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상키야 학파

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
(샹캬학파에서 넘어옴)
힌두교
기본개념
믿음과 수행
경전과 그 성립
철학
종파
관련 항목

상키야 학파(산스크리트어: सांख्य) 또는 샹키아 학파는 힌두교의 정통 육파철학 중의 하나로, 불교 경전 및 논서에서는 수론파(數論派)로 한역(漢譯)되어 불리고 있다.[1] 힌두교의 전통에 따르면, 상키아 학파의 시조는 카필라(Kapila: BC 4~3세기)이다.[1] 그러나 현존하고 있는 가장 오랜 원전은 이스바라크리슈나(Iśvarakṛṣṇa · 자재흑 · 自在黑: AD 4세기 또는 3세기)의 《상키아송(Sāṁkhya Kārikā)》이다.[2]

상키아 학파는 힌두교의 정통 육파철학 중 가장 오랜 학파이다.[1][3] 산스크리트어 상키아(सांख्य · Sāṁkhya)의 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '숫자(number)'로,[3] 이 때문에 상키아 학파는 수론파(數論派)로 한역되었다. 이 때의 수(數)는 숫자 자체가 아니라 '수열 또는 나열(enumeration)'을 의미하는데, 즉 상키아 학파(수론파)라는 명칭은 우주의 전개 원리들을 순차적으로 나열하고 있기 때문에 붙여진 명칭이다.[3]

상키아 학파에서는 두 가지 근본 원리인 푸루샤(purusa, 아트만, 신아 神我 divine self 신적 자아, 영혼, cosmic spirit, 정신)와 프라크리티(prakriti, 자성 自性 self-nature, 자연 自然 nature, 신체, cosmic substance, 물질)를 포함한 총 25가지의 우주적 전개 원리들을 통해 우주를 구성하고 있는 여러 계층적 구성 부분들을 밝히고 있으며 또한 우주의 전개와 해체를 설명하고 있다.[1][3] 그런데, 힌두 철학자들에 따르면, 이러한 25가지의 우주적 전개 원리들을 보여주는 상키아 학파의 철학은 이론에 그치고 마는 형이상학적 담론 또는 사색이 결코 아니며, 뚜렷한 목적을 가지고 제공되는, 존재 즉 인간과 우주에 대한 철학적 설명 또는 견해이다.[4] 상키아 철학의 목적은 고(비참)의 원인을 영원히 제거할 지식을 제공하여서 영혼이 속박으로부터 벗어나게 하려는 것("모크샤 · 해탈")이다.[4]

철학 개요

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상키아 학파는, 우파니샤드의 철학자인 웃다라카(Uddalaka Aruni)의 1원론적(一元論的) 철학인, 유(有, sat, 존재)가 정신(스피릿)적인 원리이면서 동시에 물질(질료) 전개의 원리라는 견해를 비판하고 정신(스피릿)적 원리로서의 푸루샤(purusha, 아트만, 신아 神我 divine self 신적 자아, 영혼, cosmic spirit)와 질료적인 원리로서의 프라크리티(prakriti, 자성 自性 self-nature, 자연 自然 nature, 신체, cosmic substance, 물질)라고 하는 서로 별개인 두 가지 근본 원리 또는 실체에 의거하여 세계가 전개되고 해체된다는 2원론을 수립하였다. 처음에는 이 2원론을 통일하는 최고신으로서의 브라만(梵)을 시인하고 유신론에 바탕을 두었으나 후에는 이를 부정하고 무신론적 2원관이 되었다.[1]

상키아 학파에 따르면, 푸루샤는 순수의식으로서 아무런 작용도 하지 않고 다만 프라크리티를 관조(觀照)할 따름이다. 그런데 질료인인 프라크리티는 물질(질료)을 전개하는 힘을 지니며 그 결과로서 나오는 물질은 구성의 우열에 따라 차이가 생겨나고 푸루샤와 결합하여 개체(아항카라 · ahamkara)가 된다. 개체(아항카라)의 세계는 고(苦)인데, 고는 푸루샤와 프라크리티의 결합에 기인한다. 그러므로 푸루샤가 프라크리티를 자기 자신으로 동일시 하지 않는 상태에 이르는 것이 해탈(解脫)이다. 그렇지만 푸루샤는 불변순수(不變純粹)이기 때문에 해탈에 의한 변화는 없다. 해탈을 위한 푸루샤의 지(智), 즉 아트마 즈냐나를 얻기 위해서는 요가의 수행이 강조되었다.[1]

푸루샤와 프라크리티를 두 가지 최고 원리로 하는 상키아 학파의 이원론적 철학은, 이(理)와 기(氣)를 두 가지 최고 원리로 하는 중국 및 한국 철학의 이기이원론(理氣二元論)과 그 견해가 유사하다. 서양철학의 경우 데카르트의 레스 코그니탄스(res cogitans: 생각하는 자, 사유를 속성으로 하는 실체)와 레스 엑스텐사(res extensa: 연장하는 자, 연장을 속성으로 하는 실체)의 심신이원론(心身二元論)과 유사하다. 푸루샤의 개념은 서양의 밀교 중의 하나인 헤르메스주의의 신에 대한 견해 중에서 신이 모든 악에서 벗어나 있는 지고한 선(Supreme Good)이라는 개념과 유사하다. 반면 헤르메스주의의 신에 대한 견해 중에서 신이 선과 악을 포괄하는 전체 존재라는 개념은 상키아 철학의 기초가 되었던 우파니샤드의 철학자 웃다라카의 1원론적 철학과 유사하다.

용어 목록

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가

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한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
가우다파다[5] 喬荼波陀[6][7]
乔荼波陀[8][9][10]
한자 독음:[11]
교답파다
교답파타
qiáotú bōtuó[10]
차오투어 보투워		 गौडपाद
Gauḍapāda
[5][12][13][14][15][16][17]
가우다 빠-다[18]
구다파다[19]
가우가파-다[20]		 Gaudapada[16]
가우다파다[21]
가현설[22] 假現說[22][23]
假现说[24]
가현설[25]
jiǎxiàn shuō[26]
jiǎ xiàn shuō[26]
쟈시애 슈어[26][27][28][29]
쟈시앤 슈어[24]		 विवर्तवाद[30]
vivartavāda[22][30]
vivarta-vāda[31]
vi-varta-vāda[30]		 vivartavada[32]
vivarta-vada[30]
theory of manifestation[32]
theory of illusion[31]
The Vedanta idea that the world is merely an unreal manifestation (vivarta) of Brahman[32]
The Vedānta doctrine that the Universe is developed from Brahma as the sole real entity and the phenomenal world is a mere illusion or Māyā[30]
결과[22] 結果[33]
结果[34][35][36]
결과[33]
jiéguǒ[34][35][36]
찌에꾸어[35][36]
지에꾸어[34]		 कार्य[37][38]
kārya[22][37][38]
까-리야[39]
까-리아[39]		 karya[37][40]
커리야[41]

effect[37][40]
result[37]
경[42] 經[42] सूत्र
sūtra[42]
수뜨라[43][44]
수트라		 sutra[45]
고[46]
괴로움
고통		 苦[46] दुःख[47]
duḥkha[47][48][49]

affliction[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]
anguish[50][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68]
anxiety[50]
dissatisfaction[50]
distress[49][50][69]
frustration[50]
having what one doesn't want[50]
misery[49][50][70]
not having what one wants[50]
pain[50]
painful[50]
sorrow[50]

stress[50]
suffering[48][49][50]
unease[50]
uneasiness[50]
unhappiness[50]
unpleasant[50]
unsatisfactoriness[50]
고행[71] 苦行[71] तपस्[72]
tapas[71][72]
따파스[73]		 tapas[72]

나

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한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
냐야-바이쉐시카[74] न्यायवैशेषिक[75]
Nyāya-Vaiseṣika[74]
Nyāya-vaiśeṣika[75]
Nyāyavaiśeṣika[75]
냐-야 와이쉐-시카[76][77]		 Nyaya-vaisesika[75]
Nyaya-vaisheshika[75]
Nyayavaisesika[75]
Nyayavaisheshika[75]
논[42]
논서		 論[42] प्रकरण
prakaraṇa[78]
쁘라까라나[79]		 treatise, monograph, book[80]

마

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한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
마하바라타[81] 摩訶婆羅多[82]
摩诃婆罗多[83]		 महाभारत
mahābhārata[84]
마하바랏[85][86]
마하바랏트[85][86]
마하바랫트[85]
마하- 바-랫따[87]

महाभारतम्
Mahābhāratam[88]		 Mahabharata[89]
마하- 바-라타[90]
마하- 브라타[91]
미현현[92]
불현현[93]		 未顯現[92]
未显现[94]
미현현[95]
wèi xiǎnxiàn[94][96]
웨이 시앤시앤[94][96]

不顯現[93]
不显现[97]
불현현[98]
bù xiǎnxiàn[97][99]
부 시앤시앤[97][99]		 अव्यक्त[100][101]
avyakta[92][100][102]
아 비앗따[103][104]		 avyakta[102]
애비앗다[105]
아비앗[105]

unevolved (evolver of all things)[100]
unapparent[100]
uncreated[100]
undeveloped[100]
unmanifest = unmanifested = not manifest[100][102]
devoid of form[102]
imperceptible[100]
indistinct[100]
invisible[100]

바

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한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
바가바드 기타[81] 薄伽梵歌[106][107]
薄伽梵頌[106]
薄伽梵颂[107]		 भगवद्गीता
bhagavadgītā[108]
바가받 기따[109]		 Bhagavad-Gita
바가받 기다[110]
바차스파티미슈라[5][111] 婆察斯巴蒂·彌尸羅[6]
婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗[8]
한자 독음:[112]
婆(바)察(찰)斯(사)巴(파)蒂(체)·彌弥(미)尸(시)羅罗(라)
병음:[113]
婆(pó) 察(chá) 斯(sī) 巴(bā) 蒂(dì) · 彌弥(mí) 尸(shī) 羅罗(luó)
포차 스빠띠 미쉬뤄[114]		 वाचस्पतिमिश्र[115]
Vācaspatimiśra[5][111]
Vācaspati Miśra[15]
Vâchaspati Miśra[116]
와-차 스빠띠 미시라[117]		 Vachaspati[118]
와처 스파디[119]
바처 스파티[119]
배처스 파디[119]
Vacaspati-mishra[115]
Vacaspati Mishra[120]
뱌사[111] 廣博[121]
廣博仙人[122]
广博仙人[123]
[광박선인[124], 꽝뽀-씨에렌 guǎngbó xiānrén[125]]
毗耶娑[122][123]
[비야사[126], 피에수오 pí yē suō[127][128]]
島生黑仙人[122]
岛生黑仙人[123]
[도생흑선인[129], 다오셩 헤이 씨에렌 dǎoshēng hēi xiānrén[130][131]]		 व्यास[132][133]
Vyāsa[111][132][133]
Vy-āsa[133][134]
발음:
비 아-사[135]
비아사[136]
비아-서[137]
비아서[136]		 Vyasa[132]
[비아사[138] ˈvjɑːsə[132]]
비즈냐나빅슈[139]
비즈냐나 빅슈		 吠若那比柯宿[140][141]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
폐야나 비가수[142]
Fèi ruò nà bǐ kē sù[143][144]
페루나 비커수		 विज्ञानभिक्षु
Vijñānabhikṣu[139][145]
Vijñāna Bhikṣu[146][147]
발음:
윅냐-나 빅슈[148][149]		 Vijnanabhikshu[145]
Vijnanabhiksu[150]
발음:
비즈나나 빅슈[151]

사

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한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어

삼키아[2]
상캬[152]
상키아 학파[1]
상키아[153]
상키야 학파[154]
샹캬 학파[155]

數論[156]
数论
數論派[1]
数论派
數論學派[2]
数论学派

सांख्य
Sāṃkhya
Sāṁkhya[157][156]
발음:
상키아[158]
삼키아[159]
삼캬[160]

Samkhya[161]
Sankhya[162][163]

샥티
샤크티[164]
(무한한 창조의) 힘[92]		 夏克提[165][166]
하극제/하극리[167]
xià kè tí[168][169]
샤크티[168]		 शक्ति[170]
śakti[92][170]
샥띠[171]		 Shakti[170]
샥띠[172]

Universal Power[170]
cosmic energy[173]
energy (of a Hindu god)[173]
선나[174]
선법[71]		 禪那[175]
禅那[176]
선나[177], 찬나 chánnà[178]
禪法[71]
禅法
선법[179], 찬파 chánfǎ[180]		 ध्यान[181][182][183]
dhyāna[71][181][182][183]
발음:
디아-나[184][185]
디얀[186]
디안[186]
디아나[186]		 dhyana[181][183]
다이애나[187]
디아나[187]
디안[187]
소[42]
주석서[42]		 疏[42] भाष्य
bhāṣya
발음:
바-시아[188]		 bhashya[189]
수론송[5]
수론칠십[5]		 數論頌[5]
数论颂[190]
數論偈[191]
數論七十[5]		 सांख्यकारिका[192][193]
sāṃkhyakārikā[192]
Sāṁkhyakārikā[193]
Sāṁkhya-kārikā[5]
Sāṃkhya kārikā[194]
Sāṅkhya-kārikā[191]
발음:
상-키아 까-리까-[195]		 Samkhyakarika[193]
Samkhya Karika[196]

발음:
삼키아 커리카[197][198]

sāṃkhyasaptati[192]
Sāṁkhyasaptati[5]
수론송소[5] 數論頌疏[5]
喬荼波陀注[6]
乔荼波陀注[8][190]
高達帕達注[199]		 Sāṁkhyakārikā-bhāṣya[5]
Sāṁkhyakārikābhāṣya[200]
sāṃkhya-kārikā-bhāshya[201]
발음:
상-키아 까-리까- 바-시아[195][188]

Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya[14][15]
Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya[6][8][190][199]
Gauḍapādabhāśya[17][200]
발음:
가우다 빠-다 바-시아[18][188]		 Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya[120]
수론의 해명[111] 數論의 解明[111] सांख्यप्रवचन[202][203]
Sāṁkhya-pravacana[111]
sāṃkhya-pravacana[202]
Sāṃkhyapravacana[202]
sāṃkhyapravacana[203]
발음:
상키아 프라와차나		 Samkhyapravacana[202]
수론정요[139]
상키아 사라		 數論精要[139] Sāṃkhyasāra[146]
Sāṁkhya-sāra[139]
발음:
상키아 사라		 Sankhyasara[204]
수론해설경[139]
상키아 프라와차나 수트라
수론경
상키아 수트라		 數論解說經[139]
數論經[205]
数论经[206]		 सांख्यप्रवचन सूत्र
sāṃkhyapravacana[203]
Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra[207]
Sāṁkhyapravacana-sūtra[139]
Sâṃkhya-Pravachana-Sûtram[116]
발음:
상키아 프라와차나 수뜨라

सांख्यसूत्र
sāṃkhyasūtra[208]
발음:
상키아 수뜨라[209]		 Samkhya Pravachana Sutra[207]
Samkhya Sutra[207]
수론해설경소
상키아 프라와차나 바시아
수론경소
상키아 수트라 바시아		 數論解說經疏
數論經疏		 Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya[210][211]
발음:
상키아 프라와차나 바시아

Pravacanabhāṣya[146]
발음:
프라와차나 바시아		 Sankhya Pravachana Bhashya
Sankhya-pravachana-bhashya[212]
Sankhyasutrabhashya[204]
슈베타슈바타라 우파니샤드[81] 白螺氏奧義書[213]
白螺氏奥义书[214]
白淨識奧義書[215]		 श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद्
Śvetāśvataropaniṣad[216]
발음:
스웻따 스웻따롭 니샷[217]
스웻따 스웻따르 옵니샷[218]
스웻따스 바따롭 니샷[219]		 Shvetashvatara Upanishad[216]

발음:
쉐다 쉐따라 우파니샷드[220]
스베다스 바타라 우파니샤드[221]

아

[편집]
한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
아슈리[139]
아수리[222]		 阿修利[223] आसुरि[224]
Āsuri[139][225]
발음:
아-수리 [aːˈsʊri, ah-soo-ri][226]		 Asuri[224]
요가 수트라
요가경[227]		 요가經[227]
瑜伽經[228]
瑜伽经[229]		 Yoga-sūtra[227] Yoga Sutras[230]
요가경소[111] 요가經疏[111]

瑜珈經注[231]
瑜伽经注[140]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
유가경주[232]
yújiā jīng zhù[231]
yújiā jīngzhù[233]
위쟈 징주

瑜伽釋論[121]
瑜伽释论[234]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
유가석론[235]
yújiā shìlùn[234]
위쟈 쉬런[234]		 योगसूत्रभाष्य[236][237]
Yoga-sūtra-bhāṣya[111]
Yogasūtrabhāṣya[236]
yoga-sūtra-bhāṣya[236][238]
yogasūtrabhāṣya[237]

योगभाष्य[239][240]
Yoga-bhāṣya[121][147]
Yogabhāṣya[239]
yoga-bhāṣya[238][239]
yogabhāṣya[240]		 Yogabhashya[241][242]
Yogasutrabhashya[236]
요가순수강요[111] 요가純粹綱要[111]

瑜伽精髓集要[141]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
유가정수집요[243]
yújiā jīngsuǐ jíyào[244][245]
위쟈 징쇠이 지야오[244]
위쟈 징쇠이 지요[245]		 योगसारसंग्रह[246]
Yogasāra-saṁgraha[111]
Yoga-sāra-saṃgraha[141]
yoga-sāra-saṃgraha[246]
Yogasārasaṃgraha[246]

योगसारसङ्ग्रह[246]
Yogasārasaṅgraha[246]
yoga-sāra-saṅgraha[246]		 Yogasarasamgraha[246]
요가평석[111] 요가評釋[111]

瑜珈釋補[247]
瑜伽释补[140]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
유가석보[248]
yújiā shì bǔ[247][249]
위쟈 시뿌[247]		 योगवार्त्तिक[250][251]
pātañjalabhāṣyavārttika[250]
Vārttika[252]
Yoga-vārttika[111][140]
Yogavārttika[250]
yoga-vārttika[250]
yogavārttika[251]

योगवार्टीका[147]
Yogavārṭīkā[147]		 Yogabhashyavarttika[204][253]
Yogavarttika[253]
원인[22] 原因[254]
원인[254]
yuányīn[255][256]
웬인[255][256]		 कारण[257]
kāraṇa[22]
까-라나[258][259]		 karana[260]
커라나[261][262]
카라나[261][262]

cause[257][260]
reason[257]
이슈바라크리쉬나[5]
자재흑[5]		 自在黑[5][263] ईश्वरकृष्ण[264]
ईश्वर कृष्णः[263]
Īśvarakṛṣṇa[5][263]
Īśvara Kṛṣṇa[263]
īśvara-kṛṣṇa[264]
Īśvará-kṛishṇa[265]
발음:
이-스와라 크리슈나[266][267]		 Ishvarakrishna[264]
Ishvara Krishna[193]
발음:
이스바라 크리슈나[268][269]
이슈바라 크리쉬나[268][269]
인중무과론[22] 因中無果論[22]
因中无果论[270][271]
인중무과론[272]
yīn zhōng wúguŏ lùn[271]
yīn zhōng wú guǒ lùn[270]
인쫑우꿔런[270][271]

因中無果[273]
因中无果
인중무과
yīn zhōng wúguŏ
yīn zhōng wú guǒ
인쫑우꿔		 असत्कार्यवाद[274]
asatkāryavāda[22][274]
asat-kārya-vāda[274]
아삿 까-리아 바-다

asat-kārya[273]
아삿 까-리아		 asatkaryavada[274]
doctrine of effect being a new emergence[271]
ideology which believes that the effect is not present in the cause[274]
theory of no effect in cause[270]
effects are not [necessarily] inherent in their causes[273]
effect, as an effect, is not in cause[274]
인중유과론[22] 因中有果論[22]
因中有果论[275]
인중유과론[276]
yīnzhōng yǒu guǒlùn[277][278]
yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ lùn[275]
인쫑 요 꿔런[275][279][280][281]

因中有果[282]
인중유과[283]
yīnzhōng yǒuguǒ[284]
yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ[285]
인쫑 요꿔[284][285][279][286]

因中說果[287][288][289]
因中说果[290]
인중설과[291]
yīnzhōng shuōguǒ[292]
yīn zhōng shuō guǒ[290]
인쫑 슈어꿔[290][292]		 सत्कार्यवाद[293][294]
satkāryavāda[22][293][294]
sat-kārya-vāda[287][294]
삿 까-리아 바-다[295]		 satkaryavada[293]
satkarya-vada[296]

자

[편집]
한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
전변설[22] 轉變說[22][297]
转变说[298][299]
전변설[297]
zhuǎnbiàn shuō[299][300]
쫜비앤 슈어[299][300]		 परिणामवाद[301]
pariṇāmavāda[22][301]
pari-ṇāma-vāda[301]
파리 나-마 바-다[302]

परीणामवाद[301]
parīṇāmavāda[301]		 parinamavada[301][303]
parinama-vada[301][303]
퍼리 나마 바다[304]
파리 내미 배다[304]

doctrine of evolution[301]
theory of tramsformation (which states that all the substances get changes continously)[301]
In Vedanta, the idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman[303]
제1원인[92] 第一原因[305]
제일원인[305]
dìyī yuányīn[306][305]
디이 웬인[306]		 प्रधान[307][308]
pradhāna[92][307][308][309]		 pradhana[307]
퍼다나[310]

chief cause (of the material nature)[307]
primal matter[307]
first principle[307]
존재[22] 存在[311][312]
존재[311]
cúnzài[312][313]
천짜이[312][313]		 सत्[314]
sat[22][314]
삿(트)[315][316]		 being[314] (있음, 존재)
existing[314] (존재함)
existent[314] (존재)
self-existent[314] (스스로 존재함, 저절로 있음, 자재 自在)
that which really exists[314] (실재하는 것, 진실로 존재하는 것, 실유 實有)
the really existent truth[314] (실재하는 진리, 실유의 진리, 진제 眞諦, 실제 實際)
reality[314] (실재 實在)
Brahman[314] (브라만)
Supreme Spirit[314] (지고한 영)
Universal Spirit[314] (우주의 영, 우주심, 우주의식)
진리월광[5] 眞理月光[5]
明諦論[6]
明谛论[8]		 तत्त्वकौमुदी[317]
Tattvakaumudī[5][317]
Tattva-kaumudī[6][8]
Tattva-Kaumudî[116]
tat-tva-kaumudî[317][318]
Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī[120][14]
Sāṃkhyatattvakaumadī[15]		 Tattvakaumudi[317]
Samkhya tattva kaumudi[120]
The Moonlight on the Sāṃkhya Principles of Reality[15]
진리통효[111] 眞理通曉[111]
眞理通晓[319]
真理通曉[320]
真理通晓[320]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
진리 통효[321]
zhēnlǐ tōngxiǎo
쩐리 통시오[319][320]
쩐리 통시아오[322][323]

真實探奧[121]
真实探奥[324]
한자 독음/중국어 발음:
진실탐오
zhēnshí tànào
쩐씨 탄오[325][326]
쩐씨 탕오[324]		 तत्त्ववैशारदी[327][328]
Tattva-vaiśāradī[121]
Tattvavaiśāradī[111][328][329][252]
발음:
탓트와 와이샤라디[330][331]		 Tattvavaisharadi[328]
질료인
(세계의) 질료적 원인[92]
근인		 質料因[332]
质料因[333]
질료인[334]
zhìliào yīn[335][336]
쯔랴오 인[335][336]

質料的 原因[92]
近因		 उपादानकारण[337][338][339]
upādāna-kāraṇa[92][337]
upādānakāraṇa[337]
우파다나 카라나[340][341]
우빠다나 까르나[342][343]
우빳나 까르나[342][343]		 material cause[337][339][344](질료인 質料因)
immediate cause[337](직근원인, 결과에 가장 가까운 원인, 직접적인 원인)
proximate cause[337](근인 近因)

카

[편집]
한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
카타 우파니샤드[81] 石氏奧義書[345]
石氏奥义书[346]
伽陀奧義書[345]
伽陀奥义书[346]		 कठोपनिषद्
Kaṭhopaniṣad[347]
발음:
까토파니샤드[348]		 Katha Upanishad[347]
발음:
가타 우파니샤드[349]
카타 우파니샤드[350]
카필라[139]
가비라[351]		 迦毘羅[352][353]
迦毘罗[354]
迦毘羅仙[353]
迦毘罗仙[354]
迦毗羅仙人[355]
迦毗罗仙人[356]		 कपिल
kapila[357]
발음:
카필라[358]		 Kapila[359][360][361][362][363][364]

파

[편집]
한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
파탄잘리[71] 波顛闍利[228]
波颠阇利[229]
한글 독음:[365]
파전사리
중국어 발음:[366]
bōdiāndūlì 보디안 둘리		 पतञ्जलि[230]
Patañjali[230][71]		 Patanjali[230]
판차쉬카[139]
반시하[367]		 般尸訶[368]
般屍訶[369]
般尸诃[370] 		पञ्चशिख
Pañcaśikha[371][372]
Pañcaśika[139]
발음:
판차쉬카[373][374][375]		 Pancasikha[376]
Panchashikha[377][378]
푸루샤[46]
(인간의 영원한) 자아[46]
정신[46]
지자(아는 자, 앎, 의식)[379][380]
진아(참된 자아, 진정한 자아)[381]		 神我(신아, 신적 자아)[190][199]
신아
shén wŏ[382][383]
신워[382] 싱워[383]

我(아, 자아)[379][380]

(인간의 영원한) 自我(자아)[46]
자아
zìwǒ[384][385]
쯔워[384][385]

精神(정신, 영)[46]
정신
jīng‧shén[386][387]
징센[386][387]

精神性的根本实体(정신적 근본 실체, 영적 실체)[190]
精神性的根本實體
정신성적근본실체
jīngshénxìng de gēnběn shítǐ[388][389]
징센싱더 근번 시티[388][389]

知者(아는 자, 앎, 의식)[379][380]
지자
zhī zhĕ[390][391]
지즈[390][391]

眞我[381][392]
真我
진아
zhēn wŏ[393][394]
찡워[393][394]		 पुरुष[395][396]
puruṣa[46][199][395][396]
púrusha[397]
뿌루샤[398][399]		 Purusha[396]
푸루샤, 퍼루샤, 퓨루샤[400][381]
Self(자아)[396]
soul(영혼)[395][396]
Soul of the universe(우주의 영혼)[395]
spirit(정신, 영)[395]
Supreme Being(지고자)[395]
Universal Principle(우주적 원리, 보편 원리)[396]
universal Self(우주적 자아)[396]
프라크르티[92]
근본물질[401]
근본자성[401]
물질[92][401]
본성[401]
성(性)[379][380][401]
원초물질[401]
자성[379][380][401]
자연[402]		 根本物質[401]
根本物质[403]
근본물질[404]
gēnběn wùzhì[403][405]
근번우지[403][405]

根本自性[401]
근본자성[406]
gēnběn zìxìng[407][408]
근번쯔싱[407][408]

物質[92][401]
물질[409]
wùzhì[410][411]
우지[410][411]

本性[401]
본성[412]
běnxìng[413][414]
번싱[413]
벤싱[414]

性[379][380][401]
성[415]
xìng[416][417]
싱[416][417]

原初物質[401]
原初物质[418]
원초물질[419]
yuánchū wùzhì[418][420][421][411]
옌추 우지[418][420][421][411]

自性[379][380][401]
자성[422]
zìxìng[423][424]
쯔싱[423][424]

自然[402]
자연[425][426]
zìrán[427][428]
쯔란[427][428]		 प्रकृति[402][429]
prakṛti[92][401][402][429]
쁘라크르띠[430]
프라크르띠[431]
프라끄띠[431]

mūlaprakṛti[401]
물-라 쁘라크르띠[432]		 prakriti(프라크리티)[402][429]
matter(물질)[401]
primordial matter(원초물질)[401]
root-matter(근본물질)[401]

하

[편집]
한국어 한자/중국어
(금칠십론 외)		 산스크리트 영어
해체[433] 解體[433]
解体[434][435][436]
해체[437]
jiětǐ[434][436]
지에티[434][436]

劫滅[438]
劫灭[439]
멸겁		 प्रलय[440]
pralaya[433][440]
pra-laya[440]		 dissolution[440]
reabsorption[440]
destruction[440]
annihilation[440]
해탈법품[81] 解脫法品[81] मोक्षधर्मपर्व
Mokṣadharmaparva[441]
발음:
목샤 다르마 파르와[442]		 Moksha-dharma Parva[443]

같이 보기

[편집]

