanna Ostrowska, Marcin Zaremba, "Kobieca gehenna" (The women's ordeal) Archived 2019-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, Polityka - No 10 (2695), 2009-03-07; pp. 64-66. (in Polish) 
    Dr. Marcin Zaremba Archived 2011-10-07 at the Wayback Machine of Polish Academy of Sciences, the co-author of the article cited above – is a historian from Warsaw University Department of History Institute of 20th Century History (cited 196 times in Google scholar). Zaremba published a number of scholarly monographs, among them: Komunizm, legitymizacja, nacjonalizm (426 pages),[1] Marzec 1968 (274 pages), Dzień po dniu w raportach SB (274 pages), Immobilienwirtschaft (German, 359 pages), see inauthor:"Marcin Zaremba" in Google Books.
    Joanna Ostrowska Archived 2016-03-14 at the Wayback Machine of Warsaw, Poland, is a lecturer at Departments of Gender Studies at two universities: the Jagiellonian University of Kraków, the University of Warsaw as well as, at the Polish Academy of Sciences. She is the author of scholarly works on the subject of mass rape and forced prostitution in Poland in the Second World War (i.e. "Prostytucja jako praca przymusowa w czasie II Wojny Światowej. Próba odtabuizowania zjawiska," "Wielkie przemilczanie. Prostytucja w obozach koncentracyjnych," etc.), a recipient of Socrates-Erasmus research grant from Humboldt Universitat zu Berlin, and a historian associated with Krytyka Polityczna.
  35. ↑ "Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989". Office of the Historian (US Government). Retrieved March 11, 2025.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 *Lappin, Shalom (2006), ‘How Class Disappeared from Western Politics’, Dissent, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 73-78.
  37. ↑ *Murphy, Dean E. (September 19, 1993). "Last Russian Troops Depart From Poland : Military: The Red Army arrived to battle Nazis 54 years ago. Its successors' exit leaves the nation free of foreign interveners for the first time since then". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 11, 2025.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.6 The establishment of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944-1949 By Norman Naimark  
  39. ↑ "Poles and Polish citizens in the Gulag". Gulag Online. Retrieved March 11, 2025.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 (in Polish) "Z perspektywy historyka i w świetle dokumentów…" – interview with dr Łukasz Jastrząb
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Piotr Brzeziński z IPN: "Czarny czwartek" mógł być prowokacją wymierzoną w Gomułkę". dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  42. ↑ The origins of democratization in Poland By Michael H. Bernhard, page 45
  43. ↑ Jarska, Natalia (12 April 2011). "Bunt miasta kobiet". Tygodnik Powszechny (in Polish). Retrieved 8 February 2025.
  44. ↑ Warsaw Voice, Solidarity 1980-81
  45. ↑ *The biggest strike in history of Poland, J. Polonus Archived 2008-05-01 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ↑ *"Anger Over Food Spreads in Poland". By James M. Markham, The New York Times
  47. ↑ *(in Polish) Encyclopedia of Solidarity – Lubin Crime. Article written by Lukasz Kaminski, historian of Wroclaw University. Encyklopedia-solidarnosci.pl. Retrieved on August 31, 2011.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3
  49. ↑ "The Holocaust in Estonia – Klooga Concentration Camp and Holocaust Memorial". September 5, 2019.
  50. ↑ "The Names of Shoah Victims from Latvia". Yad Vashem.
  51. ↑ Porat, Dina (2002). "The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects". In David Cesarani (ed.). The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation. Routledge. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-0-415-15232-7.
  52. ↑ Reich, Aaron (23 September 2021). "On This Day: Nazis liquidate Vilnius Ghetto, slaughter Lithuanian Jews". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 2023-08-19.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1
    • Dunsdorfs, Edgars. The Baltic Dilemma. Speller & Sons, New York. 1975
    • The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986)
    • Stephane Courtois; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7.
    • Küng, Andres. Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States. 1999 "Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic states". Archived from the original on 2001-03-01. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
    • Buttar, Prit (May 21, 2013). Between Giants. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 978-1-78096-163-7.
  54. ↑ "Kārlis Ulmanis". Britannica. August 31, 2024. Retrieved October 27, 2024.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 55.5 Motyka G., Wnuk R., Stryjek T., Baran A., 2012. Wojna po wojnie. Antysowieckie podziemie w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej w latach 1944-1953. Scholar, Gdańsk-Warsaw.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 56.5 Piotrowski, Sławomir (2018). "Security policy of the Baltic states and its determining factors". Security & Defence Quarterly. 22 (5): 46‒70. Retrieved March 19, 2025.
  57. ↑ The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986)
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Palmer A., 2008. Północne sąsiedztwo. Historia krajów i narodów Morza Bałtyckiego. Książka i Wiedza, Warsaw.
  59. ↑ Kasekamp A., 2013. Historia państw bałtyckich. PISM, Warsaw.
  60. ↑ *Pollack, Eunice G. (2013). Racializing Antisemitism: Black Militants, Jews, and Israel 1950-present (PDF). Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University of Israel. p. 4.
  61. ↑ *"The uncomfortable truth about BLM, Malcolm X and anti-Semitism". The Spectator. January 26, 2021. Retrieved October 27, 2024.
  62. ↑ "The Brothers of the Wood. Bandits, Says Russia; Politicians, Says Prisoner's Counsel". The Sun. New York, New York. 25 June 1908. p. 9. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  63. ↑ "Jan Pouren Case". The Independent. Vol. 65, no. 3120. New York. 17 September 1908. p. 673.