각주

[편집]
  1. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 힌 두 교 > 힌두교 > 힌두교 전사(前史) > 상키아 학파, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
    상키아 학파
    Samkhya學派
    한역 불전(韓譯佛典)에서는 수론파 (數論派)로 번역된다. 시조는 카필라 (Kapila：BC 4∼BC 3세기의 사람)라고 하며, 6파 가운데에서 가장 오랜 것. 이 파는 1원론적(一元論的)인 <우파니샤드>의 철인(哲人) 우다라카의 유(有：sat)가 정신적인 원리이면서 동시에 물질 전개(展開)의 원리이기도 함을 비판하고 정신적 원리로서의 신아(神我：푸루샤), 물질적인 원리로서의 자성(自性：프라크리티) 또는 승인(勝因：프라다나)이라고 하는 2원론을 수립하였다. 처음에는 이 2원론을 통일하는 최고신으로서의 범(梵)을 시인하고 유신론에 바탕을 두었으나 후에는 이를 부정하고 무신론적 2원관이 되었다.
    푸루샤(神我)는 순수의식으로서 아무런 작용도 하지 않고 다만 프라크리티(自我)를 관조(觀照)할 따름이다. 그러나 질료인(質料因)인 프라크리티는 물질을 전개하는 힘을 지니며 그 결과로서 나오는 물질은 구성의 우열에 따라 차이가 생겨나고 푸루샤와 결합하여 개체가 된다. 개체의 세계는 고(苦)이며 그것은 푸루샤와 프라크리티의 결합에 유인(由因)된다. 그러므로 푸루샤가 물질로부터 떨어져나간 상태에 이르는 것이 해탈(解脫)이다. 그렇지만 푸루샤는 불변순수(不變純粹)이기 때문에 해탈에 의한 변화는 없다. 해탈을 위한 푸루샤의 지(智)를 얻기 위해서는 요가의 수행(修行)이 강조되었다.
  2. ↑ 가 나 다 동양사상 > 동양의 사상 > 인도의 사상 > 정통바라문 계통의 철학체계 > 삼키아설, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
    삼키아설
    Samkhya說
    삼키아, 즉 수론학파(數論學派)의 개조는 가피라(전 350∼전250 ?)라고 전해지고 있으나 현존하고 있는 최고 원전은 이시바라크리슈나(自在黑, 4세기)의 <삼키아 송(領)>이다. 삼키아 학파에서는 <우파니샤드>의 철학자인 웃달라카(전 600 ?∼전 500 ?)의 사상(思想)을 비판적으로 개혁하여 유일(唯一)한 유(有) 대신에 두 개의 실재적 원리를 산정하였다. 하나는 정신적 원리로서의 순수정신인데 푸루샤(神我), 혹은 아트만이라고도 한다. 이에 대하여 또 하나의 원리는 물질적인 근본원질(根本原質：프라크리티, 自性 또는 프라다나)인데, 이것은 현상세계의 개전(開戰)의 원리가 되기 때문에 미개전자(未開展者：아브야크타, 非變異)라고도 불린다. 순수정신은 실체로서의 개아이며 원자대(原子大)로서 다수 존재하는데 그 본질은 지(知, 즈냐) 또는 사(思, 칫트, 체타냐)라고 한다. 그것은 아무런 활동도 하지 않은 채 다만 근본원질(根本原質)을 관조할 뿐이요 그 자체는 상주불변이며 순수청정한 것이어서 생사도, 윤회도, 해탈도 모두 순수정신 그 자체에는 본질적인 관계가 없다. 이에 대하여 근본원질은 근본적인 질료인(質料因)이지만 순수정신의 관조를 기회인(機會因)으로 하여 개전(파리나마, 轉變)을 개시한다. 그때에 근본원질에서 최초로 생기는 것을 근원적 사기능(根源的 思機能：붓디, 覺) 또는 큰 것(마하도, 大)이라고 부른다. 이것은 확인의 작용(作用：決智)을 본질로 하고 있는 것이어서 정신적 작용의 근본이 된다. 그러나 순수한 물질적인 것으로 신체 속의 한 기관이다. 다음에 이 근원적 사유기능(思惟機能)으로부터 자아의식(自我意識：아항카라, 我慢)을 생한다. 이것이 있기 때문에 사람은 항상 "내가 한다. 이 물건은 나에게 속한다. 이것이 나다"라고 하여 자기 본위의 견해를 가지게 된다. 이와 같은 자기중심적인 자아의식의 그릇된 생각이 우리들의 윤회를 성립시키는 근본이 되고 있다. 다음에 그 자아의식으로부터 두 종류의 창조가 있게 된다. 한편으로는 10가지의 기관(目·耳·鼻·舌·身이라고 하는 다섯 가지 감각기관과 발성기관·수·족·배설기관·생식기관이라고 하는 다섯 가지의 행동기관)이 생기고 다른 한편으로는 다섯 가지의 대상영역의 미세한 요소(要素：단마트라, 唯)가 생기는데, 후자로부터 5원소가 생긴다(聲唯→空大, 觸唯→風大, 色唯→火大, 味唯→水大, 香唯→地大). 이상 열기한 제원리를 합쳐서 <25원리>(二五諦)라고 일컫는다. 순수정신은 본래 순수청정(純粹淸淨)한 것이기는 하지만 물질에 의하여 제약되어 있기 때문에 이 생존은 괴로움이 되는 것이다. 그래서 그 순수청정한 본성이 나타나도록 하지 않으면 안된다. 허탈의 직접적인 원인은 지(智)인 것이다. 수행에 의하여 순수정신의 자가 완성되었을 때에 해탈이 일어나지만 그 해탈도 근본질료인(根本質料因)의 편에서 일어나는 것이요, 순수정신 그 자체에는 하등의 변화도 없다.
  3. ↑ 가 나 다 라 Bernard, Theos (1947).《Hindu Philosophy》. Philosophical Library, New York. 66쪽.
    The Sāṁkhya is the oldest school of Hindū Philosophy, for it is the first attempt to harmonize the philosophy of the Vedas through reason. The unique position of the Sāṁkhya in the history of thought is the fact that it expounds by careful reflection the first systematic account of the process of cosmic evolution which attempts to comprehend the universe as a sum total of twenty-five categories. This exposition is no mere metaphysical speculation, but is a purely logical account based on the scientific principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy. The Sāṁkhya is held to be the most notable attempt in the realm of pure philosophy.
    The term Sāṁkhya is derived from the word sāṁkhyā, "number." This name is used because the Sāṁkhya enumerates the principles of cosmic evolution by rational analysis; and in the philosophical sense, the term is used because this system teaches discriminative knowledge which enables us to distinguish between Spirit and Matter.
  4. ↑ 가 나 Bernard, Theos (1947).《Hindu Philosophy》. Philosophical Library, New York. 66–67쪽
    66쪽: The unique position of the Sāṁkhya in the history of thought is the fact that it expounds by careful reflection the first systematic account of the process of cosmic evolution which attempts to comprehend the universe as a sum total of twenty-five categories. This exposition is no mere metaphysical speculation, but is a purely logical account based on the scientific principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy. . . . The term Sāṁkhya is derived from the word sāṁkhyā, "number." This name is used because the Sāṁkhya enumerates the principles of cosmic evolution by rational analysis; and in the philosophical sense, the term is used because this system teaches discriminative knowledge which enables us to distinguish between Spirit and Matter.
    67쪽: The purpose of the Sāṁkhya is to provide that knowledge which will forever remove the cause of misery and thereby release the soul from its bondage.
  5. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 머 버 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 93.
    [93-2] 현존하는 古典 상키야철학서 가운데서 가장 오래되며 동시에 가장 중요한 것은 이슈바라크리쉬나 Īśvarakṛṣṇa 自在黑의 『數論頌 Sāṁkhya-kārikā』이다. 우리는 이 『數論頌』에 와서야 數論哲學이 분명히 二元論的, 無神論的 哲學으로 정립되는 것을 보게 된다. 『數論頌』은 기원후 4세기 경에 씌어진 것으로 추측되며4) 모두 70절로 되어 있어 『數論七十 Sāṁkhyasaptati』이라고 불리기도 하며, 인도의 古典哲學書 가운데서도 白眉로 간주되는 名著이다. 9세기의 哲學者 가우다파다 Gauḍapāda의 註釋書 『數論頌疏 Sāṁkhyakārikā-bhāṣya』와 9세기의 베단타 哲學者 바차스파티미슈라 Vācaspatimiśra의 주석서인 『眞理月光 Tattvakaumudī』이 있다.
    4) 『數論頌』은 560년 경에 진제 Paramārtha에 의하여 주석과 함께 漢譯되었다.
  6. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/数论颂 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    《數論頌》主要有五種注釋本：
    其一是喬荼波陀所作的《喬荼波陀注》（Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya，約7～8世紀出現）[1]；
    其次是《金七十論》，作者不詳，公元6世紀由真諦法師譯為漢文，其原文梵本已不存，僅存漢譯[6]；
    《道理之光》（Yuktidipikā），約公元6世紀出現，作者不詳，其中世抄本於20世紀中葉被發現[7]；
    《摩特羅評註》（Māthara-vṛtti，8世紀左右出現）[3]
    《明諦論》（Tattva-kaumudī，9世紀婆察斯巴蒂·彌尸羅所作[3]
    [1] Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
    [3] 《中國大百科全書》第三版網絡版中的條目：《數論頌》（簡體中文）
    [6] 《中國大百科全書》第三版網絡版中的條目：《金七十論》（簡體中文）
    [7] Albrecht Wezler and Shujun Motegi (1998), Yuktidipika - The Most Significant Commentary on the Såmkhyakårikå, Critically Edited, Vol. I. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06132-0
  7. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=乔荼波陀 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    간체 내용을 번체로 변환:
    喬荼波陀（Gaudapda，約640年——690年），主要著作有《蛙氏奧義頌》（又稱《聖傳書》）。他認為世界最高的原理是梵，亦即最高我，最高我有四位。
  8. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/数论颂 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    《数论颂》主要有五种注释本：
    其一是乔荼波陀所作的《乔荼波陀注》（Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya，约7～8世纪出现）[1]；
    其次是《金七十论》，作者不详，公元6世纪由真谛法师译为汉文，其原文梵本已不存，仅存汉译[6]；
    《道理之光》（Yuktidipikā），约公元6世纪出现，作者不详，其中世抄本于20世纪中叶被发现[7]；
    《摩特罗评注》（Māthara-vṛtti，8世纪左右出现）[3]
    《明谛论》（Tattva-kaumudī，9世纪婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗所作）[3]
    [1] Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
    [3] 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版中的条目：《数论颂》（简体中文）
    [6] 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版中的条目：《金七十论》（简体中文））
    [7] Albrecht Wezler and Shujun Motegi (1998), Yuktidipika - The Most Significant Commentary on the Såmkhyakårikå, Critically Edited, Vol. I. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06132-0
  9. ↑ https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=135426 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版의《数论颂》항목(중국어 간체). 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    《数论颂》在印度古代的注释主要有5个：《金七十论》（6世纪由真谛译为汉文，作者不详）、《道理之光》（Yuktidipikā，约6世纪出现，作者不详）、《乔荼波陀注》（Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya，约7～8世纪出现）、《摩特罗评注》（Māthara-vŗtti，8世纪左右出现）、《明谛论》（Tattva-kaumudi，9世纪婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗所作）。
  10. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=乔荼波陀 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    乔荼波陀（Gaudapda，约640年——690年），主要著作有《蛙氏奥义颂》（又称《圣传书》）。他认为世界最高的原理是梵，亦即最高我，最高我有四位。
    [ qiáotúbō tuó ]
  11. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=乔荼波陀&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    乔 높을 교, 喬(교)의 간체자(簡體字)
    荼 씀바귀 도, 차나무 다, 옥 이름 서, 성씨 야
    波 물결 파, 방죽 피
    陀 비탈질 타
  12. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/gauḍapāda गौडपादS/75328/1
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0369.jpg
    2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    gauḍapāda गौडपाद
    Definition: m. Name of a commentator on several upaniṣad-s and on Sāṃkhyakārikā
  13. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/gaudapada 2025년 8월 24일에 확인
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Gaudapada in Sanskrit glossary
    Gauḍapāda (गौडपाद).—Name of a commentator.
    Derivable forms: gauḍapādaḥ (गौडपादः).
    Gauḍapāda is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms gauḍa and pāda (पाद).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Gauḍapāda (गौडपाद) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—read Burnell. 88^b. Cidānandakelivilāsa. read 197^b.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Gauḍapāda (गौडपाद):—[=gauḍa-pāda] [from gauḍa] m. Name of a commentator on several Upaniṣads and on [Sāṃkhyakārikā]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Gauḍapāda (गौडपाद):—(gauḍa + pāda) m. Nomen proprium eines Commentators verschiedener Upaniṣad und der Sāṃkhyakārikā [Colebrooke I, 95. 96. 104. 229. 335.] [Weber’s Verzeichniss No. 349.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Böhtlingk and Roth Grosses Petersburger Wörterbuch
    Gauḍapāda (गौडपाद):——
    1) m. Nomen proprium eines Commentators. —
    2) f. ī Titel eines Werkes.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung
  14. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya#Samkhyakarika 2025년 8월 23일에 확인
    Samkhyakarika
    . . .
    The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to Gauḍapāda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidīpīka (c. 6th century CE) and Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c. 10th century CE).[145]
    [145] King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, p. 64. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3
  15. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 63-64. ISBN 0-7486-0954-7 (paperback).
    -The Classical Sāṃkhya of Īśvarakṛṣṇa-
    The first systematic exposition of Sāṃkhya philosophy as an independent school of thought that is available to us is the Sāṃkhya Kārikā of Īśvarakṛṣṇa (350-450 CE). The Sāṃkhya Kārikā performs the same function within the Sāṃkhya tradition as the sūtras of the other schools of Hindu thought, in that it provides a foundational and authoritative source-text for Sāṃkhya philosophy and a basis for a tradition of commentarial elucidation based upon Sāṃkhya principles. However, the Sāṃkhya Kārikā is clearly not the earliest attempt to systematise Sāṃkhya philosophy. The text refers to an earlier exposition (now apparently lost) known as the Science of Sixty Topics (Ṣaṣṭitantra, see SK v. 72) and is probably preceded by alternate schemes of fundamental principles (tattva) such as that found in the Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā, a Pañcarātra (Vaiṣṇava) text. The Kārikā was brought to China by the Buddhist scholar Paramārtha in 546 CE and then translated by him into Chinese some time between 557 and 569 CE. The standard number of verses in the text is often stated as 72, but this remains a source of contention. Paramārtha translated 71 kārikās (with verse 63 omitted), with other commentaries varying between 69 and 73 verses.
    Apart from Paramārtha's commentary (entitled 'The Golden Seventy' or Suvarṇasaptati, despite its 71 verses!), there are a number of extant commentaries on the Sāṃkhya Kārikā. The most popular has tended to be the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya, attributed to Gauḍapāda, the reputed teacher of Śaṅkarācārya's teacher Govinda. This figure is identified as the author of an important early text of the Advaita (non-dualistic) lineage of Vedanta 一 the Māṇḍūkya-Kārikā or the Gauḍapādīya Kārikā (see King, 1995). The attribution of common authorship seems unlikely, however, given their philosophical differences. Common authorship, however, is not impossible given the example of scholars, such as Vācaspati Miśra, who were able to compose authoritative commentaries and treatises from the point of view of a variety of philosophical stances. As we have seen, training and involvement in the science of Indian philosophical debate (vāda-śāstra) required one to be able to present the evidence of a rival perspective as an initial step (the pūrvapakṣa), before refutation and the establishment of one's own definitive position (siddhānta). Such practices required participants in Indian philosophical debates to develop a keen appreciation of a rival's perspective and an ability to present it in a clearly formulated and systematic fashion.
    Of the remaining commentaries on the Sāṃkhya Kārikā the most significant are the Light of Argumentation (Yuktidīpikā) and Vācaspati Miśra's The Moonlight on the Sāṃkhya Principles of Reality (Sāṃkhyatattvakaumadī). The former has been assigned to the sixth century CE (Frauwallner 1973: 226) but may be later since it seems to contain an earlier work known as the Rāja Vārttika (Rāja's Elucidation or perhaps 'The King's Elucidation') within the body of its own exposition (Wezler, 1974: 434-5). Vācaspati's work dates from the tenth century CE and became a standard authority on Īśvarakṛṣṇa's verses throughout India.
  16. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudapada 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
    Gauḍapāda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; fl.c. 6th century CE),[1] also referred as Gauḍapādācārya (Sanskrit: गौडपादाचार्य; "Gauḍapāda the Teacher"),[2] was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.[3][4] While details of his biography are uncertain, his ideas inspired others such as Adi Shankara who called him a Paramaguru (highest teacher).[2][5]
    . . .
    Other works by Gaudapadacharya
    . . .
    Gaudapada is also credited with a commentary on Samkhyakarikas. According to Potter, the naive nature of this commentary is in sharp contrast to the depth of reflection in Gaudapada Karikas, and it is unlikely that the commentary on the Samkhyakarikas was written by Gaudapada.[78]
    [1] Raju, P.T. (1971), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (1992 Reprint), p. 177.
    [2] Potter, Karl. H. (1981), Gaudapada, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, Volume 3, pp. 103-114, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0310-8, p. 103.
    [3] Potter, Karl. H. (1981), Gaudapada, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, Volume 3, pp. 103-114, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0310-8, p. 105.
    [4] TRV Murti (1955), The central philosophy of Buddhism, Routledge (2008 Reprint), ISBN 978-0-415-46118-4, page 114
    [5] Sarma, Chandradhar (2007), The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813120, pp. 125–126. [78] Potter, Karl. H. (1981), Gaudapada, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, Volume 3, pp. 103-114, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0310-8, p. 104.
    It is also possible that the same author who wrote these Kārikās also wrote the commentary on the Sāṃkhyakārikās attributed to Gauḍapāda. But the somewhat naive character of the Sāṃkhya commentary seems so alien to the depths of reflection suggested in the Advaita stanzas that the identity seems unlikely.
  17. ↑ 가 나 Gerald James Larson (1969, First Edition), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of its History and Meaning, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, pp. 159-160.
    Gauḍapādabhāśya. A terminus ad quem for this commentary is the eleventh century A.D., for Alberuni in his account of Sāṃkhya clearly uses the Kārikā and refers to an "anchorite" by the name of "Gauḍa" who is an authority on the Sāṃkhya.195 Some have tried to link the Gauḍapāda of the Bhāśya with the Gauḍapāda of the Māṇḍūkyakārikā, but, as Keith and others have pointed out, the philosophies are quite different.196 The only basis for a connection is the similarity of name which is obviously insufficient evidence. This commentary is perhaps the most useful, however, since it discusss the verses of the Kārikā in a simple, direct manner.
    195. M. Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III, op. cit., p. 453; and Edward Sachau, Alberuni's India, 1 (London: Kegan Paul, 1910), pp. 266-267.
    196. Keith, The Sāṃkhya System, op. cit., p.85; Eliade, Yoga: Freedom and Immortality, op. cit., p. 370; and cf. Umesha Mishra, "Gauḍapādabhāṣya and Māṭharavṛtti," Allahabad University Series, VII (1931), pp. 371-386; And Amar Nath Ray, "The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad and the Karikas of Gauḍapāda," Indian Historial Quarterly, XIV (1938), pp. 564-569; and B.N. S. Krishnamurti, "New Light on the Gauḍapāda-Karikas," Review of Philosophy and Religion, Poona, II (1931) pp. 35-56.
  18. ↑ 가 나 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CRb4OgPGlPM Gaudapadacharya गौडपादाचार्य Gauḍapādācārya Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 8월 25일에 확인.
  19. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/gaudapada Learn how to pronounce Gaudapada. 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
  20. ↑ https://forvo.com/search/Gauḍapāda/ gaudapada [sa] 1 pronunciations. 2025년 8월 25일에 확인.
  21. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/gaudapada Learn how to pronounce Gaudapada. 2025년 8월 24일에 확인.
  22. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 96.
    상키야철학에 의하면 無에서 有가 나올 수 없기 때문에 어떤 결과도 원인에 이미 내재하고 있어야 한다. 결과란 눈에 보이지는 않으나 잠재적으로 이미 원인에 존재하고 있던 것이 눈에 보이게 나타나는 것에 불과한 것이다. 이러한 견해를 印度哲學에서는 因中有果論 satkāryavāda이라 부른다. 즉 결과 kārya가 원인 kāraṇa 속에 이미 존재 sat한다고 하는 견해이며, 說一切有部와 같은 小乘佛敎나 냐야-바이쉐시카철학이 대표하는 因中無果論 asatkāryavāda과 대조를 이룬다. 因中有果論을 대표하는 철학 가운데서도 결과를 원인의 참다운 변형으로 보는 轉變說 pariṇāmavāda이 있는가 하면, 결과를 원인의 환상적 나타남으로 보는 假現說 vivartavāda의 인과론도 있다. 前者를 가장 잘 대표하는 것이 상키야철학이고 後者는 不二論的 베단타哲學에서 그 전형적인 예를 찾아 볼 수 있다. 예를 들어 말하자면, 전변설에 의할 것 같으면 진흙 안에 이미 항아리가 보이지 않는 형태이지만 존재하고 있고, 항아리는 진흙의 참다운 변형인 것이다. 반면에 假現說에 의할 것 같으면 진흙만이 유일한 실재이고 항아리는 거짓 나타남에 지나지 않는다는 것이다.
  23. ↑ http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=假現 DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism). 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    假現
    Pronunciations
    [py] jiǎxiàn
    [wg] chia-hsien
    [hg] 가현
    [mc] gahyeon
    [mr] kahyŏn
    [kk] ケゲン
    [hb] kegen
    [qn] giả hiện
    Basic Meaning: fabricated appearance
    Senses:
    • Nominal appearance, provisional appearance. In buddha-body theory refers to the transformation and response bodies 化身, 應身. In Yogâcāra theory of cognition, refers to the fabricated nature 遍計所執性. [Charles Muller; source(s): Nakamura]
    • Search SAT
    • Search INBUDS Database

    [Dictionary References]
    Bukkyōgo daijiten (Nakamura) 297b

  24. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=假現說&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 假現說 Jiǎ xiàn shuō 쟈시앤 슈어
    Chinese (Simplified): 假现说 Jiǎ xiàn shuō 쟈시앤 슈어
    English: Hypothetical
    Korean: 가정적인
  25. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=假現說&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    假現說 가현설
    그리스도(Kristos)는 물질적(物質的)인 육체(肉體)와 결합(結合)할 수 없으며, 오로지 외관상(外觀上) 육체(肉體)의 모양(模樣)을 취(取)하였다고 하는 설(說).
    基督假現說 기독가현설
    그리스도(Kristos)는 물질적(物質的)인 육체(肉體)와 결합(結合)할 수 없으며, 오로지 외관상(外觀上) 육체(肉體)의 모양(模樣)을 취(取)하였다고 하는 설(說).
    假 거짓 가, 멀 하, 이를 격
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 11획
    1. (거짓 가) 2. 거짓 3. 가짜
    仮(일본자), 仮(약자)
    現 나타날 현
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 11획
    1. 나타나다, 출현하다(出現--) 2. 나타내다, 드러내다 3. 실재(實在: 실제로 존재함)
    现(간체자), 现(동자)
    說 말씀 설, 달랠 세, 기뻐할 열, 벗을 탈
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 14획
    1. (말씀 설) 2. 말씀 3. 문체(文體)의 이름
    说(간체자), 𧧘(와자), 说(동자), 説(동자)
  26. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/entry/kozh/6af164b6e3374d2192320bf02306dc54 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    가현 假現
    1. 假现2. 出现
    발음 [ 가ː현 ]
    1. 명사 불교 假现 jiǎxiàn。出现 chūxiàn。
    흑룡강조선민족출판사 한중사전
    佳县 웹수집
    명사 지명 자현. 가현.
    [ Jiāxiàn ]
  27. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=说 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    说
    번체
    說
    1. 동사 말하다. 이야기하다.
    2. 동사 설명하다. 해설하다.
    3. 명사 이론. 주장. 학설.
    [ shuō ]
    고려대 중한사전
  28. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=假 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    假
    이체 叚
    1. 명사,형용사 거짓(의). 가짜(의). 위조(의). 인조(人造)(의). (↔真(1), 真实)
    2. 부사 가짜로. 거짓으로.
    3. 동사 가정(假定)하다.
    [ jiǎ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    假
    이체 叚
    명사 휴가. 휴일.
    [ jià ]
    고려대 중한사전
    假
    1. 형용사 거짓의, 가짜의, 위조의, 인조의
    2. 관형어로 쓰이는 경우
    3. 술어로 쓰이는 경우
    [ jiǎ ]
    중국어-한국어 학습사전 (한국외국어대학교)
    假
    1. 형용사 false
    2. 형용사 artificial
    3. 접속사 if
    [ jiǎ ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    假
    명사 holiday
    [ jià ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
  29. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=all&query=现 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    现
    번체
    現
    1. 명사 현재. 지금.
    2. 부사 임시로. 곧. 당장. 즉흥적으로. 그 자리에서.
    3. 형용사 현재 지니고 있는. 눈앞에 실제로 있는.
    [ xiàn ]
    고려대 중한사전
    现
    1. 형용사 present
    2. 형용사 ready
    3. 부사 on the spot
    [ xiàn ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    现买现卖
    1. 현금으로 매매(賣買)하다.
    2. 그 자리에서 사서 그 자리에서 팔다.
    3. 남의 지식이나 의견 등을 자기 생각인 것처럼 받아 옮기다.
    [ xiànmǎi xiànmài ]
    고려대 중한사전
    现付
    1. 동사 맞돈 내다. 현금으로 지불하다.
    2. 명사 현금 지불.
    [ xiànfù ]
    고려대 중한사전
    贴现
    명사,동사 경제 어음 할인(하다). (=割刀)
    [ tiēxiàn ]
    고려대 중한사전
  30. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vivartavada 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    Vivartavada, Vivartavāda, Vivarta-vada: 5 definitions
    In Hinduism
    Ayurveda (science of life)
    Vivartavada in Ayurveda glossary
    Vivartavāda (विवर्तवाद):—The ideology of the Vedanta philosophy which believes that Brahma is only truth and others in the world are false
    Source: gurumukhi.ru: Ayurveda glossary of terms
    Languages of India and abroad
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Vivartavada in Sanskrit glossary
    Vivartavāda (विवर्तवाद).—the doctrine of the Vedāntins that the visible world is illusory and Brahman alone is the real entity.
    Derivable forms: vivartavādaḥ (विवर्तवादः).
    Vivartavāda is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms vivarta and vāda (वाद).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Vivartavāda (विवर्तवाद) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—vedānta. Bd. 666.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Vivartavāda (विवर्तवाद):—[=vi-varta-vāda] [from vi-varta > vi-vṛt] m. a method of asserting the Vedānta doctrine (maintaining the development of the Universe from Brahma as the sole real entity, the phenomenal world being held to be a mere illusion or Māyā; cf. pariṇāma-vādā), [Madhusūdana]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  31. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/?iencoding=iast&q=vivarta&lang=sans&action=Search 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    vivarta illusion CC Adi 7.122
    vivarta-vāda the theory of illusion CC Madhya 25.41
  32. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivartavada 2025년 10월 30일에 확인.
    Vivartavada is an Advaita Vedanta theory of causation, postulated by post-Shankara Advaita advaitins,[1] regarding the universe as an "illusory transformation" of Brahman.[2]
    Etymology
    The Sanskrit word vivarta (विवर्त) means alteration, modification, change of form, altered condition or state. The term, vivartavada is derived from the word vivarta.[web 1]
    Meaning
    All schools of Vedānta subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda,[web 2] which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are different views on the origination of the empirical world from Brahman. Parinamavada is the idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman.[3] Vivartavada is the idea that
    the world is merely an unreal manifestation (vivarta) of Brahman. Vivartavada states that although Brahman appears to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are unreal manifestation, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.[3]
    The Brahma Sutras, the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta,[3][web 2] as well as Samkhya argue for parinamavada.[web 2] The "most visible advocates of Vivartavada," states Nicholson, are the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara.[3] "Although the world can be described as conventionally real," adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman's effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated."[web 2]
    Yet, scholars disagree on whether Adi Shankara and his Advaita system explain causality through parinamavada or through vivartavada.[web 2][3][4] Scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker state that Adi Shankara does not advocate Vivartavada and that his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion." According to these scholars, it was the 13th century scholar Prakasatman who gave a definition to Vivarta and it is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position.[4][note 1] Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the vivarta-vada isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to parinama-vada, and that the vivarta explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.[web 2][note 2]
    Rejection
    Vijnanabhiksu portrays casual relation as having three terms: unchangeable locus cause, changeable locus cause and effect. The locus cause is inseparable from and does not inhere in the changeable cause and the effect.[7]
    The Pratyabhijna philosophy of Somananda refutes the Arambhvada (the 'Realistic view' of the Nyaya-Vaisesika), the Parinamavada (the theory of Transformation of the Sankhya-Yoga) and the Vivartavada (the theory of Manifestation of the Advaita), by postulating the theory of Svatantryavada (the 'Universal voluntarism') which states that it is due to the sovereignty of God’s Will that Effect evolves from Cause.[8]
    Whereas Ramanuja accepts Prakrti as the material cause but Madhava rejects this contention since material cause does not mean that which controls and superintends; Madhava also rejects the Vivartavada because it does not accept any effect that has got to be accounted for.[9] In his philosophy of pure non-dualism (Shuddhadvaita), Vallabhacharya also does not support 'vivartavada' and propounds that Maya (or the 'Jagat') is real and is only a power of Brahman who himself manifests, of his own will, as Jiva and the world[10] and there is no transformation of Brahman in doing so, just as a gold ornament still remains gold only. Shuddhadvaita is also therefore known as ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’ (Unmodified transformation).[11]
    [1] King, Richard (1999), Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-87840-756-1, p. 221.
    [2] King, Richard (1999), Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-87840-756-1, p. 220.
    [3] Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, p. 27.
    [4] Mayeda, Sengaku (2006), "An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara", in Mayeda, Sengaku (ed.), A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120827714, pp. 25–27.
    [5] Hugh Nicholson (2011). Comparative Theology and the Problem of Religious Rivalry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977286-5., pp. 266 note 20, 167–170.
    [6] Hugh Nicholson (2011). Comparative Theology and the Problem of Religious Rivalry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977286-5., p. 266 note 21.
    [7] Andrew J. Nicholson. Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Columbia University Press. p. 48.
    [8] Krishan Lal Kala (1985). The Literary Heritage of Kashmir. Mittal Publications. p. 278.
    [9] Chen-chi Chang (1991). A Treasury of Mahayana Sutras. Motilal Banarsidass publishers. p. 246. ISBN 9788120809369.
    [10] Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.
    [11] “Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.
    [web 1] "Sanskrit dictionary". Spokensanskrit.de.
    [web 2] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Bhedābheda Vedānta
    [note 1] According to Hugh Nicholson, "the definitive study on the development of the concept of vivarta in Indian philosophy, and in Advaita Vedanta in particular, remains Hacker's Vivarta.[5] To Shankara, the word maya has hardly any terminological weight.[6]
    [note 2] Compare the misunderstanding of Yogacharas concept of vijñapti-mātra, 'representation-only', as 'consciousness-only'.
  33. ↑ 가 나 https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/7a944f03a74040bd816212a7efac04ed 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    結果 결과
    結 맺을 결 果 실과 과
    연관 단어관련한자단어·성어
    1. 열매를 맺음. 또는 그 열매.
    2. 어떤 원인(原因)으로 결말(結末)이 생김. 또는 그런 결말(結末)의 상태(狀態).
    3. 내부적(內部的) 의지(意志)나 동작(動作)의 표현(表現)이 되는 외부적(外部的) 의지(意志)와 동작(動作) 및 그곳에서 생기는 영향(影響)이나 변화(變化).
    유의어
    結實(결실) 果(과)
    結
    맺을 결, 상투 계
    1. (맺을 결) 2. 맺다(끄나풀, 실, 노끈 따위를 얽어 매듭을 만들다) 3. 모으다
    부수 糸 (실사, 6획) 총획 12획
    果
    실과 과, 시중들 와, 벗을 라(나), 강신제 관
    1. (실과 과) 2. 실과(實果), 과실(果實) 3. 열매
    부수 木 (나무목, 4획) 총획 8획
  34. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=結果&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 結果 Jiéguǒ 지에꾸어
    Chinese (Simplified): 结果 Jiéguǒ 지에꾸어
    English: result
    Korean: 결과
  35. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=結果 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    结果
    1. 명사 결실. 결과.
    2. 부사 결국. 드디어. 마침내. 끝내.
    3. 동사 조기백화 죽이다. 없애 버리다. 해치우다.
    [ jiéguǒ ]
    에듀월드 표준중중한사전
    结果
    동사 열매가[열매를] 맺다.
    [ jiē//guǒ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    결과 結果
    1. 명사 结果 ，结实 ，挂果 , 果实 。
    2. 명사 结果 ，结局 ，成果 ，成就 。 (≒결말(結末), 종결(終結)), (↔원인(原因))
    3. 명사 철학 结果 。 (↔동기(動機)), (≒결실(結實))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  36. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=结果 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    结果
    1. 명사 결실. 결과.
    2. 부사 결국. 드디어. 마침내. 끝내.
    3. 동사 조기백화 죽이다. 없애 버리다. 해치우다.
    [ jiéguǒ ]
    에듀월드 표준중중한사전
    结果
    동사 열매가[열매를] 맺다.
    [ jiē//guǒ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    结果
    1. 명사 result
    2. 부사 in the end
    [ jiéguǒ ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
  37. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/karya 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Karya in Sanskrit glossary
    Kārya (कार्य).—pot. p. [kṛ-karmaṇi ṇyat] What ought to be done, made, performed, effected &c. कार्या सैकतलीनहंसमिथुना स्रोतोवहा मालिनी (kāryā saikatalīnahaṃsamithunā srotovahā mālinī) Ś.6.17; साक्षिणः कार्याः (sākṣiṇaḥ kāryāḥ) Manusmṛti 8.61; so दण्डः, विचारः (daṇḍaḥ, vicāraḥ) &c.
    -ryam 1 (a) Work, action, act, affair, business; कार्यं त्वया नः प्रतिपन्नकल्पम् (kāryaṃ tvayā naḥ pratipannakalpam) Kumārasambhava 3.14; Manusmṛti 5.15. (b) A matter, thing.
    2) Duty; अभिचैद्यं प्रतिष्ठासुरासी- त्कार्यद्वयाकुलः (abhicaidyaṃ pratiṣṭhāsurāsī- tkāryadvayākulaḥ) Śiśupālavadha 2.1.
    3) Occupation, enterprize, emergent business.
    4) A religious rite or performance.
    5) A motive, object, purpose; कार्यमत्र भविष्यति (kāryamatra bhaviṣyati) Pañcatantra (Bombay) 2.7 (v. l.); 116; Śiśupālavadha 2.36; H.4.61.
    6) Want, need, occasion, business (with instr.); किं कार्यं भवतो हृतेन दयिता- स्नेहस्वहस्तेन मे (kiṃ kāryaṃ bhavato hṛtena dayitā- snehasvahastena me) V.2.2; तृणेन कार्यं भवतीश्वराणाम् (tṛṇena kāryaṃ bhavatīśvarāṇām) Pañcatantra (Bombay) 1.71, 4.27; Amaruśataka 73.
    7) Conduct, deportment.
    8) A law-suit, legal business, dispute &c.; बहिर्निष्क्रम्य ज्ञायतां कः कः कार्यार्थीति (bahirniṣkramya jñāyatāṃ kaḥ kaḥ kāryārthīti) Mṛcchakaṭika 9; Manusmṛti 8.43.
    9) An effect, the necessary result of a cause (opp. kāraṇa).
    1) (In Gram.) Operation; विभक्तिकार्यम् (vibhaktikāryam) declension.
    11) The denouement of a drama; कार्योपक्षेपमादौ तनुमपि रचयन् (kāryopakṣepamādau tanumapi racayan) Mu.4.3.
    12) Healthiness (in medicine).
    13) Origin.
    14) A body; कार्याश्रयिणश्च कललाद्याः (kāryāśrayiṇaśca kalalādyāḥ) (kāryaṃ śarīram) Sāṃkhyakārikā 43. [cf. Germ. kāra; Pers. kār; Prāk. kajja; Mar. kāja]
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Kārya (कार्य) or Kāryya.—mfn.
    (-ryaḥ-ryā-ryaṃ) 1. To be done. 2. What ought to be done, fit, right. n.
    (-ryaṃ) 1. Cause, origin. 2. Motive, object. 3. Effect, result of a cause. 4. Affair, business. 5. Law-suit, dispute. 6. The denouncement of a drama. 7. In grammar, an adjunct, either as an affix, augment or substitude. E. kṛñ to do, and ṇyat aff.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Kārya (कार्य).—I. ptcple. of the fut. pass. of 1. kṛ, cf. kṛ. 1. What ought to be made, to be done, etc., [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 3, 248; superl. kāryatama, That which must be done first, [Rāmāyaṇa] 5, 77, 16. 2. With an instr. To be used; use, [Pañcatantra] i. [distich] 81 (tṛṇena kāryaṃ bhavatīśvarāṇām, kings use a blade of grass); with na, No use, [Rāmāyaṇa] 1, 30, 5 (we do not care for possessing the earth); 2, 21, 60 (I am indifferent to life and joy). Ii. n. 1. Intention, [Rāmāyaṇa] 1, 18, 15. 2. Duty, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 3, 80. 3. Service, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 10, 47. 4. Business, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 9, 299; affairs, 7, 59. 5. A law-suit, 8, 43. 6. Effect, [Vedāntasāra, (in my Chrestomathy.)] in <abrr title="my Sanskrit Chrestomathy">Chr. 207, 22.</abrr>
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Kārya (कार्य).—[adjective] to be done etc. (v. 1 kṛ). [neuter] affair, duty, business, work, matter; lawsuit, dispute; an operation in grammar; effect, result; purpose, object. kiṃ kāryam to what purpose? na kāryamasmākam we have no business with or need of ([instrumental]).
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Kārya (कार्य):—mfn. ([future] [past participle] √1. kṛ), to be made or done or practised or performed, practicable, feasible, [Atharva-veda iii, 24, 5; Taittirīya-saṃhitā; Manu-smṛti] etc.
    2) to be imposed (as a punishment), [Manu-smṛti viii, 276 & 285]
    3) to be offered (as a libation), [Manu-smṛti] etc.
    4) proper to be done, fit, right
    5) to be caused to do, [Naiṣadha-carita]
    6) ([from] √krt-) to be bought (?), [Maitrāyaṇī-saṃhitā]
    7) n. work or business to be done, duty, affair, [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
    8) a religious action or performance, [Manu-smṛti] etc.
    9) occupation, matter, thing, enterprise, emergency, occurrence, crisis
    10) conduct, deportment
    11) occasion, need (with inst. e.g. tṛṇena kāryam, there is need of a straw; na bhūmyā kāryam asmākam, we have no business with the earth, [Rāmāyaṇa i, 13, 50])
    12) lawsuit, dispute
    13) an operation in grammar (e.g. sthāny-āśrayaṃ kāryam, an operation resting on the primitive form as opposed to the ādeśa, or substitute), [Kāśikā-vṛtti on Pāṇini]
    14) an effect, result, [Mahābhārata; Sāṃkhyakārikā; Vedāntasāra]
    15) motive, object, aim, purpose (e.g. kiṃ kāryam, for what purpose? wherefore?), [Manu-smṛti; Rāmāyaṇa] etc.
    16) cause, origin, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    17) the denouement of a drama, [Sāhitya-darpaṇa]
    18) Kāryā (कार्या):—[from kārya] f. (= kārī, rikā), Name of a plant, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Kārya (कार्य):—(ryyaḥ) 1. n. Cause; affair. a. That ought to be done.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  38. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0276.jpg कार्य kārya. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
  39. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/karya Learn how to pronounce Karya. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
  40. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karya 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
    Karya may refer to:
    • Karya (Arcadia), a town of ancient Arcadia, Greece
    • Karya Köse (born 1997), Turkish female water polo player
    • Karya, Larissa, a municipal unit in Larissa regional unit, Greece
    • Karya, Lefkada, a municipal unit on Lefkada island, Greece
    • Kārya, cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta
  41. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/karya Learn how to pronounce Karya. 2025년 10월 26일에 확인.
  42. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. pp. 91-92.
    그러나 기원전 약 200년부터는 종래에 바라문의 전통 內에서 여러가지 흐름을 형성하여 오던 사상들이 각기 獨自的인 學派를 이루게 되었으며 이들은 자기들의 哲學的 見解들을 간략하게 집약하여 진술하는 經 sūtra이라는 문헌을 산출하게 되었다. 이 經들은 각 학파의 根本經典이 되었으며, 그 내용이 너무 간결하고 난해하기 때문에 자연히 그에 대한 註釋書인 疏 bhāṣya와 이 疏의 내용을 체계화하여 다루는 論 prakaraṇa이 씌어지게 되었다.
  43. ↑ Sutra Pronunciation Sanskrit सूत्र sūtra. 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
  44. ↑ How to say formula in Sanskrit | How to pronounce Sūtra - with meaning - Easy to learn. 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
  45. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
    Sutra (Sanskrit: सूत्र, romanized: sūtra, lit. 'string, thread') in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text. Sutras are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
  46. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 95.
    상키야철학은 佛敎와 같이 세계를 苦로 보며, 이 苦를 극복하려는 데에 철학적 사유의 주목적이 있다. 또한 그 세계관에 있어서도 불교와 같이 요가의 체험에 기초한 心理學的인 世界觀, 즉 인간의 심리현상의 관찰을 중심하여 세계를 파악하려는 경향이 짙으며, 一元論的인 세계해석을 피하고 있다. 그러나 동시에 상키야철학은 불교에서는 인정하지 않고 있는 인간의 영원한 自我, 즉, 푸루샤(精神 : puruṣa)라는 실재를 인정하고 있으며, 이 점에서 佛敎와 결정적인 차이를 보이고 있다. 상키야철학은 세계의 모든 존재를 精神 puruṣa과 物質 prakṛti이라는 두 개의 형이상학적 원리로서 설명한다. 따라서 이 두 개념을 바로 이해하면 상키야철학의 근본을 파악하게 되는 것이다.
  47. ↑ 가 나 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/duhkha 2025년 9월 17일에 확인.
    1) Duḥkha (दुःख):—1. duḥkha mfn. (according to grammarians properly written duṣ-kha and said to be from dus and kha cf. su-kha; but more probably a Prākritized form for duḥ-stha q.v.) uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult, [Rāmāyaṇa; Harivaṃśa] ([Comparative degree] -tara, [Mahābhārata; Rāmāyaṇa])
    2) n. (ifc. f(ā). ) uneasiness, pain, sorrow, trouble, difficulty, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa xiv, 7, 2, 15; Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc. (personified as the son of Naraka and Vedanā, [Viṣṇu-purāṇa])
    3) n. [impersonal or used impersonally] it is difficult to or to be ([infinitive mood]with an [accusative] or [nominative case] [Rāmāyaṇa vii, 6, 38; Bhagavad-gītā v, 6])
    4) duḥkham -√as, to be sad or uneasy, [Ratnāvalī iv, 19/20]
    5) -√kṛ, to cause or feel pain, [Yājñavalkya ii, 218; Mahābhārata xii, 5298.]
    6) 2. duḥkha [Nominal verb] [Parasmaipada] khati, to pain, [Saddharma-puṇḍarīka]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  48. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya#Buddhist_and_Jainist_influences 2025년 9월 16일에 확인.
    Jainism was re-organised in 9th century BCE and Buddhism had developed in eastern India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced each other.[121] According to Burely, there is no evidence that a systematic samkhya-philosophy existed prior to the founding of Buddhism and Jainism, sometime in the 5th or 4th century BCE.[122] A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies.[121] However, suffering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature, which likely suggests a Buddhist influence. Eliade, however, presents the alternate theory that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benefiting from their mutual influence.[121]
    [121] Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8 [first edition, 1968; second revised edition, 1979], pp. 91–93
    [122] Burley, Mikel (2006), Classical Samkhya And Yoga: The Metaphysics Of Experience, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-39448-2, p. 16.
  49. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duḥkha#Hinduism 2025년 9월 18일에 확인.
    Hinduism
    In Hinduism, duḥkha encompasses many meanings such as the phenomenological senses of pain and grief, a deep-seated dissatisfaction with the limitations of worldly existence, and the devastation of impermanence.[34]
    In Hindu scriptures, the earliest Upaniṣads — the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and the Chāndogya — in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism.[note 9] In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word duḥkha (दुःख) appears in the sense of "suffering, sorrow, distress", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman ('essence').[5][6][35]
    The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads.[36] The term Duhkha also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad,[37] as well as in the Bhagavad Gita, all in the contexts of moksha and bhakti.[38][note 10]
    The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of Samkhya karika of the Samkhya school.[40][41] The Samkhya school identifies three types of suffering.[42] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali state that "for one who has discrimination, everything is suffering" (duḥkham eva sarvaṁ vivekinaḥ).[43]
    Some of the Hindu scripture verses referring to duhkha are:
    Hindu Scripture Sanskrit English
    Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (Verse 4.4.14) ihaiva santo 'tha vidmas tad vayaṃ na ced avedir mahatī vinaṣṭiḥ
    ye tad vidur amṛtās te bhavanty athetare duḥkham evāpiyanti    [44]    		 While we are still here, we have come to know it [ātman]. If you've not known it, great is your destruction.
    Those who have known it – they become immortal. As for the rest – only suffering awaits them.[5]
    Chāndogya Upaniṣad (Verse 7.26.2) na paśyo mṛtyuṃ paśyati na rogaṃ nota duḥkhatām
    sarvaṃ ha paśyaḥ paśyati sarvam āpnoti sarvaśaḥ    [45]    		 When a man rightly sees, he sees no death, no sickness or distress.[note 11]
    When a man rightly sees, he sees all, he wins all, completely.[47][note 12]
    Bhagavad Gita (Verse 2.56) duḥkheṣhv-anudvigna-manāḥ sukheṣhu vigata-spṛihaḥ
    vīta-rāga-bhaya-krodhaḥ sthita-dhīr munir uchyate    		 One whose mind remains undisturbed amidst misery, who does not crave for pleasure, and who is free from attachment, fear, and anger, is called a sage of steady wisdom.[48]
    Bhagavad Gita (Verse 8.15) mām upetya punar janma duḥkhālayam aśāśvatam
    nāpnuvanti mahātmānaḥ saṁsiddhiṁ paramāṁ gatāḥ    		 Reaching me, these great souls never again experience birth in this temporal abode of misery, for they have attained the ultimate perfection.[49]

    [5] Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4 April 2014, trans. Patrick Olivelle (1996), p. 66.
    [6] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted). pp. 482–485, 497. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
    [34] Grebe, Matthias; Grössl, Johannes (13 July 2023). T&T Clark Handbook of Suffering and the Problem of Evil. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 559. ISBN 978-0-567-68245-1.
    [35] Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 261-262
    [36] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted). pp. 112, 161, 176, 198, 202–203, 235, 455, etc. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
    [37] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted). p. 326. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
    [38] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted). p. 305. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
    [39] Sargeant, Winthrop (2009), The Bhagavad Gita, SUNY Press.
    [40] Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
    Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), The triple suffering - A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest;
    Third Translation (all Verses): Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives
    [41] Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press
    [42] Gächter, Othmar (1998). "Evil and Suffering in Hinduism". Anthropos. 93 (4/6): 393–403. ISSN 0257-9774. JSTOR 40464839.
    [43] Bryant, Edwin (2009). The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. North Point Press. p. 302. ISBN 978-0865477360.
    [44] Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Retrieved 16 May 2016 from "SanskritDocuments.Org" at Brihadaranyaka IV.iv.14, Original: इहैव सन्तोऽथ विद्मस्तद्वयं विद्मस् तद् वयम्न चेदवेदिर्महती विनष्टिः । ये तद्विदुरमृतास्ते भवन्त्य् अथेतरे दुःखमेवापियन्ति ॥ १४ ॥
    [45] Chandogya Upanishad 7,26.2. Retrieved 16 May 2016 from Wikisource छान्दोग्योपनिषद् ४ ॥ षड्विंशः खण्डः ॥, Quote: तदेष श्लोको न पश्यो मृत्युं पश्यति न रोगं नोत दुःखताँ सर्वँ ह पश्यः पश्यति सर्वमाप्नोति सर्वश इति ।
    [46] Chandogya Upanishad 7.26.2, Max Muller (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 124
    [47] Chandogya Upanishad 7.26.2, trans. Patrick Olivelle (1996), p. 166.
    [48] Mukundananda, Swami. "BG 2.56: Chapter 2, Verse 56 – Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God – Swami Mukundananda". www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
    [49] B.V. Tripurari, Swami. "BG 8.15: Chapter 8, Verse 15 – Bhagavad Gita, Its Feeling and Philosophy – Swami B.V. Tripurari" (PDF). www.swamitripurari.com. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
    [note 9] See, e.g., Patrick Olivelle (1996), Upaniṣads (Oxford: Oxford University Press), ISBN 978-0-19-283576-5, p. xxxvi: "The scholarly consensus, well-founded I think, is that the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and the Chāndogya are the two earliest Upaniṣads.... The two texts as we have them are, in all likelihood, pre-Buddhist; placing them in the seventh to sixth centuries BCE may be reasonable, give or take a century or so."
    [note 10] See Bhagavad Gita verses 2.56, 5.6, 6.22-32, 8.15, 10.4, 13.6-8, 14.16, 17.9, 18.8, etc;[39]
    [note 11] Max Muller translates Duḥkhatām in this verse as "pain".[46]
    [note 12] This statement is comparable to the Pali Canon's Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11) where sickness and death are identified as examples of dukkha.

  50. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 머 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duḥkha#Translation 2025년 9월 18일에 확인.
    Translation
    The literal meaning of duḥkha, as used in a general sense is "suffering" or "painful."[note 4] Its exact translation depends on the context.[note 5] Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the aspects of dukh. Early Western translators of Buddhist texts (before the 1970s) typically translated the Pali term dukkha as "suffering." Later translators have emphasized that "suffering" is a too limited translation for the term duḥkha, and have preferred to either leave the term untranslated,[15] or to clarify that translation with terms such as anxiety, distress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, not having what one wants, having what one doesn't want, etc.[19][20][21][note 6] In the sequence "birth is painful," dukhka may be translated as "painful."[22] When related to vedana, "feeling," dukkha ("unpleasant," "painful") is the opposite of sukkha ("pleasure," "pleasant"), yet all feelings are dukkha in that they are impermanent, conditioned phenomena, which are unsatisfactory, incapable of providing lasting satisfaction.[citation needed] The term "unsatisfactoriness" then is often used to emphasize the unsatisfactoriness of "life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma."[23][24][25][26][27][a]

    [15] Walpola Rahula (2007), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, Kindle Edition, Kindle Locations 542-550.
    [19] Walpola Rahula (2007), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, Kindle Edition, Kindle locations 524-528.
    [20] Prebish, Charles (1993), Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, The Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0-8108-2698-4.
    [21] Keown, Damien (2003), Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860560-9.
    [22] Harvey, Peter (2013). The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78336-4., p. 30.
    [23] Dalai Lama (1998), The Four Noble Truths, Thorsons, p. 38.
    [24] Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, p. 61.
    [25] Smith, Huston; Novak, Philip (2009), Buddhism: A Concise Introduction, HarperOne, Kindle Edition, Kindle location 2769.
    [26] Keown, Damien (2000), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Kindle Edition, Kindle Locations 932-934.
    [27] Bhikkhu Bodhi (2011), The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering, Independent Publishers Group, Kindle Edition, p. 6.
    [a] Unsatisfactory:
    • Analayo (2013), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization: "Dukkha is often translated as “suffering”. Suffering, however, represents only one aspect of dukkha, a term whose range of implications is difficult to capture with a single English word [...] In order to catch the various nuances of “dukkha”, the most convenient translation is “unsatisfactoriness”, though it might be best to leave the term untranslated."
    • Gombrich, How Buddhism Began: "The first Noble Truth is the single word dukkha, and it is explicated to mean that everything in our experience of life is ultimately unsatisfactory";
    • Dalai Lama, Thubten Chodron, Approaching the Buddhist Path, p.279 note 2: "Duhkha (P. dukkha) is often translated as "suffering," but this translation is misleading. Its meaning is more nuanced and refers to all unsatisfactory states and experiences, many of which are not explicitly painful. While the Buddha says that life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma is unsatisfactory, he does not say that life is suffering."
    • Roderick Bucknell, Martin Stuart-Fox, The Twilight Language, p.161: "Thus dukkha at the most subtle level appears to refer to a normally unperceived unsatisfactory quality";
    • Gombrich, What the Buddha Thought, p.10: "there has been a lot of argument over how to translate the word dukkha; and again, the choice of translation must depend heavily on the context. But what is being expressed is that life as we normally experience it is unsatisfactory."

    [note 4] Harvey, Peter (2013). The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78336-4., p. 30): ""suffering" is an appropriate translation only in a general, inexact sense [...] In the passage on the first True Reality, dukkha in "birth is dukkha" is an adjective [...] The best translation here is by the English adjective "painful," which can apply to a range of things."
    [note 5] Gombrich, What the Buddha Thought, p.10: "there has been a lot of argument over how to translate the word dukkha; and again, the choice of translation must depend heavily on the context.
    [note 6] Contemporary translators have used a variety of English words to translate the term duḥkha; translators commonly use different words to translate aspects of the term. For example, duḥkha has been translated as follows in many contexts:

    • Suffering (Harvey, Williams, Keown, Anderson, Gombrich, Thich Nhat Hanh, Ajahn Succito, Chogyam Trungpa, Rupert Gethin, Dalai Lama, et al.)
    • Pain (Harvey, Williams, Keown, Anderson, Huxter, Gombrich, et al)
    • Unsatisfactoriness (Dalai Lama, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Rupert Gethin, et al.)
    • Stress (Thanissaro Bhikkhu: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, Anuradha Sutta bottom)
    • Sorrow
    • Anguish
    • Affliction (Brazier)
    • Dissatisfaction (Pema Chodron, Chogyam Trunpa)
    • Distress (Walpola Rahula)
    • Frustration (Dalai Lama, Four Noble Truths, p. 38)
    • Misery
    • Anxiety (Chogyam Trungpa, The Truth of Suffering, pp. 8–10)
    • Uneasiness (Chogyam Trungpa)
    • Unease (Rupert Gethin)
    • Unhappiness
  51. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=affliction 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 9월 18일에 확인.
    affliction 미국∙영국 [əˈflɪkʃn] 미국식 [əˈflɪkʃn]
    명사 격식 고통, 고통의 원인
    옥스퍼드 영한사전
  52. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/entry/enko/c50d0c401968480ab373b55ef2aa909b 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    af·flic·tion
    발음 미국∙영국 [ əˈflɪkʃn ] 미국식 [ əˈflɪkʃn ]
    명사
    1. U, C
    고통, 고뇌(distress), 고난, 고생, 불행; 고통의 원인, 재앙, 박해.
    YBM 올인올 영한사전
  53. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/affliction Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2025년 9월 20일에 확인.
    affliction
    noun
    af·flic·tion ə-ˈflik-shən
    1: a cause of persistent pain or distress
    a mysterious affliction
    2: great suffering
    felt empathy with their affliction
    3: the state of being afflicted by something that causes suffering
    her affliction with polio
    Synonyms
    distress
    agony
    misery
    pain
    anguish
    discomfort
    Examples of affliction in a Sentence
    She lost her sight and is now learning to live with her affliction.
    He died from a mysterious affliction.
  54. ↑ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/affliction 2025년 9월 24일에 확인.
    affliction
    [uh-flik-shuhn] / əˈflɪk ʃən /
    noun
    1. a state of pain, distress, or grief; misery.
    They sympathized with us in our affliction.
    Antonyms: solace, comfort, relief
    2. a cause of mental or bodily pain, as sickness, loss, calamity, or persecution.
    Synonyms: disaster, catastrophe, calamity, tribulation, trouble, mishap
    Word History and Origins
    Origin of affliction
    First recorded in 1300–50; Middle English affliccioun, from Latin afflīctiōn-, stem of afflīctiō; equivalent to afflict + -ion
    Synonym Study
    Affliction, adversity, misfortune, trial refer to an event or circumstance that is hard to bear. A misfortune is any adverse or unfavorable occurrence: He had the misfortune to break his leg. Affliction suggests not only a serious misfortune but the emotional effect of this: Blindness is an affliction. Adversity suggests a calamity or distress: Job remained patient despite all his adversities. Trial emphasizes the testing of one's character in undergoing misfortunes, trouble, etc.: His son's conduct was a great trial to him.
    When To Use
    What is affliction?
    Affliction refers to a negative state that could include pain, suffering, or grief, as in The servants watched over the manor while the duke was in a state of affliction following his son’s death.Affliction can also refer to something that causes mental or bodily pain, such as disease or misfortune, as in The captain was bedridden due to a mysterious affliction that the doctor couldn’t identify. Affliction is used similarly to words like adversity, misfortune, and trial, which also describe things that cause suffering or pain. Unlike these words, though, affliction is often used to describe something specifically forced on a person that causes serious emotional effects in addition to other suffering.Example: The man lost his hearing during the accident but has since learned to live with his affliction.
  55. ↑ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/affliction 2025년 9월 25일에 확인.
    affliction
    (əflɪkʃən)
    Word forms: afflictions
    variable noun
    An affliction is something which causes physical or mental suffering.
    [formal]
    Hay fever is an affliction which arrives at an early age.
    ...the afflictions of modern society.
    Synonyms: misfortune, suffering, trouble, trial
    Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers
  56. ↑ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/affliction 2025년 9월 25일에 확인.
    affliction
    in American English
    (əˈflɪkʃən)
    noun
    Origin: ME affliccion < OFr affliction < L afflictio
    1. an afflicted condition; pain; suffering
    2. anything causing pain or distress; calamity
    SYNONYMY NOTE:
    affliction implies pain, suffering, or distress imposed by illness, loss, misfortune, etc.; trial suggests suffering that tries one's endurance, but in a weaker sense refers to annoyance that tries one's patience; tribulation describes severe affliction continuing over a long and trying period; misfortune is applied to a circumstance or event involving adverse fortune and to the suffering or distress occasioned by it
    Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 5th Digital Edition. Copyright © 2025 HarperCollins Publishers.
  57. ↑ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/affliction Cambridge Dictionary. 2025년 9월 20일에 확인.
    affliction
    noun [ C or U ] formal
    uk /əˈflɪk.ʃən/ us /əˈflɪk.ʃən/
    something that makes you suffer:
    Malnutrition is one of the common afflictions of the poor.
    (Definition of affliction from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
    Examples of affliction
    Of course, the nature of the afflictions required measures for the security of both the patients and their community.
    From the Cambridge English Corpus
    The implication is that a father's realisation that he was the cause of his son's affliction might induce him to repent.
    From the Cambridge English Corpus
    This 'affliction' is evident to all those affected, no special surveys or measurements are required.
    From the Cambridge English Corpus
    A greater affliction is ' the apathy that derives from the lack of commitment to the civic public realm ' (p. 96).
    From the Cambridge English Corpus
  58. ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/affliction 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    affliction
    English
    Etymology
    From Middle English affliction, affliccioun, from Old French afliction, borrowed from Latin afflīctiōnem, from affligere, whence English afflict. Pronunciation
    • IPA: /əˈflɪk.ʃən/
    • Rhymes: -ɪkʃən
    • Hyphenation: af‧flic‧tion

    Noun
    affliction (countable and uncountable, plural afflictions)

    1. A state of pain, suffering, distress or agony.
    2. Something which causes pain, suffering, distress or agony.
  59. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/affliction 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    affliction
    noun
    ə-ˈflik-shən
    1 as in distress
    a state of great suffering of body or mind
    she listened with deep affliction as her daughter told her about the latest trouble she was in
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    distress agony misery pain anguish discomfort torment tribulation torture woe sorrow excruciation hurt travail pang sadness hardship rack difficulty strait(s) heartbreak trouble danger unhappiness emergency heartache ache crucible cross joylessness trial soreness jeopardy stitch twinge pinch rigor asperity throe smarting
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    comfort relief consolation solace alleviation ease security peace assuagement well-being
    2 as in sorrow
    deep sadness especially for the loss of someone or something loved
    felt such great affliction over the destruction of the beautiful old home
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    sorrow anguish grief heartbreak agony pain heartache suffering woe guilt sorrowfulness distress misery dolor melancholy depression remorse despair torment shame sorriness oppression regret unhappiness wretchedness dejection dolefulness gloom blues gloominess dreariness melancholia despondency miserableness joylessness heartsickness glumness desolation contrition dumps doldrums forlornness downheartedness despondence desolateness rue self-reproach woefulness disconsolateness blue devils self-pity dispiritedness mopes
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    joy pleasure cheerfulness ecstasy happiness rapture delight exultation bliss glee elation gladness exuberance blessedness euphoria felicity joyousness joyfulness jubilation mirth exhilaration cheeriness cheer gayety humor merriment gayness gaiety merrymaking optimism jollity joviality blissfulness gleefulness lightheartedness enjoyment hopefulness elatedness mirthfulness rapturousness gladsomeness content contentment sunniness contentedness
    3 as in curse
    a source of harm or misfortune
    alcohol has been his affliction ever since he took his first drink at the age of 12
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    curse nemesis bane threat scourge menace danger hazard risk peril trouble jinx hex pitfall snag catch hoodoo booby trap
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    benefit assistance relief support aid blessing advantage gift good help comfort felicity windfall boon joy godsend pleasure manna protection delight safety consolation security defense solace shield armor guard safeguard
    4 as in demon
    a source of persistent emotional distress
    suffered from afflictions that only a professional therapist could deal with
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    demon torment terror daemon hang-up bête noire bogy bogie bugaboo bugbear ogre bogey hobgoblin
    5 as in injury
    something that causes loss or pain
    cronyism and corruption are afflictions on the body politic
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    injury harm damage detriment hurt injustice disability crippling indignity offence impairment insult disfigurement affront mayhem mutilation outrage lesion disservice wound disablement swelling wrong dart beating abrasion rupture offense defacement strain contusion scar bruise burn laceration scald gash scratch concussion sear scathe chafe boo-boo bump scrape cut
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    recovery healing remedy cure fix
  60. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=anguish&range=all 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    미국식 [ˈæŋɡwɪʃ]
    명사
    1. (극심한) 괴로움, 비통
    He groaned in anguish.
    그가 몹시 괴로워하며 신음했다.
    Tears of anguish filled her eyes.
    그녀의 두 눈에 비통한 눈물이 가득 차올랐다.
    옥스퍼드 영한사전
  61. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/entry/enko/1cc064afb99f4a8d8ceaf0cb953b788c 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    an·guish
    명사
    1. U
    (심신의) 고통; 고뇌, 비통.
    the anguish of despair
    절망의 괴로움.
    유의어
    PAIN
    타동사
    1. …을 괴롭히다.
    자동사
    1. (몹시) 괴로워하다.
    YBM 올인올 영한사전
  62. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anguish Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    1 of 2 noun
    an·guish ˈaŋ-gwish
    extreme pain, distress, or anxiety
    cries of anguish
    mental anguish
    anguish
    2 of 2 verb
    anguished; anguishing; anguishes
    intransitive verb
    to suffer anguish
    He anguished over his failure.
    transitive verb
    to cause to suffer anguish
    a heart that had been anguished with sorrow
    Synonyms
    Noun
    distress
    agony
    pain
    misery
    discomfort
    Verb
    plague
    persecute
    afflict
    torture
    torment
    Choose the Right Synonym for anguish
    sorrow, grief, anguish, woe, regret mean distress of mind.
    sorrow implies a sense of loss or a sense of guilt and remorse.
    a family united in sorrow upon the patriarch's death
    grief implies poignant sorrow for an immediate cause.
    the inexpressible grief of the bereaved parents
    anguish suggests torturing grief or dread.
    the anguish felt by the parents of the kidnapped child
    woe is deep or inconsolable grief or misery.
    cries of woe echoed throughout the bombed city
    regret implies pain caused by deep disappointment, fruitless longing, or unavailing remorse.
    nagging regret for missed opportunities
    Examples of anguish in a Sentence
    Noun
    He experienced the anguish of divorce after 10 years of marriage.
    They watched in anguish as fire spread through the house.
    Verb
    she was anguished by the fear that her sons would die in the war
    I anguished over the loss of my father for years afterwards.
  63. ↑ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/anguish 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    [ang-gwish] / ˈæŋ gwɪʃ /
    noun
    1. excruciating or acute distress, suffering, or pain.
    the anguish of grief.
    Synonyms: torture, torment, agony
    Antonyms: relief, comfort, delight
    Word History and Origins
    Origin of anguish
    First recorded in 1175–1225; Middle English anguisse, from Old French, from Latin angustia “tight place,” from angust(us) “narrow” + -ia -ia; anxious
  64. ↑ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/anguish 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    (æŋgwɪʃ)
    uncountable noun
    Anguish is great mental suffering or physical pain.
    [written]
    A cry of anguish burst from her lips.
    Mark looked at him in anguish.
    Synonyms: suffering, pain, torture, distress
    Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers
  65. ↑ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/anguish 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    in American English
    (ˈæŋɡwɪʃ)
    noun
    Origin: ME angwisshe < OFr anguisse < L angustia, tightness, distress: see anger
    1. great suffering, as from worry, grief, or pain; agony
    verb transitive
    2. to cause to feel anguish
    verb intransitive
    3. to feel anguish
    See synonymy note
    distress
    Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 5th Digital Edition. Copyright © 2025 HarperCollins Publishers.
  66. ↑ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/anguish Cambridge Dictionary. 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    noun [ U ]
    uk /ˈæŋ.ɡwɪʃ/ us /ˈæŋ.ɡwɪʃ/
    extreme unhappiness caused by physical or mental suffering:
    His anguish at the outcome of the court case was very clear.
    In her anguish she forgot to leave a message.
    (Definition of anguish from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
  67. ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anguish 2025년 10월 6일에 확인.
    anguish
    English
    Pronunciation
    • enPR: ăngʹ-gwĭsh, IPA: /ˈæŋ.ɡwɪʃ/
    • Rhymes: -æŋɡwɪʃ