  64. ↑ Strods, Heinrihs; Kott, Matthew (2002). "The File on Operation 'Priboi': A Re-Assessment of the Mass Deportations of 1949". Journal of Baltic Studies. 33 (1): 1–36. doi:10.1080/01629770100000191. ISSN 0162-9778. JSTOR 43212456. S2CID 143180209. "Erratum". Journal of Baltic Studies. 33 (2): 241. 2002. doi:10.1080/01629770200000071. S2CID 216140280.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 *Dundovich, E., Gori, F. and Guercett, E. Reflections on the gulag. With a documentary appendix on the Italian victims of repression in the USSR, Feltrinelli Editore IT, 2003. ISBN 88-07-99058-X
  66. ↑ Kuodytė, Dalia and Tracevskis, Rokas. The Unknown War: Armed Anti-Soviet Resistance in Lithuania in 1944–1953, 2004. ISBN 9986-757-59-2
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 67.4 67.5 67.6 Hiden, Johan; Salmon, Patrick (1994) [1991]. The Baltic Nations and Europe (Revised ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 058225650X.
  68. ↑ "Last USSR census 30 years ago counted largest-ever number of residents". Eesti Rahvusringhääling (EER). January 28, 2019. Retrieved March 18, 2025.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 "Statistical yearbooks of Lithuania". Statistikos Departamentas (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on November 14, 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 71.5
  72. ↑ Dunlop, John B. (1998). Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63619-3. LCCN 97051840.
  73. ↑
  74. ↑ Liedy, Amy Shannon; Ruble, Blair (7 March 2011). "Holocaust Revisionism, Ultranationalism, and the Nazi/Soviet 'Double Genocide' Debate in Eastern Europe". Wilson Center. Retrieved 14 November 2020.
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Shafir, Michael (Summer 2016). "Ideology, Memory and Religion in Post-Communist East Central Europe: A Comparative Study Focused on Post-Holocaust". Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. 15 (44): 52–110.
  76. ↑ Beckerman, Gal (March 13, 2011). "Exploring the 'Bloodlands'". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
  77. ↑ Snyder, Timothy (October 5, 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
  78. ↑ "Zuroff: Israel should not recognize Holodomor as genocide". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2019-01-22. Retrieved 2024-05-11.
  79. ↑ Solomon, Esther. "Jews Can't Let the Genocide Deniers Win". Haaretz.
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 81.4
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 82.4 82.5 82.6 "The Butchery of Hitler and Stalin". Hoover Institution. June 1, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 "Decolonization of Trauma and Memory Politics: Insights from Eastern Europe". Humanities. 5 (1). Georgia, United States. January 18, 2016. doi:10.3390/h5010007. Retrieved March 20, 2025.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  84. ↑ * Johan Dietsch. Making Sense of Suffering: Holocaust and Holodomor in Ukrainian Culture. Lund: Lund University Press, 2006.
    • Georgii Kas’ianov. “The Holodomor and the Building of a Nation.” Russian Social Science Review 52 (2011): 71–93.
    • Rebekah Moore. “‘A Crime against Humanity Arguably Without Parallel in European History’: Genocide and the ‘Politics’ of Victimhood in Western Narratives of the Ukrainian Holodomor.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 58 (2012): 367–79.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 Budrytė, Dovilė (2023). "A decolonising moment of sorts': The Baltic States' vicarious identification with Ukraine and related domestic and foreign policy developments". Central European Journal of International and Security Studies. 17 (4). Prague, Czech Republic: 82‒105. doi:10.51870/YPIJ8030. ISSN 1802-548X. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
  86. ↑ Kristen R. Ghodsee, Why Women Have Better Sex Under Socialism, Nation Books, 2018. ISBN 9781568588902.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Ghodsee, Kristen (Fall 2014). "A Tale of 'Two Totalitarianisms': The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism" (PDF). History of the Present. 4 (2): 115–142. doi:10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115. JSTOR 10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115.
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 See Adam Basak, Katyń: Problem odpowiedziałności karnej sprawców w świetle Norymbergi, in 21 Studia na Faszyzmem i Zbrodniami Hitlerowskimi 325, 325–60 (Karol Jonca ed., 1998).
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 See Cezary Mik, Lech Aleksander Kaczyński (18.6.1949-10.4.2010), 1/2 Kwartalnik Prawa Publicznego 5, 10 (2010) (describing the life as well as public and academic work of the late Lech Kaczyński, President of Poland, who, while heading a Polish delegation for the celebrations of the seventieth anniversary of the Katyn Massacre, died along with the ninety-five people accompanying him on April 10, 2010 in a plane crash in Smolensk).
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Karolina Kosińska, Zbrodnia ludobójstwa w prawie międzynarodowym 34 (2009).
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 91.4 See Małgorzata Kuźniar-Plota, Kwalifikacja prawna Zbrodni Katyńskiej—Wybrane zagadnienia, in Zbrodnia Katyńska: W kRęgu Prawdy i Kłamstwa 46 (Sławomir Kalbarczyk ed., 2010).
  92. ↑ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Welcome to the United Nations. Retrieved March 12, 2025.
  93. ↑ "Global Holodomor Recognition - HREC". Holodomor Research and Education Consortium (HREC). Retrieved March 18, 2025.
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2
  96. ↑ Maloney, Wendi (December 7, 2022). "Jurij Dobczansky: Working with Libraries in Ukraine During War". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 16, 2025.
  97. ↑ Dobczansky, Jurij (2009). "Affirmation and Denial: Holodomor-related Resources Recently Acquired by the Library of Congress". Holodomor Studies. 1 (2 [Summer-Autumn 2009]): 155–164. Archived from the original on 2024-08-19. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
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