    Etymology 1
    From Middle English angwissh, anguishe, angoise, from Anglo-Norman anguise, anguisse, from Old French angoisse, from Latin angustia (“narrowness, scarcity, difficulty, distress”), from angustus (“narrow, difficult”), from angere (“to press together, cause pain, distress”). See angst, the Germanic cognate, and anger.
    Noun
    anguish (countable and uncountable, plural anguishes)

    1. Extreme pain, either of body or mind; excruciating distress.
      Synonyms: agony, calvary, cross, pang, torture, torment; see also Thesaurus:agony, Thesaurus:distress
  68. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/anguish 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    anguish 1 of 2
    noun
    ˈaŋ-gwish
    1 as in distress
    a state of great suffering of body or mind
    as a new teacher, she was in real anguish over the decision to report the cheating
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    distress agony pain misery discomfort torment torture sorrow tribulation woe sadness hurt pang travail excruciation heartbreak hardship rack affliction difficulty strait(s) heartache trouble unhappiness danger ache emergency crucible cross joylessness soreness jeopardy trial twinge pinch rigor stitch smarting throe asperity
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    comfort relief solace consolation ease alleviation peace security assuagement well-being
    2 as in sorrow
    deep sadness especially for the loss of someone or something loved
    words can't express my anguish at losing my cat
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    sorrow grief heartbreak agony heartache pain guilt woe suffering remorse distress sorrowfulness despair misery melancholy dolor shame depression torment regret affliction sorriness unhappiness dejection oppression gloom dolefulness wretchedness blues gloominess despondency contrition heartsickness dreariness melancholia dumps desolation joylessness miserableness glumness despondence forlornness rue self-reproach desolateness doldrums downheartedness self-pity blue devils disconsolateness woefulness mopes dispiritedness
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    joy ecstasy exultation elation happiness pleasure glee delight exuberance rapture jubilation euphoria bliss exhilaration cheerfulness gladness joyousness mirth joyfulness blessedness felicity cheer merriment gayety cheeriness humor gaiety optimism joviality merrymaking jollity blissfulness hopefulness lightheartedness gayness gleefulness enjoyment elatedness mirthfulness rapturousness gladsomeness content contentment sunniness contentedness
    anguish 2 of 2
    verb
    1 as in to plague
    to cause persistent suffering to
    she was anguished by the fear that her sons would die in the war
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    plague persecute afflict torture torment curse attack agonize beset bother trouble besiege sting harrow bedevil rack distress excruciate discomfort pain worry disquiet stress overwhelm grieve strike annoy disturb aggravate hurt upset pursue exasperate dog irritate assail vex irk ride hound discompose harass strain fluster grate agitate harry gripe oppress pique bug put out badger chafe rasp gall rile stab try molest nettle prick victimize perturb peeve smite pang tyrannize pester crush overpower martyr wring hagride get smart
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    help aid assist relieve release abet comfort deliver soothe content quiet console reprieve solace succor
    2 as in to grieve
    to feel deep sadness or mental pain
    I anguished over the loss of my father for years afterwards
    Synonyms & Similar Words
    grieve ache sorrow mourn sigh suffer cry agonize sob hurt weep bleed torment groan tear one's hair long (for) eat one's heart out torture moan pine (away) bewail lament regret howl rue blubber smart bemoan wail languish bawl rack deplore keen take on yowl yammer
    Antonyms & Near Antonyms
    joy glory triumph beam laugh delight rejoice cheer comfort assure sympathize exult reassure soothe crow ravish console solace commiserate
    Synonym Chooser
    How is the word anguish different from other nouns like it?
    Some common synonyms of anguish are grief, regret, sorrow, and woe. While all these words mean "distress of mind," anguish suggests torturing grief or dread.
    the anguish felt by the parents of the kidnapped child
    When could grief be used to replace anguish?
    The words grief and anguish are synonyms, but do differ in nuance. Specifically, grief implies poignant sorrow for an immediate cause.
    the inexpressible grief of the bereaved parents
    When can regret be used instead of anguish?
    Although the words regret and anguish have much in common, regret implies pain caused by deep disappointment, fruitless longing, or unavailing remorse.
    nagging regret for missed opportunities
    When might sorrow be a better fit than anguish?
    While the synonyms sorrow and anguish are close in meaning, sorrow implies a sense of loss or a sense of guilt and remorse.
    a family united in sorrow upon the patriarch's death
    When would woe be a good substitute for anguish?
    The meanings of woe and anguish largely overlap; however, woe is deep or inconsolable grief or misery.
    cries of woe echoed throughout the bombed city
  69. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=distress 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 9월 18일에 확인.
    distress 미국∙영국 [dɪˈstres]
    1. 명사 (정신적) 고통, 괴로움
    2. 명사 고충, 곤경 (=hardship)
    3. 동사 괴롭히다, 고통스럽게 하다
    옥스퍼드 영한사전
  70. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=misery 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 9월 18일에 확인.
    misery 미국∙영국 [ˈmɪzəri]
    1. 명사 (정신적·육체적으로 심한) 고통 (=distress)
    2. 명사 빈곤 (=poverty)
    3. 명사 고통(을 안겨 주는 것)
    옥스퍼드 영한사전
  71. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 94.
    『요가經』은 전통적으로 파탄잘리 Patañjali라는 B.C. 2세기의 인물에6) 의한 著書로 알려져 왔으나, 사실상으로는 서력기원 후 4~5세기 경에야 完成된 古典으로 간주된다.7) 그러나 물론 yoga的인 修行의 傳統은 이보다 훨씬 이전으로 소급하여 찾아 볼 수 있는 것이다. 요가의 기원은 아마도 이미 베다時代부터 바라문들이 祭祀때에 神秘的이고 초자연적인 힘과 지혜를 얻기 위하여 행하던 苦行 tapas의 행위에서 찾아볼 수 있을 것이다. 혹은 이보다도 더 앞서, 인더스文明의 遺蹟 가운데서 요가의 座法을 한 神像이 발굴됨에 따라 요가는 아마도 베다나 아리안족의 풍습에 기원을 둔 것이 아니라 非아리안적인 行法이 아니었는가라는 추측도 자아내고 있다. 여하튼 『카타 우파니샤드』에서는 〈요가〉라는 말은 감각기관과 마음을 制御하여 絕對者를 인식하는 방법을 뜻하고 있으며, 이러한 행위는 이미 佛陀나 혹은 그에서 禪法 dhyāna을 가르쳐 주었던 出家修行者들 가운데서 盛行하였던 것이다.
    6) J.H. Woods는 그의 The Yoga System of Patañjali (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1914)에서 이 파탄잘리와 B.C. 2세기의 文法學者 파탄잘리와는 다른 人物로 간주하고 있다. 그러나 Dasgupta는 兩者를 同一人으로 본다. 그의 A History of Indian Pholosophy, Vol. I, p. 238 참조.
    7) 이 점에 관해서는 Woods의 견해에 따름.
  72. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions) 2025년 8월 28일에 확인.
    Tapas (Sanskrit: तपस्, romanized: tapas) is a variety of austere spiritual meditation practices in Indian religions. In Jainism, it means asceticism (austerities, body mortification);[1][2] in Buddhism, it denotes spiritual practices including meditation and self-discipline;[3] and in the different traditions within Hinduism it means a spectrum of practices ranging from asceticism, 'inner cleansing' to self-discipline by meditation practices.[4][5][6] The Tapas practice often involves solitude and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means to moksha (liberation, salvation).[2]
    In the Vedas literature of Hinduism, fusion words based on tapas are widely used to expound several spiritual concepts that develop through heat or inner energy, such as meditation, any process to reach special observations and insights, the spiritual ecstasy of a yogin or Tāpasa (a vṛddhi derivative meaning "a practitioner of austerities, an ascetic"), even warmth of sexual intimacy.[7] In certain contexts, the term means penance, pious activity, as well as severe meditation.[8]
    [1] Cort, J. E. (2002). Singing the glory of asceticism: devotion of asceticism in Jainism. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70(4), pages 719-742
    [2] Richard F. Gombrich (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge. pp. 44, 58. ISBN 978-1-134-21718-2.
    [3] Richard F. Gombrich (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-134-21718-2.
    [4] Lowitz, L., & Datta, R. (2004). Sacred Sanskrit Words: For Yoga, Chant, and Meditation. Stone Bridge Press, Inc.; see Tapas or tapasya in Sanskrit means, the conditioning of the body through the proper kinds and amounts of diet, rest, bodily training, meditation, etc., to bring it to the greatest possible state of creative power. It involves practicing the art of controlling materialistic desires to attain moksha. Yoga, Meditation on Om, Tapas, and Turiya in the principal Upanishads Archived 2013-09-08 at the Wayback Machine, Chicago
    [5] Sanskrit-English phrases, France; tapas, tapa and tap on page 28
    [6] Benjamin R Smith (2008). Mark Singleton and Jean Byrne (ed.). Yoga in the Modern World: Contemporary Perspectives. Routledge. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-134-05520-3.
    [7] Kaelber, W. O. (1976). "Tapas", Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, 15(4), 343-386
    [8] Monier William's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 2nd Ed. 1899, Tapas
  73. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUh1wpH8LyA Tapas Pronunciation Sanskrit तपस् tapas. 2025년 8월 28일에 확인.
  74. ↑ 가 나 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 93.
    상키야哲學은 獨自的인 학파로서 근세까지 그 명맥을 유지하지는 못했으나 상키야哲學의 여러 理論들은 베단타哲學 등 他哲學학파들에 흡수되었으며5) 印度人의 세계관 형성에 큰 영향을 주어 왔다.
    5) 15세기의 비슈누派의 베단타 哲學者인 비쥬냐나빅슈 Vijñānabhikṣus는 상키야哲學을 냐야-바이쉐시카 Nyāya-Vaiseṣika哲學과 더불어 영원한 베단타 眞理의 한 면으로 간주했다. 그는 상키야哲學을 神의 본질을 깨닫지 못하는 자를 위하여, 그들이 物質과 영혼의 차이를 알지 못할까봐 주어진 가르침이라고 생각했다.
  75. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/nyayavaisheshika 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    The Sanskrit terms Nyāya-vaiśeṣika and Nyāyavaiśeṣika can be transliterated into English as Nyaya-vaisesika or Nyaya-vaisheshika or Nyayavaisesika or Nyayavaisheshika, using the IAST transliteration scheme.
    Nyaya (school of philosophy)
    Nyayavaisheshika in Nyaya glossary
    Nyāyavaiśeṣika (न्यायवैशेषिक).—After 10th century A.D., i.e. after the time of Udayana, these two schools [Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika] came nearer and became amalgamated to give rise to a new school which is treated as the syncretic school of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika. Udayana was the last person who represented the earlier phase these systems. But it was Udayana who really paved the way for syncretism of these systems by treating them as an integral school. “Udayana considers the Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika not as two distinct schools but as forming one integral school. He has incorporated the ontology of the Vaiśeṣika with the epistemology of Nyāya and attempted to bring about a syncretism between the two”.
    Source: Shodhganga: A study of Nyāya-vaiśeṣika categories
  76. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXwsNu4OqoA Nyaya Pronunciation Sanskrit न्याय nyāya. 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
  77. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0J3bnMen5A Vaisheshika Pronunciation Sanskrit वैशेषिक vaiśeṣika. 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
  78. ↑ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/प्रकरण#Sanskrit
  79. ↑ Prakarana Pronunciation Sanskrit प्रकरण prakaraṇa. 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
  80. ↑ Sanskrit Dictionary: prakaraṇa. 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
    Monier-Williams Search
    prakaraṇa n. treatise, monograph, book, chapter (especially introduction or prologue)
  81. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 92.
    상키야 Sāṁkhya哲學은 인도의 체계화된 철학학파 가운데서 가장 먼저 형성된 것으로 여겨진다.2) 상키야 哲學思想은 우리가 이미 고찰한 바와 같이 『카타 우파니샤드』나 『슈베타슈바타라 우파니샤드』와 같은 후기 우파니샤드에 분명하게 나타나 있으며 또한 『마하바라타』의 제12권 『解脫法品』에도 여러가지 초기 상키야哲學의 형태가 나타나 있음을 우리는 이미 보았다. 특히 『바가바드 기타』가 형성된 당시, 즉 서력기원전 2~3세기 경에는 상키야는 요가와 더불어 하나의 잘 확립된 思想으로서 존재한 듯이 보이며, 『기타』에 사상적으로 至大한 영향을 주었던 것이다. 그러나 이런 고대 문헌들에 나타나 있는 상키야철학은 어디까지나 아직도 충분히 발달되지 않은 초기의 것으로서 나중에 형성된 古典的 無神論的 상키야哲學과는 많은 차이점을 보이고 있다.
    2) 상키야哲學은 세계를 25원리(tattva)에 의하여 說明하므로 數를 중시한다하여 數論이라 불려 왔다. 〈Sāṁkhya〉라는 말도 〈計算하는 者〉라는 뜻을 지닌 것으로 풀이되고 있다.
  82. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/摩诃婆罗多 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    《摩訶婆羅多》（梵語：महाभारतम्，拉丁字母轉寫：Mahābhāratam，發音：[məɦaːˈbʱaːrət̪əm]；/məhɑːˈbɑːrətə/），乃古印度兩大著名梵文史詩之一，成書於公元前三世紀至公元五世紀之間，與另一經典《羅摩衍那》齊名。
  83. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/摩诃婆罗多 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    《摩诃婆罗多》（梵语：महाभारतम्，拉丁字母转写：Mahābhāratam，发音：[məɦaːˈbʱaːrət̪əm]；/məhɑːˈbɑːrətə/），乃古印度两大著名梵文史诗之一，成书于公元前三世纪至公元五世纪之间，与另一经典《罗摩衍那》齐名。
  84. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/mahābhārata/173980/1 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    mahābhārata महाभारत
    Definition: n. (with or scilicet ākhyāna-),"great narrative of the war of the bharata-s", Name of the great epic poem in about 215,000 lines describing the acts and contests of the sons of the two brothers dhṛtarāṣṭra- and pāṇḍu-, descendants of bharata-, who were of the lunar line of kings reigning in the neighbourhood of hastinā-pura- (the poem consists of 18 books with a supplement called hari-vaṃśa-, the whole being attributed to the sage vyāsa-) Literary Source: āśvalāyana-gṛhya-sūtra Literary Source: mahābhārata etc. (Literary Source: IW. 370 etc.)
  85. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/mahabharata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
  86. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/mahabharáta-4 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
  87. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8NugQVCA9UI Mahabharata Pronunciation Sanskrit महाभारत Mahābhārata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
  88. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    The Mahābhārata (/məˌhɑːˈbɑːrətə, ˌmɑːhə-/ mə-HAH-BAR-ə-tə, MAH-hə-; Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, IAST: Mahābhāratam, pronounced [mɐɦaːˈbʱaːrɐt̪ɐm]) is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas, the other being the Ramayana. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kurukshetra War, a war of succession between two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas. It contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or puruṣārtha(12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, the story of Shakuntala, the story of Pururava and Urvashi, the story of Savitri and Satyavan, the story of Kacha and Devayani, the story of Rishyasringa and an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, often considered as works in their own right.
  89. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    Mahabharata
    The Mahābhārata (/məˌhɑːˈbɑːrətə, ˌmɑːhə-/ mə-HAH-BAR-ə-tə, MAH-hə-; Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, IAST: Mahābhāratam, pronounced [mɐɦaːˈbʱaːrɐt̪ɐm]) is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas, the other being the Ramayana. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kurukshetra War, a war of succession between two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas. It contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or puruṣārtha (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, the story of Shakuntala, the story of Pururava and Urvashi, the story of Savitri and Satyavan, the story of Kacha and Devayani, the story of Rishyasringa and an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, often considered as works in their own right. . . . Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. . . . The title is translated as "Great Bharat (India)", or "the story of the great descendants of Bharata", or as "The Great Indian Tale".
  90. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=Mahabharata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    Mahabharata ( Mahabharatum ) 미국∙영국 [məhɑ́:bɑ́:rətə]
    명사 마하바라다(摩訶婆羅多) ((옛 인도의 대서사시))
    동아출판 프라임 영한사전
  91. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=Mahabharata 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    Mahābhārata
    종교 마하바라타
    종교학대사전
  92. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. pp. 95-96.
    상키야철학은 佛敎와 같이 세계를 苦로 보며, 이 苦를 극복하려는 데에 철학적 사유의 주목적이 있다. 또한 그 세계관에 있어서도 불교와 같이 요가의 체험에 기초한 心理學的인 世界觀, 즉 인간의 심리현상의 관찰을 중심하여 세계를 파악하려는 경향이 짙으며, 一元論的인 세계해석을 피하고 있다. 그러나 동시에 상키야철학은 불교에서는 인정하지 않고 있는 인간의 영원한 自我, 즉, 푸루샤(精神 : puruṣa)라는 실재를 인정하고 있으며, 이 점에서 佛敎와 결정적인 차이를 보이고 있다. 상키야철학은 세계의 모든 존재를 精神 puruṣa과 物質 prakṛti이라는 두 개의 형이상학적 원리로서 설명한다. 따라서 이 두 개념을 바로 이해하면 상키야철학의 근본을 파악하게 되는 것이다.
    프라크르티, 즉 物質이란 개념은 상키야哲學에서 특수한 의미를 지니고 있다. 프라크르티는 푸루샤를 제외한 세계의 一切現象이 그로부터 발전되어 나오는 모태와 같은 것으로서 未顯現 avyakta이라 불린다. 즉, 경험의 세계에서 보는 바와 같은 한계를 지닌 현상들이 그 분명한 모습으로 나타나기 이전의 가능성의 세계를 의미한다. 그 자체는 어떤 원인도 가지고 있지 않으나, 그로부터 모든 것이 발전되어 나오는 세계의 質料的 원인 upādāna-kāraṇa, 혹은 제1원인 pradhāna이 되며, 무한한 창조의 힘 śakti이 되는 것이다.
  93. ↑ 가 나 http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=不顯現 DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism). 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    不顯現
    Pronunciations
    [py] bù xiǎnxiàn
    [wg] pu-hsien-hsien
    [hg] 불현현
    [mc] bul hyeonhyeon
    [mr] pul hyŏnhyŏn
    [kk] フケンゲン
    [hb] fu kengen
    [qn] bất hiển hiện
    Basic Meaning: not visible
    Senses:

    [Dictionary References]
    Bukkyōgo daijiten (Nakamura) 1158d
    Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary (Hirakawa) 0067

  94. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=未顯現&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 未顯現 Wèi xiǎnxiàn 웨이 시앤시앤
    Chinese (Simplified): 未显现 Wèi xiǎnxiàn 웨이 시앤시앤
    English: Not Appeared
    Korean: 나타나지 않음
  95. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=未顯現&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    未 아닐 미
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 5획
    1. 아니다, 못하다 2. 아직 ~하지 못하다 3. 아니냐? 못하느냐?
    顯 나타날 현
    부수 頁(머리혈) 총 획수 23획
    1. 나타나다 2. 드러나다 3. 뚜렷하다
    显(간체자), 顕(일본자), 顕(약자), 显(속자), 㫫(속자), 𩔰(속자), 㬎(동자), 䧮(동자), 𩕃(동자)
    現 나타날 현
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 11획
    1. 나타나다, 출현하다(出現--) 2. 나타내다, 드러내다 3. 실재(實在: 실제로 존재함)
    现(간체자), 现(동자)
  96. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=未显现 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    未
    1. 부사 아직 …하지 않다. (=没(有), 不曾)
    2. 부사 …이 아니다. [부정을 나타냄] (=不)
    3. 대명사 문장 끝에 쓰여 의문을 나타냄.
    [ wèi ]
    고려대 중한사전
    显现
    동사 현현하다. (지금까지 숨겨져 있던 것이) 나타나다. 드러나다. 보이게 되다.
    [ xiǎnxiàn ]
    고려대 중한사전
  97. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=不顯現&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 不顯現 Bù xiǎnxiàn 부 시앤시앤
    Chinese (Simplified): 不显现 Bù xiǎnxiàn 부 시앤시앤
    English: Not visible
    Korean: 보이지 않음
  98. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=不顯現&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    不 아닐 불, 아닐 부, 바르지 아니할 비
    부수 一(한일) 총 획수 4획
    1. (아닐 불) 2. 아니다 3. 아니하다
    𠀚(고자), 𠙐(고자)
    不 아닐 불(부)
    부수 一(한일) 총 획수 4획
    불. 조선시대, 강경(講經) 때의 시험 등급의 최하위. 선초(鮮初)에는 대통(大通)·통(通)·약통(略通)·조통(粗通)·불통(不通)의 다섯 등급이 있었으나, 그 이후에는 통(通)·약(略:혹은 略通)·조(粗:혹은 粗通)·불(不:혹은 不通)의...
    단국대 한국한자어사전
    顯 나타날 현
    부수 頁(머리혈) 총 획수 23획
    1. 나타나다 2. 드러나다 3. 뚜렷하다
    显(간체자), 顕(일본자), 顕(약자), 显(속자), 㫫(속자), 𩔰(속자), 㬎(동자), 䧮(동자), 𩕃(동자)
    現 나타날 현
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 11획
    1. 나타나다, 출현하다(出現--) 2. 나타내다, 드러내다 3. 실재(實在: 실제로 존재함)
    现(간체자), 现(동자)
  99. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=不 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    不
    1. 부사 동사·형용사와 다른 부사의 앞에 쓰여 부정을 표시함.
    2. 부사 현재·미래의 행위·동작·심리 상태·의지·가능성을 부정.
    3. 부사 일상적인 혹은 습관적인 동작이나 상황을 부정.
    [ bù ]
    고려대 중한사전
    不
    1. 부사 …아니다, …않다, 못하다
    2. 독립절로 쓰이는 경우
    3. 不＋술어
    [ bù ]
    중국어-한국어 학습사전 (한국외국어대학교)
    显现
    동사 현현하다. (지금까지 숨겨져 있던 것이) 나타나다. 드러나다. 보이게 되다.
    [ xiǎnxiàn ]
    고려대 중한사전
  100. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/avyakta 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Avyakta in Sanskrit glossary
    Avyakta (अव्यक्त).—a.
    1) Indistinct, not manifest or apparent, inarticulate; °वर्ण (varṇa) indistinct accents; Ś.7.17; फलम- व्यक्तमब्रवीत् (phalama- vyaktamabravīt).
    2) Invisible, imperceptible.
    3) Undetermined; अव्यक्तोऽयमचिन्त्योऽयम् (avyakto'yamacintyo'yam) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 2.25;8.2.
    4) Undeveloped, uncreated.
    5) (In alg.) Unknown (as a quantity or number).
    -ktaḥ 1 Name of Viṣṇu.
    2) Name of Śiva.
    3) Cupid.
    4) Primary matter which has not yet entered into real existence.
    5) A fool.
    6) Name of an Upaniṣad.
    -ktam (In Vedānta Phil.)
    1) The Supreme Being or Universal Spirit, Brahman.
    2) Spiritual ignorance.
    3) The subtle body.
    4) The state of sleep (suṣuptyavasthā).
    5) (In Sāṅ. Phil.) The primary germ of nature (sarvakāraṇa), the primordial element or productive principle from which all the phenomena of the material world are developed; बुद्धेरिवाव्यक्तमुदाहरन्ति (buddherivāvyaktamudāharanti) R.13.6; महतः परमव्यक्तमव्यक्तात्पुरुषः परः (mahataḥ paramavyaktamavyaktātpuruṣaḥ paraḥ) Kaṭh., Sāṃkhyakārikā 2.1,14.16.58.
    6) The Soul.
    7) Nature. अव्यक्तः शंकरे विष्णौ क्लीबे तु महदादिके । परमात्म- न्यात्मनि च त्रिषु स्यादस्फुटे (avyaktaḥ śaṃkare viṣṇau klībe tu mahadādike | paramātma- nyātmani ca triṣu syādasphuṭe)....Nm.
    -ktam ind. Imperceptibly, indistinctly, inarticulately.
    --- OR ---
    Āvyakta (आव्यक्त).—a. Quite clear, intelligible; तद्वाक्यमाव्यक्तपदं तासां स्त्रीणां निशम्य च (tadvākyamāvyaktapadaṃ tāsāṃ strīṇāṃ niśamya ca) Rām.7.88.2.
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Avyakta (अव्यक्त).—adj. (= Pali avyatta; neg. of vyakta, q.v.), (1) ignorant: Saddharmapuṇḍarīka 210.3 °tā akuśalā; Lalitavistara 264.20 °to [Page079-b+ 71] bālo; Divyāvadāna 301.2 °tān apy akuśalān api: 617.18; (2) (compare Sanskrit id., Pali avyatta) obscure: avyaktendriyaḥ Karmavibhaṅga (and Karmavibhaṅgopadeśa) 31.12, see s.v. jihma.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
    Avyakta (अव्यक्त).—mfn.
    (-ktaḥ-ktā-ktaṃ) 1. Indistinct, unapparent, invisible, imperceptible. 2. (In algebra,) Unknown as quantity or number. m.
    (-ktaḥ) 1. Vishnu. 2. Siva. 3. Kandarpa or Cupid. 4. A fool. n.
    (-ktaṃ) 1. The Supreme Being or universal spirit. 2. Any invisible principle according to the Sankhya philosophy. 3. The soul. 4. Nature, temperament. E. a neg. vyakta evident, distinct.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Avyakta (अव्यक्त).—[adjective] undisclosed, unmanifested, not clear, indistinct, imperceptible, transcendental; [neuter] [adverb]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Avyakta (अव्यक्त):—[=a-vyakta] mfn. undeveloped, not manifest, unapparent, indistinct, invisible, imperceptible, [Upaniṣad; Pāṇini; Manu-smṛti] etc.
    2) [v.s. ...] (in [algebra]) unknown as quantity or number
    3) [v.s. ...] speaking indistinctly
    4) [v.s. ...] m. (= paramātman) the universal Spirit, [Manu-smṛti ix, 50]
    5) [v.s. ...] Name of Viṣṇu, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    6) [v.s. ...] of Śiva, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    7) [v.s. ...] of Kāma, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    8) [v.s. ...] a fool, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    9) [v.s. ...] Name of an Upaniṣad
    10) [v.s. ...] (also) a young monk who has not finished his studies, [Śīlāṅka]
    11) [v.s. ...] n. (in Sāṅkhya [philosophy]) ‘the unevolved (Evolver of all things)’, the primary germ of nature, primordial element or productive principle whence all the phenomena of the material world are developed, [Kaṭha-upaniṣad; Sāṃkhyakārikā etc.]
    12) Āvyakta (आव्यक्त):—[=ā-vy-akta] [from āvy-añj] mfn. quite clear or intelligible, [Rāmāyaṇa vii, 88, 20.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Avyakta (अव्यक्त):—[a-vyakta] (ktaḥ) 1. m. Vishnu. n. Supreme being; unknown quantity or principal. a. Unapparent.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  101. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0111.jpg अव्यक्त a-vyakta. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
  102. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avyakta 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
    Avyakta, meaning "not manifest", "devoid of form" etc., is the word ordinarily used to denote Prakrti on account of subtleness of its nature and is also used to denote Brahman, which is the subtlest of all and who by virtue of that subtlety is the ultimate support (asraya) of Prakrti.[1] Avyakta as a category along with Mahat (Cosmic Intelligence) and Purusa plays an important role in the later Samkhya philosophy even though the Bhagavad Gita III.42 retaining the psychological categories altogether drops out the Mahat and the Avyakta (Unmanifest), the two objective categories.[2]
    [1] S.N.Dasgupta (1991). The Speech of Gold. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 136. ISBN 9788120804159.
    [2] Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade (1926). The constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 144.
  103. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uj6GlYIb6A Avyakta अव्यक्त avyakta Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
  104. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/avyakta Learn how to pronounce Avyakta. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
  105. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/avyakta Learn how to pronounce Avyakta. 2025년 10월 15일에 확인.
  106. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/薄伽梵歌 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    薄伽梵歌
    《薄伽梵歌》（梵語：भगवद् गीता，羅馬化：Bhagavad Gītā，字面意思是「薄伽梵（至尊神）之頌讚/贊歌」），又稱為《薄伽梵頌》，是印度教的教典，敘述了印度兩大史詩之一《摩訶婆羅多》中的一段對話（位於《毗濕摩篇》的23–40），也被稱為神之歌（Gītā）。學術界認為它成書於公元前五世紀到公元前二世紀。《摩訶婆羅多》中敘述的事件導致了現在爭鬥時的到來，在這個年代的開始（大約五千年前），黑天向他的朋友兼奉獻者阿周那講述了《薄伽梵歌》。它是唯一一本記錄神而不是神的代言人或者先知的言論的經典。
  107. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/薄伽梵歌 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    薄伽梵歌
    《薄伽梵歌》（梵语：भगवद् गीता，罗马化：Bhagavad Gītā，字面意思是“薄伽梵（至尊神）之颂赞/赞歌”），又称为《薄伽梵颂》，是印度教的教典，叙述了印度两大史诗之一《摩诃婆罗多》中的一段对话（位于《毗湿摩篇》的23–40），也被称为神之歌（Gītā）。学术界认为它成书于公元前五世纪到公元前二世纪。《摩诃婆罗多》中叙述的事件导致了现在争斗时的到来，在这个年代的开始（大约五千年前），黑天向他的朋友兼奉献者阿周那讲述了《薄伽梵歌》。它是唯一一本记录神而不是神的代言人或者先知的言论的经典。
  108. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/bhagavadgītā/160928/1 https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0744.jpg 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    bhagavadgītā भगवद्गीता
    Definition: f. plural (sometimes with upaniṣad-; once °ta-, n., bhāgavata-purāṇa) "kṛṣṇa-'s song", Name of a celebrated mystical poem (interpolated in the mahābhārata where it forms an episode of 18 chapters from vi, 830-1532, containing a dialogue between kṛṣṇa- and arjuna-, in which the Pantheism of the vedānta- is combined with a tinge of the sāṃkhya- and the later principle of bhakti- or devotion to kṛṣṇa- as the Supreme Being; see IW. 122 etc.)
  109. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-XUsETVyTHo Bhagavad Gita भगवद्गीता Bhagavad gītā Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
  110. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=Bhagavad%20Gita 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    Bhagavad-Gita 미국∙영국 [bʌ́ɡəvədɡí:tɑ:]
    명사 힌두교 인도 2대 서사시의 하나인 Mahabharata의 일부
    동아출판 프라임 영한사전
  111. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 머 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. pp. 94-95.
    『요가經』의 註釋書로서 가장 오래된 것은 뱌사Vyāsa의 『요가經疏 Yoga-sūtra-bhāṣya』이다. 經과 疏가 모두 〈數論의 解明 Sāṁkhya-pravacana〉이라는 副題를 달고 있는 것으로 보아 이들이 씌어진 당시에8) 이미 상키야哲學과 요가는 同一한 思想으로 이해되고 있었음을 말해 주고 있다. 그러나 요가哲學은 有神論的인 사상으로서 本來부터 상키야와는 다른 면을 가지고 있었다고 생각된다. 여하튼 9세기의 바차스파티미슈라 Vācaspatimiśra는 뱌사의 疏에 『眞理通曉 Tattvavaiśāradī』라는 復註를 썼으며 이에 의하여 요가哲學의 學說은 고정되게 되었다. 16세기의 비즈냐나빅슈 Vijñānabhikṣu도 뱌사의 疏에 『요가評釋 Yoga-vārttika』이라는 주석서와 『요가純粹綱要 Yogasāra-saṁgraha』라는 요가哲學의 綱要書를 저술했다.
    8) J.H. Woods는 經의 年代를 300~500년 경, 疏의 年代를 650~800년 경으로 잡고 있다. 이에 관하여는 많은 異說들이 있어 확실하지는 않다.
  112. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=letter&query=婆察斯巴蒂·彌尸羅&autoConvert= 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
  113. ↑ 婆察斯巴蒂·彌弥尸羅罗, 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
  114. ↑ https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=en&text=婆察斯巴蒂·彌尸羅&op=translate
    https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=en&text=婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗&op=translate
    2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
  115. ↑ 가 나 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vacaspati-mishra 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
    Vedanta (school of philosophy)
    Vacaspati-mishra in Vedanta glossary
    Vācaspati Miśra, c. 10th century CE, was a gṛhastha scholar from the Mithilā region in modern Bihar state (bordering Nepal). He was knowledgeable in several disciplines connected to the Dharma and is traditionally hailed as a sarva-tantra-svatantra.
    The uniqueness of Vācaspati Miśra was his ability to write on almost every darśana with the perspective of an insider. This is perhaps unparalleled in the history of the Dharma. Perhaps his most well-known work is the Bhāmatī, an exposition of Adi Shankaracharya's Brahmasūtra Bhāṣya.
    Source: Hindupedia: Later Advaitins
    Nyaya (school of philosophy)
    Vacaspati-mishra in Nyaya glossary
    Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र).—Towards the first half of the ninth century, Vācaspati Miśra tried to re-establish the Nyāya doctrines propounded by Gautama, Vātsyāyana, and Uddyotakara. He wrote Nyāyavārtikatātparyatīkā. Vācaspati was a versatile, genius and prolific writer. He wrote commentaries on the works of other philosophical schools like Sāṃkhya, Vedanta and Mīmāṃṣā. In his work, Vācaspati has established the supremacy of Nyāya on other systems by refuting the opposite views. Vācaspati does not always followed Vātsyāyana or Uddyotakara for interpreting different Sūtras of Nyāyasūtra.
    Source: Shodhganga: A study of Nyāya-vaiśeṣika categories
    General definition (in Hinduism)
    Vacaspati-mishra in Hinduism glossary
    Vācaspatimiśra (fl. 976-1000); Author of the Tattvabindu, a Sanskrit work on the Mīmāṃsā school in Hindu philosophy.
    Source: Wisdom Library[: Hinduism
    Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE) was an Indian philosopher who founded one of the main Advaita Vedanta schools, the Bhāmatī school (named after his commentary on Śankara's Brahma-sūtra-bhāṣya), and whose work was an important forerunner of the Navya-Nyāya system of thought.
    He wrote commentaries on the main works of all the major Hindu schools of thought at the time, as well as one non-commentary, Tattvabindu. In Tattvabindu, Vācaspati examines four competing theories of linguistic meaning:
    1. Mandana Misra's sphoṭavāda,
    2. the Nyāya theory
    3. the similar Mīmāmsā theory
    4. the Prābhākara Mīmāmsā theory, anvitābhidhānavāda.
    After examining each of these theories, Vācaspati presents his own theory, abhihitānvayavāda, according to which understanding of the meaning of a whole sentence is reached by inferring it, in a separate act of lakṣanā or implication, from the individual meanings of the constituent words.
    Primary texts:
    • Bhāmatī (on Śankara's Brahmasūtrabhāsya)
    • Tattvabindu
    • Tātparyaţīkā (on Uddyotakāra's Nyāyavārttika)
    • Nyāyasūcīnibandha
    • Tattvakaumudī (on Īśvarakrishna's Sāmkhyakārikās)
    • Tattvavaiśāradī (on Patañjali's Yogasūtras and Bhāsya)
    • Nyāyakanikā (on Maṇḍana Miśra's Vidhidviveka)
    Source: WikiPedia: Hinduism
    Vācaspatimiśra is the author of the Sanskrit work called Tattvasamīkṣā, which is the earliest commentary on the Brahmasiddhi.
    Source: UW-Madison Libraries: Vācaspatimiśra’s Tattvasamīkṣā
    Vacaspatimisra, a medieval polymath of the tenth century, is renowned for a number of important works: commentaries written on core traditions of Brahmanic philosophy (Mimamsa, Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya), a list of Nyayasutras (the Nydyasucinibandha), and an independent treatise, the Tattvabindu. The latter reviews doctrinal ramifications of the Vaiyakarana theory of sphota. The idea that Vacaspati would also have written a commentary on Mandanamis'ra's Brahmasiddhi was contingent on the occasional references made by Vacaspati himself elsewhere in his works and on a single mention in Anandabodha's Pramdnamala. It was not until 1994 that a fragmentary manuscript of this commentary (Tattvasamiksa) was discovered by Diwakar Acharya in the National Archives in Kathmandu. Despite the fact that the Tattvasamiksa does not seem to have exercised any noticeable influence comparable to other works of Vacaspati--it appears on the contrary to have been neglected--there is no question about its value for historical research. Not only is it by far the earliest commentary on Mandanamisra's Brahmasiddhi, but it also represents Vacaspati's first systematic examination of a structured Vedantic edifice
    Source: The Free Library: Vacaspatimisra’s Tattvasamiksa
    1) Vācaspatimiśra (976-1000). Author of the Tattvakaumudī and the Bhāmatī. He was a disciple of Mārtaṇḍatilakasvāmin. He is also known as Bachaspati Misra or Vācaspati Miśra.
    2) Vācaspatimiśra (1420-1490). Author of the Pitṛbhaktitaraṅgiṇī and the Nyāyatattvāloka. He is also known as Vācaspati Miśra II or Mahāmahopādhyāyasanmiśravācaspatikṛtā or Vācaspatimiśra of Mithila or Miśravācaspati.
    Source: Library of Congress Name Authority File: Vācaspatimiśra
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Vacaspati-mishra in Sanskrit glossary
    1) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—of Mithila: Ācāracintāmaṇi. Kṛtyamahārṇava. Tīrthacintāmaṇi. Dvaitanirṇaya, written by order of Jayā, wife of Bhairava, mother of Puruṣottamadeva. Nīticintāmaṇi. Quoted in Vivādacintāmaṇi. Pitṛbhaktitaraṅgiṇī. Prāyaścittacintāmaṇi. Vivādacintāmaṇi. Vyavahāracintāmaṇi. Śuddhicintāmaṇi. Śūdrācāracintāmaṇi. Śrāddhacintāmaṇi. Gayāyātrā. Np. I, 86. Candanadhenudāna. L. 3154. Tithinirṇaya. L. 1839. Śabdanirṇaya. Quoted Oxf. 274^a. Śuddhiprabhā. Np. I, 86.
    2) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र):—Kāvyaprakāśaṭīkā. Quoted twice in Caṇḍīdāsa’s commentary.
    3) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र):—pupil of Mārtaṇḍatilakasvāmin. He is quoted by Sāyaṇa in Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha, Vardhamāna in Nyāyakusumāñjaliprakāśa, by Śaṅkaramiśra in Vaiśeṣikasūtropaskāra, by Sadānanda in Advaitabrahmasiddhi, and others: Tattvabindu, vedānta. Tattvaśāradī, yoga. Tattvasamīkṣā Brahmasiddhiṭīkā. Nyāyakaṇikā Vidhivivekaṭīkā mīm. Nyāyatattvāvalokā. Nyāyaratnaṭīkā. Nyāyavārttikatātparyaṭīkā. Brahmatattvasaṃhitoddīpinī. Bhāmatī or Śārīrakabhāṣyavibhāga. Yuktidipikā, sāṃkhya. Yogasūtrabhāṣyavyākhyā. Vedāntatattvakaumudī. Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī. Vācaspatya, vedānta. Oudh. X, 20. Oppert. 826. 1566. 3207. 3353. 3478. 3543. 4248. 4346. 4715. 4789. 4886. 6661. Ii, 1157. 1540. 3069. 3935. 4350. 4919. 5412. 6006. 7155. 7239. 7911. 8585. 8686. 8774. 8941. 9203. 9267. 9321. 9365. 9508. 9652. 9793. 9983. Rice. 170.
    4) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र):—(?), father of Lakṣmīdāsa:
    —[commentary] on Bhāskara’s Siddhāntaśiromaṇi. Perhaps, as often happens, the father has been put in place of his son.
    5) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र):—of Mithilā: Gayāprayoga. Śuddhinirṇaya (1360 ?). L. 3308.
    6) Vācaspatimiśra (वाचस्पतिमिश्र):—the philosopher is quoted by Gaṅgeśa in Īśvarānumāna p. 81.
    —Read Nyāyatattvāloka.
    Vācaspati miśra (वाचस्पति मिश्र) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—Candanadhenudānavidhi.
    --- OR ---
    Vācaspati miśra (वाचस्पति मिश्र):—wrote the Vyavahāracintāmaṇi at the court of Harinārāyaṇa, son of Hṛdayanārāyaṇa, grandson of Darpanārāyaṇa. Cs 2, 137.
    --- OR ---
    Vācaspati miśra (वाचस्पति मिश्र):—of Mithilā: Khaṇḍakhaṇḍanakhādyoddhāra. Nyāyasūtroddhāra.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
  116. ↑ 가 나 다 Kapila etc., translated by Nandalal Singa (1915), The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Vol. XI. The Samkhya Philosophy, Containing (1) Sâmkhya-pravachana Sûtram, With the Vritti of Aniruddha, and the Bhâṣya of Vijnâna Bhikṣu and Extracts from the Vritti-sâra of Mahâdeva Vedantin; (2) Tatva Samâsa; (3) Sâmkhya Kârikâ; (4) Panchaśikhâ Sûtram. Allabadad : Sudhindra Nath Vasu. page i.
    The present volume of the Sacred Books of the Hindus which bears the modest title of the Sâṃkhya-Pravachana-Sûtram, is, in reality, a collection of all the available original documents of the School of the Sâṃkhyas, with the single exception of the commentary composed by Vyâsa on the Sâṃkhya-Pravachana-Yoga-Sûtram of Patañjali. For it contains in its pages not only the Sâṃkhya-Pravachana-Sûtram of Kapila together with the Vṛitti of Aniruddha, the Bhâsya of Vijñâna Bhikṣu, and extracts of the original portions from the Vṛittisâra of Vedântin Mahâdeva, but also the Tattva-Samâsa together with the commentary of Narendra, the Sâṃkhya-Kârikâ of Ȋśvarakṛiṣṇa with profuse annotations based on the Bhâsya of Gauḍapâda and the Tattva-Kaumudî of Vâchaspati Miśra, and a few of the Aphorisms of Pañchaśikha with explanatory notes according to the Yoga-Bhâsya which has quoted them. An attempt, moreover, has been made to make the volume useful in many other respects by the addition, for instance, of elaborate analytical tables of contents to the Sâṃkhya-Pravachana-Sûtram and the Sâṃkhya-Kârikâ, and of a number of important appendices.
  117. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIv4IkJMYn4 Vachaspati Mishra Pronunciation Sanskrit वाचस्पति मिश्र Vācaspati Miśra. 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
  118. ↑ "Indian philosophy." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015.
    Samkhya and Yoga
    Texts and commentaries until Vachaspati and the “Samkhya-sutras”
    There are three commentaries on the Samkhya-karika: that by Raja, much referred to but not extant; that by Gaudapada (7th century), on which there is a subcommentary Chandrika by Narayanatirtha; and the Tattva-kaumudi by Vachaspati (9th century). The Samkhya-sutras are a much later work (c. 14th century) on which Aniruddha (15th century) wrote a vritti and Vijnanabhikshu (16th century) wrote the Samkhya-pravachana-bhashya (“Commentary on the Samkhya Doctrine”). Among independent works, mention may be made of Tattvasamasa (c. 11th century; “Collection of Truths”).
    The Yoga-sutras were commented upon by Vyasa in his Vyasa-bhashya (5th century), which has two excellent subcommentaries: Vachaspati's Tattvavaisharadi and Vijnanabhikshu's Yogavarttika, besides the vritti by Bhoja (c. 1000).
  119. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.howtopronounce.com/vachaspati Learn how to pronounce Vachaspati. 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
  120. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhyakarika#Commentaries 2025년 8월 25일에 확인.
    The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya (unclear date, certainly before 8th-century),[75] the Paramartha's Chinese translation (6th-century), the Matharavrtti, the Samkhya tattva kaumudi (9th-century), the Jayamangala (likely before 9th-century), and the more recently discovered Yuktidipika.[75]
    Vacaspati Mishra's Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[13]
    [75] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 148
    [75] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 147
    [13] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149
  121. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 楊惠南(2022), 『印度哲學史』(Traditional Chinese Edition), 臺北市:弘雅三民圖書股份有限公司. ISBN:978-626-307-817-8 (EPUB).
    第八章 瑜伽派的歷史與哲學
    第一節 瑜伽派的歷史
    . . .
    以上所說都不足以構成一個具有教派意義的瑜伽。瑜伽派的真正創始者是鉢顛闍梨（Patañjali，約西元前二世紀），傳說他是《瑜伽經》(Yoga-Sūtra)的作者[註12]。六世紀時，廣博(Vyāṣa)為《瑜伽經》注釋，稱為《瑜伽釋論》(Yoga-bhāṣya)。第九世紀中葉，跋遮濕鉢底．彌續羅(Vācaspati Miśra)，著有《真實探奧》(Tattva-vaiśāradī)，對廣博的《瑜伽釋論》再作注解。這些都是瑜伽派的重要哲學家和著作。
    [註12]：現存版本的《瑜伽經》，顯然是二至六世紀之間的作品；這是因為該書第四部分──〈獨存品〉，曾批判佛教瑜伽行派的緣故。（參見中村元著，葉阿月譯，《印度思想》，臺北：幼獅文化公司，1984，頁136～138。又見S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1962, vol. II, p. 341.）
  122. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/广博仙人 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
    廣博仙人（天城體：व्यास vyāsa，音譯為毗耶娑）是印度教著名的仙人，被認為是《往世書》的作者，並將最原始的吠陀經編撰出四大部。亦有說法稱他是大史詩《摩訶婆羅多》的作者。但沒有證據可證明他曾真實存在過。在梵語中，「毗耶娑」的字面意思是「分開者」，一些學者據此推斷，這一名稱實際上只是「編寫者」的意思，而典籍本身是由印度各地諸多不同的作者分別編寫而成。[1]。
    據《摩訶婆羅多》介紹，廣博仙人又名島生黑仙人，因為他出生於一個島上，且膚色黝黑。傳說他是著名苦行者破滅仙人與美貌少女貞信的私生子，後者出生自魚腹之中。
    [1] Purana Perennis - Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts - edited by Wendy Doniger. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0
  123. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/广博仙人 2025년 9월 6일에 확인.
    广博仙人（天城体：व्यास vyāsa，音译为毗耶娑）是印度教著名的仙人，被认为是《往世书》的作者，并将最原始的吠陀经编撰出四大部。亦有说法称他是大史诗《摩诃婆罗多》的作者。但没有证据可证明他曾真实存在过。在梵语中，“毗耶娑”的字面意思是“分开者”，一些学者据此推断，这一名称实际上只是“编写者”的意思，而典籍本身是由印度各地诸多不同的作者分别编写而成。[1]。
    据《摩诃婆罗多》介绍，广博仙人又名岛生黑仙人，因为他出生于一个岛上，且肤色黝黑。传说他是著名苦行者破灭仙人与美貌少女贞信的私生子，后者出生自鱼腹之中。
    [1] Purana Perennis - Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts - edited by Wendy Doniger. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0
  124. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=廣博仙人&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 6일에 확인.
    廣 넓을 광/말 이름 광
    부수 广(엄호) 총 획수 15획
    1. 넓다 2. 넓히다 3. 너그럽다, 도량(度量)이 넓다
    广(간체자), 広(일본자), 广(약자), 広(약자), 𩧉(동자)
    博 넓을 박
    부수 十(열십) 총 획수 12획
    1. 넓다, 깊다 2. 많다, 크다 3. 넓히다, 넓게 하다
    愽(속자), 博(동자), 𩫯(동자)
    仙 신선 선
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 5획
    1. 신선(神仙) 2. 센트(미국 화폐 단위) 3. 선교(仙敎: 신선이 되기 위한 도를 닦는 종교)
    僊(본자), 𠎣(동자), 僲(동자), 㒨(동자), 屳(동자)
    人 사람 인
    부수 人(사람인) 총 획수 2획
    1. 사람, 인간(人間) 2. 다른 사람, 타인(他人), 남 3. 딴 사람
    𠔽(고자), 𠆢(동자), 亻(동자), 𤯔(동자)
  125. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=广博仙人 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 9월 6일에 확인.
    广博仙人
    Vyasa
    위키백과
    广博 [ guǎngbó ]
    형용사 (학식 따위가) 해박하다.
    고려대 중한사전
    广博 [ guǎngbó ]
    형용사 erudite
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    仙人 [ xiānrén ]
    명사 선인. 신선.
    고려대 중한사전
    선인 仙人
    1. 명사 神仙 。 (≒신선(神仙))
    2. 명사 道士 ，道人 。 (≒도사(道士))
    3. 명사 역사 仙人 (高丽时代官员级别的最后一等)
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전
  126. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=毗耶娑&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    毗 도울 비
    부수 比(견줄비) 총 획수 9획
    1. 돕다, 보좌하다(補佐ㆍ輔佐--) 2. 쇠퇴하다(衰退ㆍ衰頹--), 쓸모없이 되다 3. 아부하다(阿附--), 아첨하다(阿諂--)
    𣬈(본자), 毘(동자), 𣬖(동자)
    耶 어조사 야, 간사할 사
    부수 耳(귀이) 총 획수 9획
    1. (어조사 야) 2. 어조사(語助辭) 3. 그런가
    爺(동자), 邪(동자)
    娑 춤출 사/사바 세상 사
    부수 女(여자녀) 총 획수 10획
    1. 춤추다 2. 너풀거리다 3. 앉다
  127. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=毗耶娑 네이버중국어사전. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    毗耶娑
    Vyasa
    [ Píyēsuō ]
    웹수집
    毗耶娑
    毗耶娑，意译为“广博仙人”，有人认为这个词的含义是“展开”，“广博”即是“编订者”之意，并非专名。
    [ pí yē suō ]
    HDWIKI
    오픈사전
    毗耶娑
    Vyasa, Indian sage and scribe, supposed author of epic 摩訶婆羅多|摩诃婆罗多[Mo2 he1 po2 luo2 duo1] and a major figure in it
    The CEDICT Project (Chinese-English Dictionary）
  128. ↑ https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=en&text=毗耶娑&op=translate 구글 번역. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified)
    毗耶娑
    Pí yé suō
    English
    Vyasa
    Korean
    비야사
  129. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=島生黑仙人&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    島 섬 도
    부수 山(뫼산) 총 획수 10획
    섬(주위가 수역으로 완전히 둘러싸인 육지의 일부)
    岛(간체자), 㠀(본자), 岛(동자), 嶋(동자), 嶹(동자), 﨩(동자), 隝(동자), 隯(동자)
    生 날 생
    부수 生(날생) 총 획수 5획
    1. 나다, 태어나다 2. (아이를)낳다 3. 살다, 생존하다(生存--)
    𤯓(고자), 世(동자), 𠤵(동자)
    黑 검을 흑
    부수 黑(검을흑) 총 획수 12획
    1. 검다 2. 거메지다, 거멓게 되다 3. (사리에)어둡다
    黒(일본자), 𪐗(본자), 黒(속자), 𪐫(동자)
    仙 신선 선
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 5획
    1. 신선(神仙) 2. 센트(미국 화폐 단위) 3. 선교(仙敎: 신선이 되기 위한 도를 닦는 종교)
    僊(본자), 𠎣(동자), 僲(동자), 㒨(동자), 屳(동자)
    人 사람 인
    부수 人(사람인) 총 획수 2획
    1. 사람, 인간(人間) 2. 다른 사람, 타인(他人), 남 3. 딴 사람
    𠔽(고자), 𠆢(동자), 亻(동자), 𤯔(동자)
  130. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=岛生黑仙人 네이버중국어사전. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 3개 단어
    岛生 黑 仙人
    dǎoshēng hēi xiānrén
  131. ↑ https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=en&text=岛生黑仙人&op=translate 구글 번역. 2025년 9월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified)
    岛生黑仙人
    Dǎo shēng hēi xiānrén
    English
    Island Black Immortal
    Korean
    아일랜드 블랙 이모탈
  132. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyasa 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
    Vyasa (/ˈvjɑːsə/; Sanskrit: व्यास, lit. 'compiler, arranger', IAST: Vyāsa) or Veda Vyasa (Sanskrit: वेदव्यास, lit. 'the one who classified the Vedas', IAST: Vedavyāsa), also known as Krishna Dvaipayana Veda Vyasa (Sanskrit: कृष्णद्वैपायन, IAST: Kṛṣṇadvaipāyana Vedavyāsa), is a[2] rishi (sage) with a prominent role in most Hindu traditions. He is traditionally regarded as the author of the epic Mahābhārata, where he also plays a prominent role as a character. He is also regarded by the Hindu traditions to be the compiler of the mantras of the Vedas into four texts, as well as the author of the eighteen Purāṇas and the Brahma Sutras.
    Vyasa is regarded by many Hindus as a partial incarnation (Sanskrit: अंशावतार, IAST: Aṃśāvatāra) of Vishnu. He is one of the immortals called the Chiranjivis, held by adherents to still be alive in the current age known as the Kali Yuga.
    [2] Sullivan, Bruce M. (1999). Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 1. ISBN 978-81-208-1676-3.
  133. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vyasa 2025년 9월 8일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Vyasa in Sanskrit glossary
    1) Vyāśā (व्याशा):—[=vy-āśā] [from vy] a f. an intermediate quarter (of the compass), [Rāmatāpanīya-upaniṣad]
    2) Vyāsa (व्यास):—[=vy-āsa] [from vy-as] a m. severing, separation, division, [Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha]
    3) [v.s. ...] a kind of drawl (as a fault in pronunciation), [Atharvaveda-prātiśākhya]
    4) [v.s. ...] extension, diffusion, prolixity, detailed account ([instrumental case]; [ablative] and -tas ind. in detail, at length, fully), [Mahābhārata; Suśruta; Bhāgavata-purāṇa]
    5) [v.s. ...] width, breadth, the diameter of a circle, [Śulba-sūtra; Varāha-mihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā]
    6) [v.s. ...] ‘distributing, disjoining’, Name of the Pada-pāṭha or ‘disjoined text’ [Atharvaveda-prātiśākhya]
    7) [v.s. ...] ‘arranger, compiler’, Name of a celebrated mythical sage and author (often called Veda-vyāsa and regarded as the original compiler and arranger of the Vedas, Vedānta-sūtras etc.; he was the son of the sage Parāśara and Satyavatī, and half-brother of Vicitra-vīrya and Bhīṣma; he was also called Vādarāyaṇa or Bādarāyaṇa, and Kṛṣṇa from his dark complexion, and Dvaipāyana because he was brought forth by Satyavatī on a Dvīpa or island in the Jumnā; when grown up he retired to the wilderness to lead the life of a hermit, but at his mother’s request returned to become the husband of Vicitra-vīrya’s two childless widows, by whom he was the father of the blind Dhṛta-rāṣṭra and of Pāṇḍu; he was also the father of Vidura q.v. by a slave girl, and of Śuka, the supposed narrator of the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, he was also the supposed compiler of the Mahā-bhārata, the Purāṇas, and other portions of Hindū sacred literature; but the name Vyāsa seems to have been given to any great typical compiler or author), [Mahābhārata; Harivaṃśa; Purāṇa] cf. [Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 371 n. 2; 373 etc.]
    8) [v.s. ...] a Brāhman who recites or expounds the Purāṇas etc. in public (= pāṭhaka-brāhmaṇa), [Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary]
    9) [v.s. ...] n. a bow weighing 100 Palas, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    10) Vyāśā (व्याशा):—[=vy-āśā] b See p. 1028, col. 3.
    11) Vyāsa (व्यास):—[=vy-āsa] b etc. See p. 1035, col. 2.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  134. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw1035.jpg 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  135. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4v-C0ii7MG8&ab_channel=Sanskrit-PronunciationofSanskritWords Vyasa Pronunciation Sanskrit व्यास vy āsa. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  136. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/vyāsa-2 Learn how to pronounce Vyāsa. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  137. ↑ https://forvo.com/search/vyāsa/ 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  138. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/vyasa Learn how to pronounce Vyasa. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  139. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 93.
    상키야철학은 전통적으로 카필라 Kapila라는 기원전 4세기 경의 聖賢을 元祖로 하며, 그의 제자 아슈리 Āsuri 판차쉬카 Pañcaśika 등에 의하여 대대로 전승되었다고 한다. 그러나 이들 초기 상키야思想家들의 著書는 하나도 남아 있는 것이 없고 카필라에 의해서 씌어졌다고 전해지는 『數論解說經 Sāṁkhyapravacana-sūtra』은 학자들에 의하면 빨라야 9세기 정도에 씌어진 僞作으로 여겨지고 있다.3) 17세기의 베단타철학자인 비즈냐나빅슈 Vijñānabhikṣu는 이 經의 주석서를 썼으며, 그는 또한 상키야철학에 대한 중요한 기본서로서 『數論精要 Sāṁkhya-sāra』라는 책을 썼다.
    3) 이 經은 Śaṅkara에 의해서 언급되지 않고 있으며 9세기의 Vācaspatimiśra는 이 經 대신에 『數論頌』에 주석을 쓴 것으로 보아 상당히 나중에 만들어진 것으로 간주된다.
  140. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=135559&Type=bkzyb&SubID=104157#section1-8 中国大百科全书《瑜伽经》 2015년 9월 10일에 확인.
    《瑜伽经》在印度后世的主要注与复注有：毗耶舍的《瑜伽经注》、婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗（Vācaspati miśra，9世纪）对毗耶舍注释的注《真理明晰》（Tatva-vaisārabī）、博阇（Bhoja，11世纪）对《瑜伽经》作的注《王注》（Rājamārtāṇḍa）、吠若那比柯宿（Vijñāna-bhikṣu，16世纪）对毗耶舍注释所作的《瑜伽释补》（Yoga-vārttika）等。
  141. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=219542&Type=bkzyb&SubID=104157 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版의 吠若那比柯宿 항목(중국어 간체). 2025년 9월 14일에 확인.
    吠若那比柯宿
    条目作者: 姚卫群
    最后更新: 2022-01-20
    印度哲学中数论派和瑜伽派的哲学家。生卒年不详。
    原语种名称: Vijñāna-bhikṣu
    国籍: 印度
    代表作品:《数论解明疏》《数论精要》《瑜伽释补》《瑜伽精髓集要》等
    约16世纪人。他对于数论派和瑜伽派在当时的思想较为了解。生平情况不详。较重要的著作有《数论解明疏》（Sāṃkhya-pravacana-bhāṣya）、《数论精要》（Sāṃkhya-sāra）、《瑜伽释补》（Yoga-vārttika）、《瑜伽精髓集要》（Yoga-sāra-saṃgraha）等。
    在这些著作中，《数论解明疏》的影响较大。此典对后期数论派的主要文献《数论经》做了细致的解说。分析的数论派主要思想有：三苦、自性和神我、自在天、轮回与解脱等。
    吠若那比柯宿认为，三苦是依内苦、依外苦、依天苦。依内苦分为身体的苦和精神的苦。依外苦的产生被认为是人外部的一些生物产生的，如老虎和窃贼等。依天苦的产生与天有关，如火、风和神等天上的存在物。
    吠若那比柯宿还认为，自性是事物的根本因。自性演化出世间事物是通过与精神性实体神我的接近或结合而实现的。这二者是产生世间事物和生命现象的两个基本实体。
    吠若那比柯宿对一些印度哲学派别提出的自在天能创造万物的观念提出了质疑。他指出：若自在天是解脱的，他将不能胜任创造等的工作，因为他不具有想成为什么和想做什么的意愿等。若自在天是受束缚的，那他将处于迷惑等中，不能胜任创造的工作。因此，自在天造世的说法不能成立。
    吠若那比柯宿还论述了轮回和解脱问题。他认为，轮回世界的出现与人的欲望有关。欲望及相应行为产生业，使人受到束缚。轮回中的痛苦与人不能辨别自性和神我有关。若获得对二者的辨别智，人就能终止轮回，达到脱苦的最高境界。
    吠若那比柯宿的著作对人们明了后期印度哲学中的数论派和瑜伽派的基本情况起了重要作用。
    精选发现
    三障 无为法 泰戈尔，R. 有为法 离言自性 《数论解明疏》 毗耶舍 《摄一切悉檀》
  142. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=letter&query=吠若那比柯宿&autoConvert= 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    吠 짖을 폐
    1. (개가)짖다 2. 욕하다(辱--)
    𤝜(동자)
    若 같을 약, 반야 야
    부수 艹(초두머리3) 총 획수 9획
    1. (같을 약) 2. 같다 3. 이와 같다
    𠭀(본자), 𦱡(고자), 𦱢(고자), 𠭚(동자), 𡧻(동자), 𣞆(동자), 𥉧(동자), 若(동자), 𦴈(동자), 𦱶(동자), 𧁇(동자)
    若 같을 약, 반야 야
    1. (같을 약) 2. 같다 3. 이와 같다
    若(약)과 동자(同字). 若(동자)
    那 어찌 나, 어조사 내
    부수 ⻏(우부방) 총 획수 7획
    1. (어찌 나) 2. 어찌 3. 어찌하여, 어떠하냐
    𨙻(본자), 㑚(속자), 𨚗(와자), 哪(동자), 㖠(동자), 𢑽(동자), 𣟎(동자), 𨛅(동자), 郍(동자), 𨚉(동자)
    比 견줄 비
    부수 比(견줄비) 총 획수 4획
    1. 견주다(어떠한 차이가 있는지 알기 위하여 서로 대어 보다), 비교하다(比較--) 2. 본뜨다, 모방하다(模倣ㆍ摸倣ㆍ摹倣--) 3. 나란히 하다
    夶(고자), 𣬅(고자)
    柯 가지 가
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 9획
    1. 가지 2. 줄기 3. 자루(끝에 달린 손잡이)
    𣝺(동자)
    宿 잘 숙, 별자리 수, 고을 이름 척
    부수 宀(갓머리) 총 획수 11획
    1. (잘 숙) 2. (잠을)자다, 숙박하다(宿泊--) 3. 묵다, 오래되다
    㝛(본자), 𠫗(동자), 𡪴(동자)
  143. ↑ https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=吠若那、比柯宿&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 吠若那、比柯宿 Fèi ruò nà, bǐ kē sù 페루나 비커수
    Chinese (Traditional): 吠若那、比柯宿 Fèi ruò nà, bǐ kē sù 페루나 비커수
    English: Vajra, Bhikkhus
    Korean: 금강승, 비구승
  144. ↑ https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=吠若那比柯宿&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 吠若那比柯宿 Fèi ruò nà bǐ kē sù 페루나비커수
    Chinese (Traditional): 吠若那比柯宿 Fèi ruò nà bǐ kē sù 페루나비커수
    English: Vairānāpīkū
    Korean: 바이라나피쿠
  145. ↑ 가 나 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vijnanabhikshu 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    [«previous (V) next»] — Vijnanabhikshu in Sanskrit glossary
    1) Vijñānabhikṣu (विज्ञानभिक्षु) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—guru of Bhāvā Gaṇeśa Dīkṣita (Yogasūtravṛtti etc.). He is later than Aniruddha, carlier than Mahādeva: Ādeśaratnamālā, in L. 1797 called Upadeśaratnamālā. Īśvaragītābhāṣya. Kaṭhavallyupaniṣadāloka. Kaivalyopaniṣadāloka. Taittirīyopaniṣadāloka. Pātañjalabhāṣyavārttika or Yogavārttika, a —[commentary] on Vyāsa’s Yogabhāṣya. Praśnopaniṣadāloka. Brahmādarśa. Bhagavadgītāṭīkā. Māṇḍūkyopaniṣadāloka. Muṇḍakopaniṣadāloka. Maitreyopaniṣadāloka. Yogasārasaṃgraha. Vijñānāmṛta or Brahmasūtraṛjuvyākhyā. Vedāntāloka, the general name of his dissertations on several genuine Upaniṣads. Śvetāśvataropaniṣadāloka. Sāṃkhyakārikābhāṣya. Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāṣya. Sāṃkhyasāraviveka.
    2) Vijñānabhikṣu (विज्ञानभिक्षु):—Bṛhadāraṇyakavyākhyā.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Vijñānabhikṣu (विज्ञानभिक्षु):—[=vi-jñāna-bhikṣu] [from vi-jñāna > vi-jñā] m. Name of scholar, [Catalogue(s)]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  146. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/d/doc209786.html
    A History of Indian Philosophy Volume 1 by Surendranath Dasgupta | 1922 | ISBN-13: 97881208040812025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Part 3 - Sāṃkhya and Yoga Literature
    Chapter VII - The Kapila and the Pātañjala Sāṃkhya (yoga)
    . . .
    The Sāṃkhya sūtras which have been commented on by Vijñāna Bhikṣu (called Pravacanabhāṣya) of the sixteenth century seems to be a work of some unknown author after the ninth century. Aniruddha of the latter half of the fifteenth century was the first man to write a commentary on the Sāṃkhya sūtras. Vijñāna Bhikṣu wrote also another elementary work on Sāṃkhya known as Sāṃkhyasāra. Another short work of late origin is Tattvasamāsa (probably fourteenth century).
  147. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yogavartika 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    In Hinduism
    Yoga (school of philosophy)
    Yogavartika in Yoga glossary
    Yogavārṭīkā (योगवार्टीका) is the name of a work dealing with the Yoga system of Philosophy. It deals with—A commentary on Vyāsa’s Yoga-bhāṣya. By Vijñāna Bhikṣu. N. W. P. and Cf. Oudh Catalogue. VI. Yoga-vāsiṣṭha. Vide No. 85.
    Source: archive.org: Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali with Bhoja Vritti
  148. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J2eXnKmDSOg Vijnana Pronunciation Sanskrit विज्ञान vijñāna. 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
  149. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/bhiksu Learn how to pronounce bhiksu. 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
  150. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijnanabhiksu 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Vijnanabhiksu
    Vijñānabhikṣu (also spelled Vijnanabhikshu) was a Hindu philosopher from Bihar, variously dated to the 15th or 16th century,[1][2] known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Yoga text of Patanjali.[3][4] His scholarship stated that there is a unity between Vedānta, Yoga, and Samkhya philosophies,[5][6] and he is considered a significant influence on Neo-Vedanta movement of the modern era.[7]
    . . .
    Vijnanabhiksu's commentary, Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya, on the Samkhya Sutras challenges the traditional interpretation of the Samkhya Sutras by arguing that, contrary to appearances, Kapila actually believed in the existence of God.[11]
    [1] T. S. Rukmani (1978), VIJÑĀNABHIKṢU ON BHAVA-PRATYAYA AND UPĀYA-PRATYAYA YOGĪS IN YOGA-SUTRAS, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 5, No. 4 (August 1978), pages 311-317
    [2] Andrew O. Fort (2006), Vijñānabhikṣu on Two Forms of "Samādhi", International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (Dec., 2006), pages 271-294
    [3] Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
    [4] T. S. Rukmani (1988), VIJÑĀNABHIKṢU'S DOUBLE REFLECTION THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE YOGA SYSTEM, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 16, No. 4 (DECEMBER 1988), pages 367-375
    [5] Nicholson, Andrew (2007), "Reconciling Dualism and Non-Dualism: Three Arguments in Vijñānabhikṣu's Bhedābheda Vedānta", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 35 (3): 2007, pp 371–403, doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9016-6, S2CID 170439037
    [6] Edwin Francis Bryant; Patañjali (2009). The Yoga sūtras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation, and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators. North Point Press. pp. 190, 239. ISBN 978-0-86547-736-0.
    [7] Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press.
    [11] Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press. p. 85-87.
  151. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/vijnana Learn how to pronounce Vijnana 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    https://www.howtopronounce.com/bhikshu Learn how to pronounce Bhikshu 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
  152. ↑ 문을식(2013), 《요가 · 상캬 철학의 이해》, 도서출판 여래
  153. ↑ 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. 〈상키아 · 요가 철학〉 pp. 91-104.
  154. ↑ S.C. Chatterjee · D.M Datta 지음, 김형준 옮김(2009), 《학파로 보는 인도 사상》초판 4쇄, 예문서원. 〈7. 상키야 학파〉 pp. 255-289.
  155. ↑ R. 뿔리간들라 지음, 이지수 옮김(1991), 《인도철학》, 민족사. 〈제5장 샹캬 학파〉 pp. 124-147.
  156. ↑ 가 나 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 92.
    상키야 Sāṁkhya哲學은 인도의 체계화된 철학학파 가운데서 가장 먼저 형성된 것으로 여겨진다.2)
    . . .
    2) 상키야哲學은 세계를 25원리(tattva)에 의하여 說明하므로 數를 중시한다하여 數論이라 불려 왔다. 〈Sāṁkhya〉라는 말도 〈計算하는 者〉라는 뜻을 지닌 것으로 풀이되고 있다.
  157. ↑ Bernard, Theos (1947).《Hindu Philosophy》. Philosophical Library, New York. p. 66.
    The Sāṁkhya is the oldest school of Hindū Philosophy, for it is the first attempt to harmonize the philosophy of the Vedas through reason. The unique position of the Sāṁkhya in the history of thought is the fact that it expounds by careful reflection the first systematic account of the process of cosmic evolution which attempts to comprehend the universe as a sum total of twenty-five categories. This exposition is no mere metaphysical speculation, but is a purely logical account based on the scientific principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy. The Sāṁkhya is held to be the most notable attempt in the realm of pure philosophy.
  158. ↑ How to pronounce sankhya in English (1 out of 22). 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    Sankhya Pronunciation Sanskrit साङ्ख्य Sāṅkhya Sāṃkhya. 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    Sankhya Sutra Pronunciation Sanskrit सान्ख्यसूत्र sānkhyasūtra. 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    Sankhya Karika Pronunciation Sanskrit साङ्ख्यकारिका sāṅkhyakārikā. 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    How to say "samkhya"! (High Quality Voices). 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    How to say "sankhya's"! (High Quality Voices). 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
    How to say "sankhya"! (High Quality Voices). 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
  159. ↑ Google tranaslation of Hindi सांख्य Sāṃkhya. 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
  160. ↑ sankhya pronunciation in Sanskrit - Pronunciation by KrSaurav (Male from India). 2025년 8월 8일에 확인.
  161. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya 2025년 8월 9일에 확인.
    Samkhya or Sankhya (/ˈsɑːŋkjə/; Sanskrit: सांख्य, romanized: sāṃkhya) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy.
  162. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya 2025년 8월 9일에 확인.
    Samkhya or Sankhya (/ˈsɑːŋkjə/; Sanskrit: सांख्य, romanized: sāṃkhya) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy.
  163. ↑ "San·khya", 《American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language》, Fifth Edition (2011), p. 1554.
    San·khya (säng′kyə) n. Hinduism A system of Hindu philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of soul and potential matter. [Sanskrit sāṁkhya-, based on enumeration, Sankhya < saṁkhyā, enumeration : sam, together; see sandhi + khyāti, he tells.]
  164. ↑ https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/샤크티 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    샤크티(산스크리트어: शक्ति)는 신성(神聖)한 힘 또는 신성한 권능이라는 문맥에서 "할 수 있는" 또는 "능력이 있는"을 뜻하는 산스크리트어 "샥(Śak)"으로부터 유래한 낱말로, 힌두교에서 우주 전체를 관통하여 흐르고 있다고 여기는 우주의 활동적인 힘 또는 에너지를 지칭하는 낱말이다.[1] 서양에서는 흔히 단순히 에너지(Energy) 또는 파워(Power)라고 번역되기도 하는데, 보다 자세히는 "우주적 원초 에너지(Primordial cosmic energy)"라고 번역된다.[1]
    샤크티는 철학적 측면에서는 우주의 여성적 창조력을 뜻하는 개념이며, 인격화 또는 의인화된 신으로서 신앙과 숭배의 대상이라는 종교적 측면에서는 마하데비 또는 아디파라 샤크티라고도 불린다. 힌두교의 가르침에 따르면, 샤크티는 물질 우주에서 여성체, 여성적 창조성, 여성적 풍부함 또는 여성의 생식력을 통해 가장 잘 드러난다.[2] 이런 면에서 샤크티는 한자로 성력(性力)이라고 번역되기도 한다. 샤크티는 또한 물질 우주의 남성체 속에도 존재하는데 여성체에 비할 때 잠재적이며 비현현된 형태로 존재한다.[2]
    [1] Datta, Reema and Lowitz, Lisa (2005). 《Sacred Sanskrit Words》. Berkeley: Stonebridge Press. 111쪽
    [2] Tiwari, Bri. Maya (2002). 《The Path of Practice: A Woman's Book of Ayurvedic Healing》. Motilal Banarsidass Press. 55쪽
  165. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/夏克提 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    夏克提（Shakti；天城文：शक्ति，IAST：Śakti，直譯：能量、能力、力量、努力、權力、強大的力量[1]），或譯沙克蒂、沙克提、鑠乞底、颯刻曇[2]等，被用以指稱多種印度次大陸的文化概念，其一般定義是宇宙創造、維持和毀滅的動態能量。它被認為是女性能量，因為女性生育現象被認為與基於能量的創造相似；缺乏能量，宇宙便不會有活動。它刺激濕婆（以意識為表現形式的被動能量）進行創造。半女神是有關概念的標誌性代表；該神同屬男性和女性，說明宇宙的創造、維持和毀滅都依賴兩種力量。[3]
    夏克提也指這種能量的表現形式，即女神。有些女神體現其破壞性面向，如死亡、衰退和疾病，而其他女神則體現其創造力和吉祥力量面向，如自然、元素、音樂、藝術、舞蹈和繁榮。它可能被人格化為溫柔仁慈的雪山神女（濕婆的配偶），或迦梨（毀滅性邪惡的可怕力量），或難近母（征服威脅宇宙穩定力量的戰士）。女神崇拜者常將她們視為全能且至高無上的存在，與男神不相上下。[3]
    [1] Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and philologically arranged with special reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon, and other cognate Indo-European Languages By Monier Williams. Clarendon Press. 1872 [2024-08-06]. （原始內容存檔於2025-01-23） （英語）.
    [2] 黃心川. 印度哲学史. 商務印書館. 1989: 487 [2024-08-06]. （原始內容存檔於2025-01-23） （中文）.
    [3] Johnson, Jean. Shakti: The Power of the Feminine. Asia Society. [2024-08-06]. （原始內容存檔於2024-11-09）.
  166. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/夏克提 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    夏克提（Shakti；天城文：शक्ति，IAST：Śakti，直译：能量、能力、力量、努力、权力、强大的力量[1]），或译沙克蒂、沙克提、铄乞底、飒刻昙[2]等，被用以指称多种印度次大陆的文化概念，其一般定义是宇宙创造、维持和毁灭的动态能量。它被认为是女性能量，因为女性生育现象被认为与基于能量的创造相似；缺乏能量，宇宙便不会有活动。它刺激湿婆（以意识为表现形式的被动能量）进行创造。半女神是有关概念的标志性代表；该神同属男性和女性，说明宇宙的创造、维持和毁灭都依赖两种力量。[3]
    夏克提也指这种能量的表现形式，即女神。有些女神体现其破坏性面向，如死亡、衰退和疾病，而其他女神则体现其创造力和吉祥力量面向，如自然、元素、音乐、艺术、舞蹈和繁荣。它可能被人格化为温柔仁慈的雪山神女（湿婆的配偶），或迦梨（毁灭性邪恶的可怕力量），或难近母（征服威胁宇宙稳定力量的战士）。女神崇拜者常将她们视为全能且至高无上的存在，与男神不相上下。[3]
    [1] Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and philologically arranged with special reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon, and other cognate Indo-European Languages By Monier Williams. Clarendon Press. 1872 [2024-08-06]. （原始内容存档于2025-01-23） （英语）.
    [2] 黄心川. 印度哲学史. 商务印书馆. 1989: 487 [2024-08-06]. （原始内容存档于2025-01-23） （中文）.
    [3] Johnson, Jean. Shakti: The Power of the Feminine. Asia Society. [2024-08-06]. （原始内容存档于2024-11-09）.
  167. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=夏克提&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    夏 여름 하, 개오동나무 가
    부수 夊(천천히걸을쇠발) 총 획수 10획
    1. (여름 하) 2. 여름 3. 중국(中國), 한족(漢族)의 자칭(自稱)
    𡔰(고자), 𡕾(고자), 夓(고자), 昰(고자), 𨂮(고자), 𠀼(동자), 𠌘(동자), 𠍺(동자), 𡕭(동자), 𡖃(동자), 𣋗(동자), 𤴞(동자), 𧈄(동자), 𩖳(동자)
    克 이길 극
    부수 儿(어진사람인발) 총 획수 7획
    1. 이기다(고통이나 고난을 참고 견디어 내다) 2. 해내다, 이루다 3. 참고 견디다
    𠅏(고자), 𡱀(고자), 𠅔(고자), 𠅡(고자), 𠧳(고자), 𠧹(고자), 𠧻(고자), 𡱠(동자), 𣳂(동자)
    提 끌 제, 떼지어 날 시
    부수 扌(재방변) 총 획수 12획
    1. (끌 제) 2. 끌다, 이끌다 3. 끌어당기다
  168. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=夏克提&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 夏克提 Xià kè tí 샤크티
    Chinese (Simplified): 夏克提 Xià kè tí 샤크티
    English: Shakti
    Korean: 샤크티
  169. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=夏克提 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    提
    1. 동사 (고리나 손잡이 따위를 손에) 들다. 쥐다.
    2. 동사 들어올리다. 끌어올리다. 높이다.
    3. 동사 찾다. 인출하다. 꺼내다. 뽑다.
    [ tí ]
    에듀월드 표준중중한사전
    提 HSK 고등단어
    뜻은 ‘提’와 같고 아래와 같은 경우에만 ‘dī’로 발음됨.
    [ dī ]
    고려대 중한사전
    提
    1. 동사 carry
    2. 동사 raise
    3. 동사 bring forward
    [ tí ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    提
    동사 carry
    [ dī ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    夏克
    夏克，曾用名夏尽忠。1915年11月出生，山东夏津人。1938年参加革命，同年加入中国共产党。在国内革命战争、抗日战争和解放战争时期，曾担任山东夏津县八路军地方工作团指导员、青海支队副指导员、武城县第四区区委书...
    [ xiàkè ]
    HDWIKI
  170. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakti 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; lit. 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability')[1] in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti as devi refers to the personified energy or power of a male deity, often personified as the female consort of the given Hindu god.[2][3][4]
    In Tantric Shaktism, Shakti is the foremost deity, akin to Brahman.[5][5] In Puranic Hinduism, Shiva and Shakti are the masculine and feminine principles that are complementary to each other. The male deity is purusha, pure consciousness, which creates the universe through the female creative energy of Shakti, which is prakriti, 'nature'.[6][7]
    The term Shakta is used for the description of people associated with Shakti worship. The Shakta pithas are shrines, which are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti.
    Overview
    Etymology
    According to the Monier-Williams dictionary, the term Shakti (Śakti) is the sanskrit feminine word-meaning "energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability"—thereby implying "capacity for" doing something, or "power over" anything.[1][8] Shakti is also considered a feminine noun of the linguistic term Sanskrit.[9] Though the term Shakti has broad implications, it mostly denotes "power or energy, which is feminine", and is also a name by which goddesses are referred to.[8][10]
    [1] ^Monier-Williams, Monier. "Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary". faculty.washington.edu. University of Washington. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017..
    [2] "Definition of SHAKTI".
    [3] Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
    [4] Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-039-9.
    [5] Vanamali (2008). Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781594777851., p. "Brahman is static Shakti".
    [6] Vanamali (2008). Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781594777851., p. "The Devi herself is both Shakti and Prakriti".
    [7] EB (4 September 2024). "Shaktism". Encyclopedia Britannica..
    [8] Foulston, Lynn (2008). "ŚAKTI". In Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. UK, US, Canada: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203862032. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0., p. 725.
    [9] Camphausen, Rufus C. (1999). The encyclopedia of sacred sexuality : from aphrodisiacs and ecstasy to yoni worship and zap-lam yoga. Inner Traditions. ISBN 978-0892817191., p. 205.
    [10] Courtney, Sheleyah A. (2014). "Savitri, the Unshackled Shakti: Goddess Identification, Violence and the Limits of Cultural Subversion of Widows in Varanasi". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 37 (2). The University of Sydney: 268–280. doi:10.1080/00856401.2014.884987., p. 269.
  171. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMAcc1WL8ng Shakti Pronunciation Sanskrit शक्ति śakti. 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
  172. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/shakti Learn how to pronounce Shakti. 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
  173. ↑ 가 나 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Shakti Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2025년 10월 23일에 확인.
    Shakti
    noun
    Shak·​ti ˈshäk-tē ˈsäk
    variants or less commonly Sakti
    the dynamic energy of a Hindu god personified as his female consort
    broadly : cosmic energy as conceived in Hindu thought
  174. ↑ 운허, 《불교사전》, 禪那(선나) 항목
    禪那(선나)
    【범】 Dhyāna 6바라밀의 하나. 타연나(駄衍那)라고도 쓰며, 선(禪)이라 약칭. 정려(靜慮)ㆍ사유수(思惟修)ㆍ정(定)이라 번역. 진정한 이치를 사유(思惟)하고, 생각을 안정케 하여 산란치 않게 하는 작용.
  175. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/禪那 2025년 9월 2일에 확인.
    禪那（梵語：ध्यान，dhyāna，巴利語：झान，jhāna），又譯為馱演那、馱衍那、第耶那、持訶那，佛教術語，意譯為思惟修[1]、念修[2]、禪定[1]、禪觀[3]、棄惡[4]、一心[5]、功德叢林[1]、靜慮[6]，在《大毘婆沙論》中，專指四種色界定。修行進入四種禪那的方法，為奢摩他與毘鉢舍那即止觀。
    音義
    「禪那」這個詞源出婆羅門教《梨俱吠陀》，有心一境性含義的「禪那」出現於《奧義書》中，在後世的《瑜伽經》八支瑜伽中為第七支。「禪那」廣泛用於沙門傳統各教派，在佛教中，為「三無漏學」與六度之一。
    作為名詞的梵語禪那一詞由動詞詞形dhyā（√dhyai / dhī 觀看、冥想）與後綴-ana-組成[7]。根據《俱舍論》及其註釋的解釋，地 dhī是字界（梵語文法中動詞之語根），振多 cinta，翻作審慮、思惟，是字緣（附於字界上使語體發生變化之助緣），「審慮」義中置地（dhī）界，故名為禪那（dhyāna）[8]。《清淨道論》除了審慮所緣，另說禪那有燃燒障礙之義，其梵語詞根為√kṣi 破壞、摧毀[9][7]。
    禪那與定，在日常用語中或被視為同義詞，但禪那的範圍窄而定的範圍寬[10]，禪那專指能依之見道證沙門果的色界四種定，若依欲界諸定僅能「正觀」，若依無色界諸定僅能「斷結」，依色界諸定方兼具能正觀與能斷結[11]。
    漢傳佛教概念禪，和禪定的禪，皆源自於禪那的簡稱，但隨著發展，逐漸形成一個獨特的脫離思想體系，離一切文字相的方式，並開創了禪宗。
    [1] 智顗 《釋禪波羅蜜次第法門》卷第一：「禪是外國之言，此間翻則不定，今略出三翻。一、摩訶衍論中翻「禪」，秦言思惟修。二、舉例往翻，如檀波羅蜜此言「布施度」。禪波羅蜜此言「定度」，故知用「定」以翻禪。三、阿毘曇中，用「功德叢林」以翻禪。」
    慧遠《大乘義章》卷第十三：「思惟修者，從因立稱，於定境界審意籌慮，名曰思惟。思心漸進說為修習，從剋定名思惟修寂。亦可此言，當體為名，禪定之心正取所緣，名曰思惟。思心增進說為修習。功德叢林者，從果為名。智慧神通四無量等是其功德，眾德積聚說為叢林。定能生之，因從果目，是故說為功德叢林。」
    [2] 《貞元新定釋教目錄》卷第十：第耶那(隋云念修舊為禪那及持訶那並訛僻也)
    [3] 《大堅固婆羅門緣起經》卷下：「於夏四月，寂止一處，修悲禪觀」（《Mahāgovindasutta》：「vassike cattāro māse paṭisallīyituṃ, karuṇaṃ jhānaṃ jhāyituṃ」 「for the four months of the rainy season and practice the absorption on compassion」）
    太虛. 中國佛學的特質在禪 (PDF). 所以，禪那雖可名定，而定中有觀、有慧，方為禪那之特義，故禪那亦云禪觀。
    [4] 《菩薩內習六波羅蜜經》：「檀為布施，尸為持戒，羼為忍辱，惟逮為精進，禪為棄惡，般若為黠慧」
    《禪門章》：「以外方便去蓋除欲，淨諸遮障，故名棄惡。以內方便增長善根，是名功德藂林。」
    [5] 《生經》：「布施持戒，忍辱精進，一心智慧」
    《修行本起經》卷上：「學佛意，行六度無極——布施、持戒、忍辱、精進、一心、智慧」
    [6] 定賓《四分律疏飾宗義記》卷第七本：「俱舍云。依何義故立靜慮名。答云。由此寂靜能審慮故。審慮即是實了知義。述曰。定體寂靜。慧復審慮。由定及慧。名為靜慮。梵本云振多（梵語：cinta）。此云審慮。即為字緣也。梵云地（梵語：dhī）。即是字界也。此謂振多字緣之中。若置地為字界相助。名為駄演那。此云靜慮也。」
    [7] 周春陽. 禪那的語義與語意 ——以阿含經為中心.
    [8] 5 月 12 日之補充講義 (PDF).
    [9] 《清淨道論》卷4：「因為思惟所緣（arammaṇūpanijjhānato）或燒盡其敵對（paccanīka-jhāpanato）的（五蓋）故為「禪」」[1] 또는 「所緣之思惟故，又反對〔之五蓋〕燒盡故為禪」[2]
    [10] 《瑜伽師地論·本地分·三摩呬多地》卷第十一：「若略說三摩呬多地，當知由總標故，安立故，作意差別故，相差別故，略攝諸經宗要等故。云何總標？謂：此地中，略有四種，一者、靜慮，二者、解脫，三者、等持，四者、等至。
    • 靜慮者，謂：四靜慮。……
    • 解脫者，謂：八解脫。……
    • 等持者，謂：三三摩地，一、空，二、無願，三、無相。復有三種，謂：有尋有伺，無尋唯伺，無尋無伺。復有三種，謂：小、大、無量。復有二種，謂：一分修，具分修。復有三種，謂：喜俱行，樂俱行，捨俱行。復有四種：謂：四修定。復有五種，謂：五聖智三摩地。復有五種，謂：聖五支三摩地。復有有因有具聖正三摩地。復有金剛喻三摩地。復有有學、無學、非學非無學等三摩地。
    • 等至者，謂：五現見三摩鉢底，八勝處三摩鉢底，十遍處三摩鉢底，四無色三摩鉢底，無想三摩鉢底，滅盡定等三摩鉢底。

    云何安立？謂：唯此等，名等引地，非於欲界，心一境性，由此定等，無悔、歡喜、安樂所引，欲界不爾，非欲界中於法全無審正、觀察。」
    《中阿含經·王相應品·三十喻經》卷第十五：「比丘、比丘尼，以三定為華鬘，空、無願、無相，舍梨子！若比丘、比丘尼，成就三定為華鬘者，便能捨惡，修習於善。」
    《中阿含經·晡利多品·大拘絺羅經》卷第五十八：「尊者舍黎子，……復問曰：賢者拘絺羅！空、無願、無相，此三法異義、異文耶？為一義、異文耶？尊者大拘絺羅答曰：空、無願、無相，此三法，異義、異文。」
    《大毘婆沙論》卷第一百四：「有三三摩地，謂：空、無願、無相。然三摩地，或應說一，謂：心所中，大地法內，名三摩地；又、五根中，名定根；五力中，名定力；七覺支中，名定覺支；八道支中，名正定。或應說二，謂：有漏、無漏三摩地，或繫縛、解脫，或繫、不繫三摩地。或應說三，謂：此所說。或應說四，謂：三界繫及不繫。或應說五，謂：三界繫及學、無學。廣說乃至，若以相續、剎那分別，則有無量三摩地。
    問：若爾，世尊何故增一減無量等，建立三種三摩地耶？答：由三緣故，唯建立三，一、對治故，二、期心故，三、所緣故。對治故者，謂：空三摩地，是有身見近對治故。……期心故者，謂：無願三摩地，諸修行者期心，不願三有法故。……所緣故者，謂：無相三摩地，此定所緣，離十相故，謂：離色、聲、香、味、觸、及女、男、三有為相。復次、蘊名為相，此定所緣，離諸蘊相，故名無相。復次、世名為相，前、後名相，上、中、下等名相，此定所緣，離世等相，故名無相。……
    問：何故名三摩地？三摩地是何義耶？答：

    • 由三緣故，名三摩地，一、平等故，二、攝持故，三、相似相續故。平等故者，謂：無始來，煩惱、惡行、邪見、顛倒，令心、心所，偏曲而轉，由此定力，令心、心所，於境正直，平等而轉故，名三摩地。攝持故者，謂：無始來，心、心所法，於境馳散，由此定力，方便攝持，令住一境故，名三摩地。相似相續故者，謂：無始來，心、心所法，善、染、無記，異類相續，由此定力，前後一類，唯善相續故，名三摩地。
    • 復次、由三緣故，名三摩地，謂：住一境故，相續住故，正審慮故。
    • 復次、由三緣故，名三摩地，謂：能持身、令平等故，攝諸善法、令不散故，能令善心平等轉故。
    • 復次、由三緣故，名三摩地，謂：於所緣、恒不捨故，任持種種勝善法故，令奢摩他、毘鉢舍那住一所緣、平等轉故。
    • 尊者世友作如是說：何故名三摩地？攝持多種善心、心所，令於一境，平等相續故，名等持。復作是說：能持平等故，名等持；如能持嬰兒故，名持嬰兒者，能持水故，名持水者，能持枰故，名持枰者；此亦如是，能持種種勝平等法故，名等持。
    • 大德（覺天）說曰：即此等持，亦名等至，此復多種，謂：善法等至，不善法等至，無記法等至，九次第等至，兩兩交會，亦名等至。於此義中，唯說能持善心、心所，令其相續平等而轉故，名等持；不善、無記等，非此所說。」

    [11] 《大毘婆沙論》卷第八十：「問：此四靜慮自性云何？答：各以自地五蘊為自性，是名靜慮自性、我、物、自體、相、分、本性。已說自性，所以今當說，問：何故名靜慮？……

    • 有作是說：以能斷結故，名靜慮。問：諸無色定，亦能斷結，應名靜慮？答：若定能斷不善、無記二種結者，名為靜慮。諸無色定，唯斷無記，非不善故，不名靜慮。……
    • 復有說者：以能正觀故，名靜慮。問：若爾，欲界有三摩地，亦能正觀，應名靜慮？答：若能正觀，亦能斷結，名為靜慮。欲界三摩地，雖有能正觀，而不能斷結故，不名靜慮。……
    • 如是說者：要具二義，方名靜慮，謂：能斷結，及能正觀。欲界三摩地，雖能正觀，而不能斷結；諸無色定，雖能斷結，而不能正觀故，非靜慮。復次、若能遍觀，遍斷結者，名為靜慮。欲界三摩地，雖能遍觀，而不能遍斷結；諸無色定，二義俱無故，非靜慮。復次、若能靜息一切煩惱，及能思慮一切所緣，名為靜慮。欲界三摩地，雖能思慮一切所緣，不能靜息一切煩惱；諸無色定，兩義都無故，非靜慮。復次、諸無色定，有靜無慮；欲界三摩地，有慮無靜；色定俱有，故名靜慮。靜謂等引，慮謂遍觀，故名靜慮。」
  176. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/禪那 2025년 9월 3일에 확인.
    禅那（梵语：ध्यान，dhyāna，巴利语：झान，jhāna），又译为驮演那、驮衍那、第耶那、持诃那，佛教术语，意译为思惟修[1]、念修[2]、禅定[1]、禅观[3]、弃恶[4]、一心[5]、功德丛林[1]、静虑[6]，在《大毘婆沙论》中，专指四种色界定。修行进入四种禅那的方法，为奢摩他与毘钵舍那即止观。
    音义
    「禅那」这个词源出婆罗门教《梨俱吠陀》，有心一境性含义的「禅那」出现于《奥义书》中，在后世的《瑜伽经》八支瑜伽中为第七支。「禅那」广泛用于沙门传统各教派，在佛教中，为「三无漏学」与六度之一。
    作为名词的梵语禅那一词由动词词形dhyā（√dhyai / dhī 观看、冥想）与后缀-ana-组成[7]。根据《俱舍论》及其注释的解释，地 dhī是字界（梵语文法中动词之语根），振多 cinta，翻作审虑、思惟，是字缘（附于字界上使语体发生变化之助缘），「审虑」义中置地（dhī）界，故名为禅那（dhyāna）[8]。《清净道论》除了审虑所缘，另说禅那有燃烧障碍之义，其梵语词根为√kṣi 破坏、摧毁[9][7]。
    禅那与定，在日常用语中或被视为同义词，但禅那的范围窄而定的范围宽[10]，禅那专指能依之见道证沙门果的色界四种定，若依欲界诸定仅能「正观」，若依无色界诸定仅能「断结」，依色界诸定方兼具能正观与能断结[11]。
    汉传佛教概念禅，和禅定的禅，皆源自于禅那的简称，但随著发展，逐渐形成一个独特的脱离思想体系，离一切文字相的方式，并开创了禅宗。
    [1] 智𫖮 《释禅波罗蜜次第法门》卷第一：「禅是外国之言，此间翻则不定，今略出三翻。一、摩诃衍论中翻「禅」，秦言思惟修。二、举例往翻，如檀波罗蜜此言「布施度」。禅波罗蜜此言「定度」，故知用「定」以翻禅。三、阿毘昙中，用「功德丛林」以翻禅。」
    慧远《大乘义章》卷第十三：「思惟修者，从因立称，于定境界审意筹虑，名曰思惟。思心渐进说为修习，从克定名思惟修寂。亦可此言，当体为名，禅定之心正取所缘，名曰思惟。思心增进说为修习。功德丛林者，从果为名。智慧神通四无量等是其功德，众德积聚说为丛林。定能生之，因从果目，是故说为功德丛林。」
    [2] 《贞元新定释教目录》卷第十：第耶那(隋云念修旧为禅那及持诃那并讹僻也)
    [3] 《大坚固婆罗门缘起经》卷下：「于夏四月，寂止一处，修悲禅观」（《Mahāgovindasutta》：「vassike cattāro māse paṭisallīyituṃ, karuṇaṃ jhānaṃ jhāyituṃ」 「for the four months of the rainy season and practice the absorption on compassion」）
    太虚. 中国佛学的特质在禅 (PDF). 所以，禅那虽可名定，而定中有观、有慧，方为禅那之特义，故禅那亦云禅观。
    [4] 《菩萨内习六波罗蜜经》：「檀为布施，尸为持戒，羼为忍辱，惟逮为精进，禅为弃恶，般若为黠慧」
    《禅门章》：「以外方便去盖除欲，净诸遮障，故名弃恶。以内方便增长善根，是名功德藂林。」
    [5] 《生经》：「布施持戒，忍辱精进，一心智慧」
    《修行本起经》卷上：「学佛意，行六度无极——布施、持戒、忍辱、精进、一心、智慧」
    [6] 定宾《四分律疏饰宗义记》卷第七本：「俱舍云。依何义故立静虑名。答云。由此寂静能审虑故。审虑即是实了知义。述曰。定体寂静。慧复审虑。由定及慧。名为静虑。梵本云振多（梵语：cinta）。此云审虑。即为字缘也。梵云地（梵语：dhī）。即是字界也。此谓振多字缘之中。若置地为字界相助。名为駄演那。此云静虑也。」
    [7] 周春阳. 禅那的语义与语意 ——以阿含经为中心.
    [8] 5 月 12 日之补充讲义 (PDF).
    [9] 《清净道论》卷4：「因为思惟所缘（arammaṇūpanijjhānato）或烧尽其敌对（paccanīka-jhāpanato）的（五盖）故为「禅」」[3] 또는 「所缘之思惟故，又反对〔之五盖〕烧尽故为禅」[4]
    [10] 《瑜伽师地论·本地分·三摩呬多地》卷第十一：「若略说三摩呬多地，当知由总标故，安立故，作意差别故，相差别故，略摄诸经宗要等故。云何总标？谓：此地中，略有四种，一者、静虑，二者、解脱，三者、等持，四者、等至。
    • 静虑者，谓：四静虑。……
    • 解脱者，谓：八解脱。……
    • 等持者，谓：三三摩地，一、空，二、无愿，三、无相。复有三种，谓：有寻有伺，无寻唯伺，无寻无伺。复有三种，谓：小、大、无量。复有二种，谓：一分修，具分修。复有三种，谓：喜俱行，乐俱行，舍俱行。复有四种：谓：四修定。复有五种，谓：五圣智三摩地。复有五种，谓：圣五支三摩地。复有有因有具圣正三摩地。复有金刚喻三摩地。复有有学、无学、非学非无学等三摩地。
    • 等至者，谓：五现见三摩钵底，八胜处三摩钵底，十遍处三摩钵底，四无色三摩钵底，无想三摩钵底，灭尽定等三摩钵底。
    云何安立？谓：唯此等，名等引地，非于欲界，心一境性，由此定等，无悔、欢喜、安乐所引，欲界不尔，非欲界中于法全无审正、观察。」

    《中阿含经·王相应品·三十喻经》卷第十五：「比丘、比丘尼，以三定为华鬘，空、无愿、无相，舍梨子！若比丘、比丘尼，成就三定为华鬘者，便能舍恶，修习于善。」
    《中阿含经·晡利多品·大拘𫄨罗经》卷第五十八：「尊者舍黎子，……复问曰：贤者拘𫄨罗！空、无愿、无相，此三法异义、异文耶？为一义、异文耶？尊者大拘𫄨罗答曰：空、无愿、无相，此三法，异义、异文。」
    《大毘婆沙论》卷第一百四：「有三三摩地，谓：空、无愿、无相。然三摩地，或应说一，谓：心所中，大地法内，名三摩地；又、五根中，名定根；五力中，名定力；七觉支中，名定觉支；八道支中，名正定。或应说二，谓：有漏、无漏三摩地，或系缚、解脱，或系、不系三摩地。或应说三，谓：此所说。或应说四，谓：三界系及不系。或应说五，谓：三界系及学、无学。广说乃至，若以相续、刹那分别，则有无量三摩地。
    问：若尔，世尊何故增一减无量等，建立三种三摩地耶？答：由三缘故，唯建立三，一、对治故，二、期心故，三、所缘故。对治故者，谓：空三摩地，是有身见近对治故。……期心故者，谓：无愿三摩地，诸修行者期心，不愿三有法故。……所缘故者，谓：无相三摩地，此定所缘，离十相故，谓：离色、声、香、味、触、及女、男、三有为相。复次、蕴名为相，此定所缘，离诸蕴相，故名无相。复次、世名为相，前、后名相，上、中、下等名相，此定所缘，离世等相，故名无相。……
    问：何故名三摩地？三摩地是何义耶？答：

    • 由三缘故，名三摩地，一、平等故，二、摄持故，三、相似相续故。平等故者，谓：无始来，烦恼、恶行、邪见、颠倒，令心、心所，偏曲而转，由此定力，令心、心所，于境正直，平等而转故，名三摩地。摄持故者，谓：无始来，心、心所法，于境驰散，由此定力，方便摄持，令住一境故，名三摩地。相似相续故者，谓：无始来，心、心所法，善、染、无记，异类相续，由此定力，前后一类，唯善相续故，名三摩地。
    • 复次、由三缘故，名三摩地，谓：住一境故，相续住故，正审虑故。
    • 复次、由三缘故，名三摩地，谓：能持身、令平等故，摄诸善法、令不散故，能令善心平等转故。
    • 复次、由三缘故，名三摩地，谓：于所缘、恒不舍故，任持种种胜善法故，令奢摩他、毘钵舍那住一所缘、平等转故。
    • 尊者世友作如是说：何故名三摩地？摄持多种善心、心所，令于一境，平等相续故，名等持。复作是说：能持平等故，名等持；如能持婴儿故，名持婴儿者，能持水故，名持水者，能持枰故，名持枰者；此亦如是，能持种种胜平等法故，名等持。
    • 大德（觉天）说曰：即此等持，亦名等至，此复多种，谓：善法等至，不善法等至，无记法等至，九次第等至，两两交会，亦名等至。于此义中，唯说能持善心、心所，令其相续平等而转故，名等持；不善、无记等，非此所说。」

    [11] 《大毘婆沙论》卷第八十：「问：此四静虑自性云何？答：各以自地五蕴为自性，是名静虑自性、我、物、自体、相、分、本性。已说自性，所以今当说，问：何故名静虑？……

    • 有作是说：以能断结故，名静虑。问：诸无色定，亦能断结，应名静虑？答：若定能断不善、无记二种结者，名为静虑。诸无色定，唯断无记，非不善故，不名静虑。……
    • 复有说者：以能正观故，名静虑。问：若尔，欲界有三摩地，亦能正观，应名静虑？答：若能正观，亦能断结，名为静虑。欲界三摩地，虽有能正观，而不能断结故，不名静虑。……
    • 如是说者：要具二义，方名静虑，谓：能断结，及能正观。欲界三摩地，虽能正观，而不能断结；诸无色定，虽能断结，而不能正观故，非静虑。复次、若能遍观，遍断结者，名为静虑。欲界三摩地，虽能遍观，而不能遍断结；诸无色定，二义俱无故，非静虑。复次、若能静息一切烦恼，及能思虑一切所缘，名为静虑。欲界三摩地，虽能思虑一切所缘，不能静息一切烦恼；诸无色定，两义都无故，非静虑。复次、诸无色定，有静无虑；欲界三摩地，有虑无静；色定俱有，故名静虑。静谓等引，虑谓遍观，故名静虑。」
  177. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/9124bff35ced471cb77673d25b4916d1 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
    禪那(불교) 선나
    禪 선 선 那 어찌 나
    1. 마음을 한곳에 모아 고요히 생각하는 일.
  178. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=禅那 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
    禅那 [ chánnà ]
    명사 음역어 불교 선나. 디야나(범 dhyâna). 참선하여 무념무상(無念無想)의 삼매경(三昧境)에 드는 일.
  179. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=禪法&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 3일에 확인.
    禪法 선법
    참선(參禪)하는 법(法).
    禪 선 선/물려줄 선
    1. 선, 좌선(坐禪) 2. 봉선(封禪: 산천에 제사 지내던 일) 3. 선종(禪宗)
    法 법 법
    1. 법(法), 법률(法律) 2. 방법(方法) 3. 예법(禮法: 예의로써 지켜야 할 규범)
  180. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=禪法 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 9월 3일에 확인.
    禅法
    명사 불교 선의 가르침. 불법.
    [ chánfǎ ]
    고려대 중한사전
  181. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism 2025년 8월 31일에 확인.
    Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान) in Hinduism means meditation[1] and contemplation. Dhyana is taken up in Yoga practices, and is a means to samadhi and self-knowledge.[2]
    . . .
    Etymology and meaning
    Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान, Pali: झान) means "contemplation, reflection" and "profound, abstract meditation".[15]
    The root of the word is dhi, which, in the earliest layer of Vedic texts, refers to "imaginative vision" and is associated with goddess Saraswati, who possesses powers of knowledge, wisdom, and poetic eloquence.[7][16] This term developed into the variant dhya- and dhyana, or "meditation".[7]
    Thomas Berry states that dhyana is "sustained attention" and the "application of mind to the chosen point of concentration".[17] Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever dharana has focused on.[18] If in the sixth limb of yoga one is concentrating on a personal deity, dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is nonjudgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object.[19] If the focus is on a concept or idea, dhyana is contemplating it in all its aspects, forms and consequences. Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought, current of cognition, flow of awareness.[20][21][22]
    [1] Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, pp.283-284. ISBN 9780816075645
    [2] Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, p.283. ISBN 9780816075645
    [7] William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 171-177, 222
    [11] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, pages 182-184 [15] dhyAna, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
    [16] Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110153156, pages 289-301
    [17] Thomas Berry (1992), Religions of India: Hinduism, Yoga, Buddhism, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231107815, page 101
    [18] Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110153156, pages 289-290
    [19] Charlotte Bell (2007), Mindful Yoga, Mindful Life: A Guide for Everyday Practice, Rodmell Press, ISBN 978-1930485204, pages 151-159
    [20] GN Jha (Translator)(1907), The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa - Book 3; Harvard University Archives, pages 94-95
    [21] K Ramakrishna Rao (2005), Consciousness Studies: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, McFarland, ISBN 978-0786422784, page 315
    [22] TR Anantharaman (1996), Ancient Yoga and Modern Science, PHISPC monograph, Volume 14, Issue 7, ISBN 978-8121507523, pages 44-45
    [web1] George Feuerstein, Nididhyasitavyah - the deep pondering of self (atman), whereupon the Self (Brahman) become known
  182. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism 2025년 8월 31일에 확인.
    In the oldest texts of Buddhism, dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान) or jhāna (Pāli) is a component of the training of the mind (bhāvanā), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions and "burn up" the defilements, leading to a "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)."[1] Dhyāna may have been the core practice of pre-sectarian Buddhism, in combination with several related practices which together lead to perfected mindfulness and detachment.[2][3][4]
    In the later commentarial tradition, which has survived in present-day Theravāda, dhyāna is equated with "concentration", a state of one-pointed absorption in which there is a diminished awareness of the surroundings. In the contemporary Theravāda-based Vipassana movement, this absorbed state of mind is regarded as unnecessary and even non-beneficial for the first stage of awakening, which has to be reached by mindfulness of the body and vipassanā (insight into impermanence). Since the 1980s, scholars and practitioners have started to question these positions, arguing for a more comprehensive and integrated understanding and approach, based on the oldest descriptions of dhyāna in the suttas.[5][6][7][8]
    In Buddhist traditions of Chán and Zen (the names of which are, respectively, the Chinese and Japanese pronunciations of dhyāna), as in Theravada and Tiantai, anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing), which is transmitted in the Buddhist tradition as a means to develop dhyana, is a central practice. In the Chan/Zen-tradition this practice is ultimately based on Sarvastivāda meditation techniques transmitted since the beginning of the Common Era.
    Etymology
    Dhyāna, Pali jhana, from Proto-Indo-European root *√dheie-, "to see, to look", "to show".[9][10] Developed into Sanskrit root √dhī and n. dhī,[10] which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to "imaginative vision" and associated with goddess Saraswati with powers of knowledge, wisdom and poetic eloquence.[11][12] This term developed into the variant √dhyā, "to contemplate, meditate, think",[13][10] from which dhyāna is derived.[11]
    According to Buddhaghosa (5th century CE Theravāda exegete), the term jhāna (Skt. dhyāna) is derived from the verb jhayati, "to think or meditate", while the verb jhapeti, "to burn up", explicates its function, namely burning up opposing states, burning up or destroying "the mental defilements preventing [...] the development of serenity and insight."[14][note 1]
    Commonly translated as meditation, and often equated with "concentration", though meditation may refer to a wider scale of exercises for bhāvanā, development. Dhyāna can also mean "attention, thought, reflection".[17]
    Zoroastrianism in Persia, which has Indo-Iranian linguistic and cultural roots, developed the related practice of daena.
    [1] Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL, p. 5.
    [2] Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
    [3] Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
    [4] Gethin, Rupert (1992), The Buddhist Path to Awakening, OneWorld Publications
    [5] Rose, Kenneth (2016), Yoga, Meditation, and Mysticism: Contemplative Universals and Meditative Landmarks, Bloomsbury
    [6] Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala
    [7] Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
    [8] Arbel, Keren (2017). Early Buddhist meditation : the four jhânas as the actualization of insight. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-38399-4.
    [9] Online Etymology Dictionary, Zen (n.)
    [10] Jayarava, Nāmapada: a guide to names in the Triratna Buddhist Order
    [11] William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 171-177, 222
    [12] Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110153156, pages 289-301
    [13] George Feuerstein, Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)
    [14] Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
    [15] Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ, p. 62.
    [16] Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge
    [17] Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, dhyana
    [18] Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala
    [19] Mahācattārīsakasutta
    [20] Analayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, p.69-70, 80
  183. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dhyana
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/dhyāna/111686/1
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0521.jpg
    2025년 9월 3일에 확인.
    Dhyana, Dhyāna, Dhyānā: 49 definitions
    Dhyana means something in Buddhism, Pali, Hinduism, Sanskrit, Jainism, Prakrit, Marathi, Hindi.
    . . .
    1) Dhyāna (ध्यान):—[from dhyai] n. meditation, thought, reflection, ([especially]) profound and abstract religious meditation, (nam āpad, ā-√sthā or naṃ-√gam, to indulge in religious meditation), [Chāndogya-upaniṣad; Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature] etc. (with Buddhists divided into 4 stages, [Monier-Williams’ Buddhism 209; Dharmasaṃgraha lxxii]; but also into 3 [ib. cix])
    2) [v.s. ...] mental representation of the personal attributes of a deity, [Horace H. Wilson]
    3) [v.s. ...] insensibility, dulness, [Bhāvaprakāśa]
    4) [v.s. ...] m. Name of a [particular] personification, [Maitrāyaṇī-saṃhitā]
    5) [v.s. ...] of the 11th day of the light half in Brahma’s month, [Purāṇa]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  184. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eh97N8IOXPs&ab_channel=Sanskrit-PronunciationofSanskritWords Dhyana ध्यान dhyāna Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  185. ↑ https://forvo.com/search/dhy%C4%81na/sa/ Pronunciations for dhyāna in Sanskrit (from Dhyana to Dhyana). 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  186. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/dhyana Learn how to pronounce Dhyana. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  187. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.howtopronounce.com/dhyana Learn how to pronounce Dhyana. 2025년 9월 5일에 확인.
  188. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QT8vyEsD5iI Bhashya भाष्य bhāṣya Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
  189. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhashya 2025년 8월 11일에 확인.
    Bhashya (Sanskrit: भाष्य, Bhāṣya) is a "commentary" or "exposition" of any primary or secondary text in ancient or medieval Indian literature. Common in Sanskrit literature, Bhashyas are also found in other Indian languages such as Tamil. Bhashyas are found in various fields, ranging from the Upanishads to the Sutras of Hindu schools of philosophy, from ancient medicine to music.
  190. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=135426 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版의《数论颂》항목(중국어 간체). 2025년 8월 22일에 확인.
    《数论颂》
    条目作者: 姚卫群
    最后更新 2023-03-29
    古印度哲学中数论派的主要文献，作者自在黑。
    原语种名称: Sāṃkhya-kārikā
    著者: 自在黑
    此颂出现的年代不是很早，约在4世纪形成。但由于早期的印度数论派的完整经典都已佚失，因而人们通常将其视为现存古代数论派的最重要文献，与其他派别中的根本经典的地位相当。《数论颂》提出了数论派的基本哲学体系“二元二十五谛”，认为世间事物或人生现象来自两个根本实体——物质性的“自性”和精神性的“神我”。自性在被神我作用（观照）后生出了“觉”。觉生出“我慢”。我慢一方面生出“十一根”（眼、耳、鼻、舌、皮、发声器官、手、足、排泄器官、生殖器官、心），另一方面生出“五唯”（香、味、色、触、声），五唯又生“五大”（地、水、火、风、空）。这些构成了轮回世界的各种现象。轮回世界中充满了痛苦。这痛苦主要有三种，即依内苦（生理或心理方面的苦，它由身体内部的原因引起）、依外苦（由外部的动物或物体引起的痛苦）和依天苦（由天气或天上的自然现象的变化引起的痛苦）。《数论颂》认为，当人认识或辨别出了事物形成的本来面目时，各种事物回归自性。自性和神我各自独存，人就能跳出轮回，获得解脱。
    《数论颂》在印度古代的注释主要有5个：《金七十论》（6世纪由真谛译为汉文，作者不详）、《道理之光》（Yuktidipikā，约6世纪出现，作者不详）、《乔荼波陀注》（Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya，约7～8世纪出现）、《摩特罗评注》（Māthara-vŗtti，8世纪左右出现）、《明谛论》（Tattva-kaumudi，9世纪婆察斯巴蒂·弥尸罗所作）。
    《数论颂》及其注释是数论派的主要文献，在古印度有重要影响。此颂的注释之一《金七十论》，在中国古代译成汉文后被收入佛教的大藏经，很受中国佛教徒重视。在中国近现代，学术界有研究《数论颂》及其思想的论文。有关数论派的著作通常都把此颂作为现存论述数论派思想的最基础资料。《数论颂》及其注释是数论派的主要文献，在古印度有重要影响。此颂的注释之一《金七十论》，在中国古代译成汉文后被收入佛教的大藏经，很受中国佛教徒重视。在中国近现代，学术界有研究《数论颂》及其思想的论文。有关数论派的著作通常都把此颂作为现存论述数论派思想的最基础资料。
  191. ↑ 가 나 楊惠南(2022), 『印度哲學史』(Traditional Chinese Edition), 臺北市:弘雅三民圖書股份有限公司. ISBN:978-626-307-817-8 (EPUB).
    第七章 數論派的歷史與哲學
    第一節 數論派的歷史
    . . .
    傳說，迦毘羅（劫比羅，Kapila, 350～250 B.C.）是這個教派的創始人；窺基，《成唯識論述記》卷1─末，曾說：「謂有外道，名劫比羅，……此云黃赤；鬚髮面色並黃赤故。……時號黃赤色仙人。」[註11]迦毘羅寫有《數論經》(Sāṅkhya-sūtra)和《數論聖教經》(Sāṅkhya-pravacana-sūtra)，因此，這個教派有時又稱為「數論聖教」(Sāṅkhya-pravacana)。（前面窺基所說的《數論》，可能是指迦毘羅所寫的這兩部經典。）
    迦毘羅的弟子是阿修利(Āsuri)；阿修利的弟子則是般尸訶(Pañcaśikha, 150～50 B.C.)。然後數傳而到自在黑(Īśvara-kṛṣṇa, A.D. 400～500)。陳．真諦譯的數論派著作──《金七十論》，卷下，即說：「是智者從迦毘羅至阿修利，阿修利傳與般尸訶，般尸訶傳與褐伽，褐伽傳與優樓佉(Ulūka)，優樓佉（傳）與跋婆利，跋婆利（傳與）自在黑。」[註12]其中，最後的自在黑著有《數論偈》(Sāṅkhya-kārikā)；《金七十論》即是《數論偈》的注釋之一[註13]。另外，佛教文獻當中還提到了一個數論派的重要人物──雨眾（伐里沙，Vārṣagaṇya, A.D. 250～350），他所領導的徒眾，即是佛教文獻中所謂的「雨眾外道」。窺基，《成唯識論述記》卷1─末，即說：「其後（迦毘羅）弟子之中上首……名伐里沙，此翻為『雨』，雨時生故，即以為名。其雨徒黨，名雨眾外道。」[註14]
    [註11]：引見《大正藏》卷43，頁252，上。
    [註12]：引見前書，卷54，頁1262，中。
    [註13]：依照高麗本《大藏經》的原注，現存中譯本《金七十論》，乃「依摩吒羅註(Māṭhara-vṛtti)」。（參見《大正藏》卷54，頁1245，注釋1。）亦即，它的梵文原本是摩吒羅(Māṭhara)的注釋本。但是，窺基，《成唯識論述記》卷1─末，卻說：「彼《（金七十）論》長行，天親菩薩之所造也。」（引見《大正藏》卷43，頁252，中。）引文中的天親菩薩，即佛教瑜伽行派的重要學者──世親（天親、婆藪槃豆，Vasubandhu, A.D. 320～400）。這兩種不同的說法，可能只是傳說的差異；也可能是梵文原本的不同而已。
    [註14]：引見《大正藏》卷43，頁252，上─中。在這裡，窺基把阿蘇里的弟子──伐里沙，誤以為是迦毘羅的弟子。
  192. ↑ 가 나 다 https://sanskritdictionary.com/sāṃkhyakārikā/259358/1
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw1199.jpg
    2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
    sāṃkhyakārikā सांख्यकारिका
    Definition: f. Name of a collection of 72 memorial verses or stanzas by īśvara-kṛṣṇa- (also called sāṃkhyasaptati-; the oldest extant systematic exposition of the sāṃkhya- system; see above)
    Dictionary: Monier-Williams
  193. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhyakarika 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    The Samkhyakarika (Sanskrit: सांख्यकारिका, Sāṁkhyakārikā) is the earliest surviving text of the Samkhya school of Indian philosophy.[1][2] The text's original composition date is unknown, but its terminus ad quem (completed before) date has been established through its Chinese translation that became available by 569 CE.[3] It is attributed to Ishvara Krishna (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE).[4]
    [1] Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
    [2] Mircea Eliade, Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, page 367
    [3] Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, page 4
    [4] Feuerstein, Georg (2008). Yoga Tradition. Prescott, Arizona: Hohm Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5.
  194. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/d/doc209786.html
    A History of Indian Philosophy Volume 1 by Surendranath Dasgupta | 1922 | ISBN-13: 97881208040812025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Part 3 - Sāṃkhya and Yoga Literature
    Chapter VII - The Kapila and the Pātañjala Sāṃkhya (yoga)
    The main exposition of the system of Sāṃkhya and Yoga in this section has been based on the Sāṃkhya kārikā, the Sāṃkhya sūtras, and the Yoga sūtras of Patañjali with their commentaries and sub-commentaries. The Sāṃkhya kārikā (about 200 A.D.) was written by Iśvarakrṣṇa. The account of Sāṃkhya given by Caraka (78 A.D.) represents probably an earlier school and this has been treated separately. Vācaspati Miśra (ninth century A.D.) wrote a commentary on it known as Tattvakaumudī. But before him Gauḍapāda and Rājā wrote commentaries on the Sāṃkhya kārikā[1].
    Narāyaṇatlrtha wrote his Candrikā on Gauda-pāda’s commentary.
    [1]: I suppose that Rājā’s commentary on the Kārikā was the same as Rājavārttika quoted by Vācaspati. Rājā’s commentary on the Kārikā has been referred to by Jayanta in his Nyāyamañjarī, p. 109. This book is probably now lost.
  195. ↑ 가 나 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCISeGZicQI Sankhya Karika Pronunciation Sanskrit साङ्ख्यकारिका sāṅkhyakārikā. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  196. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya#Samkhyakarika 2025년 8월 22일에 확인.
    Samkhyakarika
    The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200 CE[140] or 350–450 CE[132]) of Īśvarakṛṣṇa.[132] There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.[141] Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.[132] The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE.[142] The records of Al Biruni, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.[143]
    Samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and soteriology of the Samkhya school. . . .
    The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to Gauḍapāda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidīpīka (c. 6th century CE) and Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c. 10th century CE).[145]
    [132] King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3.
    [140] Bagchi, P.C. (1989), Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-36-8.
    [141] Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, p. 4. ISBN 81-208-0503-8. [first edition, 1968; second revised edition, 1979]
    [142] Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, pp. 147-149. ISBN 81-208-0503-8. [first edition, 1968; second revised edition, 1979]
    [143] Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, pp. 160-151. ISBN 81-208-0503-8. [first edition, 1968; second revised edition, 1979]
    [145] King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, p. 64. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3.
  197. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/samkhya Learn how to pronounce samkhya. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  198. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/karika Learn how to pronounce karika. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  199. ↑ 가 나 다 라 http://m.fodizi.tw/f05/79573.html 佛光大辭典 중 數論頌 항목. 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
    數論頌
    梵名 Sāṃkhya-kārikā。又稱數論偈、僧佉頌。印度六派哲學數論（梵 Sāṃkhya）學派之經典。伊濕伐羅訖哩史拏（梵 Īśvarakṛṣṇa，意譯自在黑）著於西元四至五世紀間。共計七十二偈，包含六十科論（梵 Saṣtitantra）之全部內容。書中指出以觀想人生諸苦之立場為出發點，並以二十五諦為基本原理，進行觀法之修行，即可獲得解脫。一切法皆可攝入二十五諦中，二十五諦以神我（梵 puruṣa）與自性（梵 prakṛti）為二大原理，由自性展開覺（梵 buddhi）與我慢（梵 ahaṃkāra），由我慢展開意根（梵 manas）、五知根（梵 buddhīndriya，即感覺機能）、五作根（梵 karmendriya，即運動機能）、五唯（梵 tanmātra，即色聲香味觸），五唯又延展出五大（梵 mahābhūta，即地水火風空）。自性之本質為純質（梵 sattva）、激質（梵 rajas）、翳質（梵 tamas）三德，三德之活動變化，產生一切現象；神我則係無屬性、無作用之純粹智。若能體悟自性與神我本質上之差異，自性即停止活動，而得解脫。本書之重要注釋書有金七十論、高達帕達注（梵 Gauḍapāda-bhāṣya）、摩達羅注（梵 Māṭhara-vṛtti）等。p7647
  200. ↑ 가 나 Lutsyshyna, O. (2012). Classical Sāṁkhya on the Authorship of the Vedas. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 40(4), 453–467. p. 455. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43496630
    This study is based on all the eight extant commentaries of the classical Sāṁkhya. These are the following commentaries on Īśvarakṛṣṇa’s SK (ca. 350–450 CE), listed in chronological order: the commentary surviving in the Chinese translation of Paramārtha4 (P; composed ca. 500 CE; translated into Chinese by Paramārtha between 557 CE and 569 CE), Sāṁkhyavṛtti (SVṛ; ca. 500–600 CE), Sāṁkhyasaptativṛtti (SSVṛ; ca. 500–600 CE), Sāṁkhyakārikābhāṣya (or Gauḍapādabhāṣya; GB; ca. 500–600 CE) by Gauḍapāda, Yuktidīpikā (YD; ca. 600–700 CE), Jayamaṅgalā (JM; ca. 700 CE or later), Māṭharavṛtti (MV; ca. 800 CE or later) by Māṭhara, and Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (TK; ca. 841 CE or ca. 976 CE) by Vācaspati Miśra. By classical Sāṁkhya I mean Sāṁkhya presented in the SK and the abovementioned eight commentaries. After the TK the long period of stagnation in the development of Sāṁkhya begins, which ends in the XIV century with the appearance of the new (postclassical) form of Sāṁkhya presented in the Tattvasamāsasūtra (ca. 1300–1400 CE) and its commentary Kramadīpikā (ca. 1300–1400 CE).
  201. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw1199.jpg 2025년 8월 26일에 확인.
    sāṃkhya-kārikā-bhāshya, n. N. of a Commentary on prec. by Gauḍa-pāda (8th cent.)
  202. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samkhyapravacana 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Samkhyapravacana, Sāṃkhyapravacana: 2 definitions
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Samkhyapravacana in Sanskrit glossary
    Sāṃkhyapravacana (सांख्यप्रवचन) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—a name of the Yogasūtra by Patañjali. See Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha Oxf. 247^b.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Sāṃkhyapravacana (सांख्यप्रवचन):—[=sāṃkhya-pravacana] [from sāṃkhya] n. = yoga-sūtra, or = sāṃkhya-sūtra ([qq. vv.])
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  203. ↑ 가 나 다 https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw1199.jpg
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/sāṃkhyapravacana/259373/1 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
    sāṃkhyapravacana सांख्यप्रवचन
    Definition: n. equals yoga-sūtra-, or equals sāṃkhya-sūtra- ([qq. vv.])
    Dictionary: Monier-Williams
  204. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijnanabhiksu#Major_works 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Major works
    Some major texts attributed to Vijnanabhiksu include:[17]
    • Vijnanamritabhashya ("The Nectar of Knowledge Commentary", commentary on Badarayana's Brahma Sutras)
    • Ishvaragitabhashya ("Commentary on the Ishvara Gita")
    • Sankhyasara ("Quintessence of the Sankhya")
    • Sankhyasutrabhashya ("Commentary on the Sankhya Sutras" of Kapila)
    • Yogasarasamgraha ("Compendium on the Quintessence of Yoga")
    • Yogabhashyavarttika ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa)
    English translations
    • Ganganatha Jha, Yogasarasamgraha of Vijnanabhiksu, New Delhi: Parimal Publications, 1995.
    • José Pereira, Hindu Theology: A Reader, Garden City: Doubleday, 1976. Includes translated excerpts from Vijnanamritabhashya and Sankhyasutrabhashya.
    • T. S. Rukmani, Yogavarttika of Vijnanabhiksu, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1981.
    • Nandalal Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1979. Contains a complete translation of Vijnanabhikshu's Sankhyasutrabhashya.
    • Shiv Kumar, Samkhyasara of Vijnanabhiksu, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 1988.
    [17] Sato, Hiroyuki (1989). "Vijñanabhiksu's Theory of Mutual Projection". Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies. 37 (2). Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies: 945–943. doi:10.4259/ibk.37.945.
  205. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/数论经 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
    數論經（天城體：सांख्यप्रवचन सूत्र）印度哲學數論派的重要經典，分為6卷。
    傳統上認為此書是數論派創始人迦毗羅仙人（約前3世紀）所作，但此說早已被學術界證偽。現在一般認為此書晚至14世紀，是晚期數論學者的託名作品。該書一方面整理了古代數論的觀點、學說，一方面又受到其他派別的強烈影響，尤其是吠檀多派。
    資料來源
    《古印度六派哲學經典》，商務印書館，姚衛群編，ISBN 7-100-03480-9，173頁注釋
  206. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/数论经 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
    数论经（天城体：सांख्यप्रवचन सूत्र）印度哲学数论派的重要经典，分为6卷。
    传统上认为此书是数论派创始人迦毗罗仙人（约前3世纪）所作，但此说早已被学术界证伪。现在一般认为此书晚至14世纪，是晚期数论学者的托名作品。该书一方面整理了古代数论的观点、学说，一方面又受到其他派别的强烈影响，尤其是吠檀多派。
    资料来源
    《古印度六派哲学经典》，商务印书馆，姚卫群编，ISBN 7-100-03480-9，173页注释
  207. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
    The Samkhya Pravachana Sutra (Sanskrit: सांख्यप्रवचन सूत्र Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra) is a collection of major Sanskrit texts of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. It includes the ancient Samkhya Sutra of Kapila, Samkhya karika of Ishvarakrishna, Samkhya Sutra Vritti of Aniruddha, the Bhasya (commentary) of Vijnana Bhikshu, the Vrittisara of Vedantin Mahadeva, Tattva Samasa and commentary of Narendra, and works of Gaudapada, Vachaspati Mishra, and Panchashikha.[1]
    [1] Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i
    The text provides foundational doctrines of one of the influential schools of Hindu philosophy, such as "nothing can come out of nothing, and nothing can altogether vanish out of existence" in its doctrine of Sat-Karya-Siddhanta,[2] a debate on the two theories for the origin of the world - the creationists (Abhava Utpatti) and the evolutionists (Vivarta, changing from one state to another),[3] the doctrine of Parinama (transformation),[4] among others.
    [2] Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page ii
    [3] Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page iii
    [3] Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page iv
    Samkhya Pravachana Sutra is also known as Samkhya Sutra.[5][5] SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800632, page 315
  208. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw1199.jpg
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/sāṃkhyasūtra/259395/1 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
    sāṃkhyasūtra सांख्यसूत्र
    Definition: n. Name of six books of aphorisms of the sāṃkhya- philosophy (ascribed to kapila-, but prob. written in the 14th or 15th century A.D.)
  209. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXE8DaxL2Io Sankhya Sutra Pronunciation Sanskrit सान्ख्यसूत्र sānkhyasūtra 2025년 8월 19일에 확인.
  210. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    The most important commentary on the text (= Samkhya Pravachana Sutra) is Vijñānabhikṣu’s Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya (16th century). Other important commentaries on this text include Anirruddha's Kāpilasāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛtti (15th century), Mahādeva’s Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛttisāra (c. 1600) and Nāgeśa’s Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti.[8]
    [8] Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, ISBN 0-19-563820-4, pp.253-56
  211. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya#Samkhya_revival 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.[149] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñānabhikṣu (Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya, c. 16th century CE), Mahādeva (vṛttisāra, c. 17th century CE) and Nāgeśa (Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti).[150] In his introduction, the commentator Vijnana Bhiksu stated that only a sixteenth part of the original Samkhya Sastra remained, and that the rest had been lost to time.[151] While the commentary itself is no doubt medieval, the age of the underlying sutras is unknown and perhaps much older. According to Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.[152]
    [149] Eliade, Mircea; Trask, Willard Ropes; White, David Gordon (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6. p. 370.
    [150] Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-563820-4. pp. 253–56.
    [151] Sinha, Nandalal (1915). The Samkhya Philosophy (2003 ed.). New Delhi: Mushiram Manoharlal. p. 3. ISBN 81-215-1097-X.
    [152] Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922), A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8. pp. 213–7.
  212. ↑ https://openlibrary.org/works/OL8758183W/The_Sankhya-pravachana-bhashya 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    The Sankhya-pravachana-bhashya
    a commentary on the Aphorisms of the Hindu aesthetic philosophy
    by Vijnana Bhikshu
  213. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/奥义书 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    8. 白螺氏奧義書（屬於黑夜柔吠陀）
  214. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/奥义书 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    8. 白螺氏奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
  215. ↑ 楊惠南(2022), 『印度哲學史』(Traditional Chinese Edition), 臺北市:弘雅三民圖書股份有限公司. ISBN:978-626-307-817-8 (EPUB).
    第七章 數論派的歷史與哲學
    第一節 數論派的歷史
    數論（僧佉，Sāṅkhya），是一個成立於佛教之前的婆羅門教的教派。傳說，釋迦牟尼佛，在出家不久，曾來到摩竭陀國(Magadha)的首都──王舍城(Rājagṛha)郊外的頻陀山(Vindhya-koṣṭha)，拜訪一位名叫阿羅藍（阿羅邏，Ārāḍa）的修行人。而這位修行人，即是數論派的學者[註1]。事實上，成立於西元前1000～500年之間的古《奧義書》中，數論派的某些思想即已出現。《白淨識奧義書》(Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad)，恐怕是最早提到數論學派的一部《奧義書》。該書除了提到數論派的諸多哲學概念之外，在該書5, 2，甚至還提到了「黃赤色大仙」(Kapila Ṛṣi)[註2]；這是數論派創始人迦毘羅(Kapila)的名號（詳下）。同書6, 13，則提到了「數論」(sāṅkhya)這一詞；不過在這裡，它只是一個普通名詞，而不是教派的名詞[註3]。其次，《彌勒耶那奧義書》(Maitrāyaṇa Upaniṣad) 3, 2-3，也曾說到數論學派的重要哲學概念──具有「三德」(triguṇa)的「自性」(prakṛti)；同書5，則對三德曾有詳細的說明[註4]。至於稍後(500～250 B.C.)集成的新《奧義書》當中，數論學派的思想更加明顯。例如，屬於純吠檀多派的《生氣火祀奧義書》(Prāṇāgnihotra Upaniṣad) 4，曾說到數論學派的重要思想：「覺」(buddhi)、「我慢」(ahaṃkāra)等等[註5]。另外，屬於瑜伽學派的新《奧義書》──《瑜伽真性奧義書》(Yogatattva Upaniṣad)，也提到了「神我」(Puruṣa)、「三德」等數論學派的哲學術語[註6]。由此可見，數論是一個成立相當早遠的婆羅門教派。
    [註1]：參見楊惠南，《佛教思想發展史論》，臺北：東大圖書公司，1993，頁21～23。
    [註2]：Cf. Paul Deussen (Eng. tr. by V. M. Bedekar and G. B. Palsule), Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980, vol. 1, p. 319.
    [註3]：Ibid., p. 324.另外，依照上引文獻的翻譯，sāṅkhya一詞被譯為「（邏輯的）證明」。而徐梵澄，《五十奧義書》，臺北：中國瑜伽出版社，1986，頁395，注釋[24]，則說：「『僧佉』、『瑜伽』，可說為玄理與宗教修持，而非後世諸學派之義。商羯羅(Śaṅkara)解為『讀《韋陀》』，『求智識』，『修靜慮』，是矣。」這樣看來，僧佉(sāṅkhya)一詞也有玄理、讀《韋陀》、求智識的意思。
    [註4]：Cf. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda, vol. 1, pp. 338～339, 344～346.
    [註5]：Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 650～651.
    [註6]：Ibid., vol. 2, p. 714.
  216. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit: श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद्, IAST: Śvetāśvataropaniṣad) is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters.
  217. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/svetasvatara-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  218. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/svetasvatara-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  219. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/svetasvatara-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  220. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGDnWfF6Bqk Shvetashvatara Upanishad Pronunciation Sanskrit. 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  221. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/svetasvatara-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  222. ↑ https://kabc.dongguk.edu/m/content/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1032_T_001 금칠십론(金七十論) 상권, 진제(眞諦) 한역, 번역자 미상. 2025년 8월 17일에 확인.
    그리고 세간을 두루 관찰하매, 아수리(阿修利, Āsuri)라고 하는 어떤 한 바라문의 종성이 천 년의 하늘[千年天]에 제사지내는 것을 보았다. 그는 몸을 감추고서 그에게 다가가서 말하기를, “아수리여, 그대는 재가(在家)의 법을 희롱하는구나”라고 말하고는 바로 돌아가 버렸다. 그리고 천 년이 지난 후 다시 와 거듭 앞에서와 같은 말을 하였다. 그러자 그 바라문이 선인에게 바로 답하여 말하기를, “세간의 존귀한 분이시여, 저는 실로 재가의 법을 희롱하며 즐기고 있습니다”라고 하였다. 그러자 선인은 그 말을 듣고 다시 되돌아갔다. 그 후 다시와 앞에서와 같이 거듭 말하자, 그 바라문은 그에 대해 답하기를 역시 그와 같이 하였다.
    이에 선인이 묻기를, “그대는 능히 범행(梵行)에 청정하게 머물 수 있는 것인가, 머물 수 없는 것인가?”라고 하자, 바라문은 능히 그와 같이 청정하게 머물수 있을 것이라고 말하고 나서 바로 재가, 즉 세속의 법[家法]을 버리고 출가의 행을 닦아 가비라의 제자가 되었다.
  223. ↑ https://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T54n2137_001?format=line 金七十論卷上. 2025년 8월 17일에 확인.
    T54n2137_p1245a10║見此世間沈沒盲闇起大悲心。咄哉生死
    T54n2137_p1245a11║在盲闇中。遍觀世間。見一婆羅門姓阿修利。
    T54n2137_p1245a12║千年祠天隱身往彼說如是言。阿修利汝戲
    T54n2137_p1245a13║在家之法。說是言竟即便還去。滿千年已而
    T54n2137_p1245a14║復更來重說上。言是婆羅門即答仙曰。世尊
    T54n2137_p1245a15║我實戲樂在家之法。是時仙人聞已復去。其
    T54n2137_p1245a16║後更來又說上言。婆羅門答之亦如是說。仙
    T54n2137_p1245a17║人問曰汝能清淨住梵行不。婆羅門言如是
    T54n2137_p1245a18║能住。即捨家法修出家行為迦毘羅弟子。
  224. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asuri_(Samkhya) 2025년 8월 17일에 확인.
    Asuri (Sanskrit: आसुरि) was a Vedic sage in the tradition of Hinduism in the ancient Indian Subcontinent. He was the disciple of the Vedic sage Kapila. Later he became the teacher of Shamkhya philosophy founded by the sage Kapila. Shamkhya philosophy is one of the six schools of the ancient Indian philosophy.
  225. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/asuri 2025년 8월 17일에 확인.
    Purana and Itihasa (epic history) [«previous (A) next»] — Asuri in Purana glossary
    Āsuri (आसुरि).—An ancient Maharṣi. He was the ācārya of Kapila Sāṃkhyadarśana and the guru of the maharṣi Pañcaśikha. Once Āsuri had a full vision of God. He gave many precepts on spiritual matters to other Maharṣis. The Bhāgavata says that Āsuri received his spiritual enlightenment from his wife, Kapilā. (Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, Chapter 218, Verses 10-14).
    Source: archive.org: Puranic Encyclopedia
    ...
    1b) A pupil of Kapila from whom he learnt sāṅkhya; a siddha;1 did not comprehend Hari's māyā;2 was invited for the rājasūya of Yudhiṣṭhira.3
    1) Bhāgavata-purāṇa I. 3. 10; III. 24. 17; VI. 15. 14.
    2) Bhāgavata-purāṇa IX. 4. 57.
    3) Bhāgavata-purāṇa X. 74. 9.
    ...
    1e) A son of Brahmā.* * Vāyu-purāṇa 101. 338.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: The Purana Index
    Sanskrit dictionary [«previous (A) next»] — Asuri in Sanskrit glossary
    Āsuri (आसुरि).—A pupil of Kapila. मुनिरासुरयेऽनुकम्पया प्रददौ (munirāsuraye'nukampayā pradadau) Sāṃkhyakārikā 7.
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    8) Āsuri (आसुरि):—[from āsura] m. [f(ī). , [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]], ([from] asura), Name of a teacher, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa; Bṛhad-āraṇyaka-upaniṣad etc.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  226. ↑ Google 검색: sanskrit pronunciation of आसुरि 2025년 8월 17일에 확인.
    The Sanskrit word आसुरि (āsuri) is pronounced [aːˈsʊri] in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In simpler terms, it's pronounced "ah-soo-ri," with the "a" as in "father," the "su" as in "sue," and the "ri" as in "ree".
    Here's a breakdown:
    • आ (ā): This is a long "a" sound, like the "a" in "father".
    • सु (su): This is pronounced like the English word "sue".
    • रि (ri): This is pronounced like the English word "ree" or the "ri" in "river".
    Therefore, when combined, the pronunciation of आसुरि (āsuri) is "ah-soo-ri".
  227. ↑ 가 나 다 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. pp. 93-94.
    상키야철학 연구의 또 하나의 중요한 자료는 요가학파의 문헌들이다. 요가는 상키야철학의 세계관과 형이상학을 거의 그대로 받아들이고 있는 동시에 實踐 · 修行의 면을 더욱 강조하고 있는 학파로서, 『요가經 Yoga-sūtra』이라는 근본경전을 갖고 있다.
  228. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/瑜伽經 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    瑜伽經（Yoga sutra），約在公元前2-4世紀由印度哲人波顛闍利編纂，將古老的印度瑜伽傳統加以整理，形成四品195頌的著作。其思想涉及了佛教、耆那教、數論派和《奧義書》，並批判佛教唯識思想中的自證分[1]。
    《瑜伽經》是中世紀時期，翻譯語言最多的古印度文本，囊括了40種印度語言和兩種非印度語：古爪哇語和阿拉伯語。本書從12世紀起，隱沒了將近700年的時光，直到19世紀晚期，才由英國的東方學學者重新發現，並在斯瓦米·維韋卡南達等人的努力下重新傳承。本書受到了許多練習瑜伽者的重視，為古印度六派哲學瑜伽派的重要經典[2][1]。
    [1] 莊國彬. 《瑜伽經》與佛教思想的比較 (PDF). 圓光佛學學報. 2015 [2016-07-04]. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-01-17）. [2] White, David Gordon. The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. 2014.
  229. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/瑜伽經 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    瑜伽经（Yoga sutra），约在公元前2-4世纪由印度哲人波颠阇利编纂，将古老的印度瑜伽传统加以整理，形成四品195颂的著作。其思想涉及了佛教、耆那教、数论派和《奥义书》，并批判佛教唯识思想中的自证分[1]。
    《瑜伽经》是中世纪时期，翻译语言最多的古印度文本，囊括了40种印度语言和两种非印度语：古爪哇语和阿拉伯语。本书从12世纪起，隐没了将近700年的时光，直到19世纪晚期，才由英国的东方学学者重新发现，并在斯瓦米·维韦卡南达等人的努力下重新传承。本书受到了许多练习瑜伽者的重视，为古印度六派哲学瑜伽派的重要经典[2][1]。
    [1] 庄国彬. 《瑜伽經》與佛教思想的比較 (PDF). 圆光佛学学报. 2015 [2016-07-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-17）. [2] White, David Gordon. The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. 2014.
  230. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patanjali 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    Patanjali (Sanskrit: पतञ्जलि, IAST: Patañjali, Sanskrit pronunciation: [pɐtɐɲdʑɐli]; also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra)[a] was the name of one or more author(s), mystic(s) and philosopher(s) in ancient India. His name is recorded as an author and compiler of a number of Sanskrit works.[3] The greatest of these are the Yoga Sutras, a classical yoga text. Estimates based on analysis of this work suggests that its author(s) may have lived between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE.[3]
    [a] These names of Sanskrit authors are generally identified with Patanjali. Gonardiya denotes someone from Gonarda, which has been identified by some with the Gonda in Uttar Pradesh. Gonikaputra means the son of a woman named Gonika.[1][2]
    [1] Monier Williams (1899). A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    [2] Mahamahopadhyaya Kashinath Vasudev Abhyankar (1961). A Dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar. Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
  231. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=瑜伽经注&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 9월 11일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 瑜伽经注 Yújiā jīng zhù
    Chinese (Traditional): 瑜珈經注 Yújiā jīng zhù
    English: Yoga Sutra Commentary
    Korean: 요가수트라 주석
  232. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽经注&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 11일에 확인.
    瑜 아름다운 옥 유
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 13획
    1. 아름다운 옥(玉) 2. 옥빛(玉-), 옥(玉)의 광채(光彩) 3. 아름다운 모양
    伽 절 가
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 7획
    1. 절, 사찰(寺刹) 2. 가지(≒茄) 3. 가야(伽倻ㆍ伽耶ㆍ加耶)
    经 날 경
    부수 纟(실사변2) 총 획수 8획
    1. 날, 날실(피륙이나 그물을 짤 때, 세로 방향으로 놓인 실) 2. 노끈, 새끼 3. 글(생각이나 일 따위의 내용을 글자로 나타낸 기록)
    經(경)의 간체자(簡體字). 經(동자)
    注 부을 주/주 달 주/병 주
    부수 氵(삼수변) 총 획수 8획
    1. 붓다(액체나 가루 따위를 다른 곳에 담다) 2. (물을)대다 3. (뜻을)두다
    澍(동자), 疰(동자), 註(동자)
  233. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽经注 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 9월 11일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    瑜伽 经注
    yújiā jīngzhù
  234. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=瑜伽釋論&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 瑜伽釋論 Yújiā shì lùn
    Chinese (Simplified): 瑜伽释论 Yújiā shì lùn
    English: Yoga Commentary
    Korean: 요가 해설
  235. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽釋論&range=all 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    瑜 아름다운 옥 유
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 13획
    1. 아름다운 옥(玉) 2. 옥빛(玉-), 옥(玉)의 광채(光彩) 3. 아름다운 모양
    伽 절 가
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 7획
    1. 절, 사찰(寺刹) 2. 가지(≒茄) 3. 가야(伽倻ㆍ伽耶ㆍ加耶)
    釋 풀 석, 기뻐할 역
    부수 釆(분별할변ㆍ캘채변) 총 획수 20획
    1. (풀 석) 2. 풀다 3. 설명하다(說明--)
    論 논할 론(논), 조리 륜(윤)
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 15획
    1. (논할 론(논)) 2. 논하다(論--), 논의하다(論議--) 3. 서술하다(敍述--)
  236. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yogasutrabhashya 2025년 9월 9일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Yogasutrabhashya in Sanskrit glossary
    Yogasūtrabhāṣya (योगसूत्रभाष्य):—[=yoga-sūtra-bhāṣya] [from yoga-sūtra > yoga] n. Name of [work] relating to the Yoga-sūtra
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  237. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/yogasūtrabhāṣya/187162/1 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    yogasūtrabhāṣya योगसूत्रभाष्य
    Definition: n. Name of work relating to the yoga-sūtra-
    Dictionary: Monier-Williams
  238. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0857.jpg 2025년 9월 9일에 확인.
  239. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yogabhashya 2025년 9월 9일에 확인.
    Yogabhāṣya (योगभाष्य):—[=yoga-bhāṣya] [from yoga] n. Name of [work]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  240. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/yogabhāṣya/187031/1 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    yogabhāṣya योगभाष्य
    Definition: n. Name of work
    Dictionary: Monier-Williams
  241. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali 2025년 9월 9일에 확인.
    The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (IAST: Patañjali yoga-sūtra) is a compilation "from a variety of sources"[1] of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The Yoga Sutras were compiled in India in the early centuries CE by the sage Patanjali, who collected and organized knowledge about yoga from Samkhya, Buddhism, and older Yoga traditions,[2][3][4][5] and possibly another compiler who may have added the fourth chapter.[a] He may also be the author of the Yogabhashya, a commentary on the Yoga Sutras, traditionally attributed to the legendary Vedic sage Vyasa,[6] but possibly forming a joint work of Patanjali called the Pātañjalayogaśāstra.[5]
    [1] Larson, Gerald M. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 12. Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Motilall Banarsidass, p. 32.
    [2] Larson, Gerald M. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 12. Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Motilall Banarsidass, p. 44-45.
    [3] Feuerstein, Georg (1978), Handboek voor Yoga (Dutch translation; English title "Textbook of Yoga", Ankh-Hermes, p. 108.
    [4] Tola, Fernando; Dragonetti, Carmen; Prithipaul, K. Dad (1987), The Yogasūtras of Patañjali on concentration of mind, Motilal Banarsidass, p. x.
    [5] Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 33.
    [6] Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360, p. Introduction.
    [a] Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, p. 38: "The fourth book of the Yoga Sutra, however, is a later addition and cannot be attributed to Patanjali."
  242. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali 2025년 9월 9일에 확인.
    Text - Pātañjalayogaśāstra
    Scholars hold that the Yoga sutras and the Yogabhasya, a commentary on the sutras, were written by one person, and form an integral work.[23][24][31] According to Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both Sūtras and Bhāṣya.[23] According to Maas and Wujastyk, Patanjali compiled yoga from older traditions in Pātañjalayogaśāstra, and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the work of two people.[5] The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with the author's own explanation was well known at the time of Patañjali, as for example in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (that, incidentally, Patañjali quotes). These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic sūtras.[23][d] This commentary is indispensable for the understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study of the sutras has always referred to the Yogabhashya.[6]
    While the Yogabhashya was probably written by Patanjali,[32] it has traditionally also attributed to the legendary Vedic sage Vyasa who is said to have composed the Mahabharata.[e] The bhasya has also been attributed by some to Vindhyavasin (late 4th century CE), who reinterpreted the samkhya-philosophy due to his knowledge of Buddhist philosophy;[33] his reinterpretation is closely related to the Yogabhasya, which builts on this reinterpretation.[34]
    [5] Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 33.
    [6] Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360, p. Introduction.
    [23] Maas, Philipp A. (2006), Samādhipāda. Das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert. (Samādhipāda. The First Chapter of the Pātañjalayogaśās-tra for the First Time Critically Edited)., Aachen: Shaker
    [24] Maas, Philipp A. (2013). "A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy". In Franco, Eli (ed.). Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy. Wien: "Sammlung de Nobili, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Indologie und Religionsforschung", Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität. ISBN 978-3-900271-43-5. OCLC 859540980. [twelve lectures held at the fourteenth World Sanskrit Conference (Kyoto, September 1–5, 2009)]
    [31] Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 32-33.
    [32] Larson, Gerald M. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 12. Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Motilall Banarsidass, p. 40.
    [33] Larson, Gerald M. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 12. Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Motilall Banarsidass, p. 39-41.
    [33] Larson, Gerald M. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 12. Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Motilall Banarsidass, p. 40-41.
    [d] See James Woods, The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali, and the comment, called Yoga-bhashya (1914), archive.org for a complete translation
    [e] Some scholars see Vyasa as a later 4th or 5th century CE commentator (as opposed to the ancient mythic figure).[6]
  243. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=letter&query=瑜伽精髓集要&autoConvert= 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 9월 14일에 확인.
    瑜 아름다운 옥 유
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 13획
    1. 아름다운 옥(玉) 2. 옥빛(玉-), 옥(玉)의 광채(光彩) 3. 아름다운 모양
    伽 절 가
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 7획
    1. 절, 사찰(寺刹) 2. 가지(≒茄) 3. 가야(伽倻ㆍ伽耶ㆍ加耶)
    精 정할 정
    부수 米(쌀미) 총 획수 14획
    1. 정하다(精--: 정성을 들여서 거칠지 아니하고 매우 곱다) 2. 깨끗하다 3. 정성스럽다(精誠---)
    精(정)과 동자(同字). 精(동자)
    精 정할 정, 맑을 청
    부수 米(쌀미) 총 획수 14획
    1. (정할 정) 2. 정하다(精--: 정성을 들여서 거칠지 아니하고 매우 곱다) 3. 깨끗하다
    䊒(동자), 精(동자)
    髓 골수 수
    부수 骨(뼈골) 총 획수 23획
    1. 골수(骨髓: 물질의 중심에 있어 굳기름처럼 응고된 것) 2. 뼛골(뼈의 골수) 3. 정수(精髓: 사물의 중심이 되는 골자 또는 요점)
    髄(일본자), 𩪏(고자), 髄(약자), 𦝦(동자), 膸(동자), 𦢪(동자), 𩩜(동자), 䯝(동자), 𩪄(동자), 𩪦(동자), 𩪷(동자)
    集 모을 집
    부수 隹(새추) 총 획수 12획
    1. 모으다, 회동하다(會同--: 일정한 목적으로 여러 사람이 한데 모이다) 2. 모이다, 모아 합치다(合--) 3. 편안(便安)히 하다
    𠍱(동자), 雦(동자), 雧(동자)
    要 요긴할 요/허리 요
    부수 襾(덮을아) 총 획수 9획
    1. 요긴하다(要緊--), 중요하다(重要--) 2. 요약하다(要約--) 3. 모으다, 합치다(合--)
    𦥺(본자), 𠾅(고자), 𡢗(고자), 𦥼(고자), 𡕯(동자), 𡕹(동자), 腰(동자)
  244. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽精髓集要 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 9월 14일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 3개 단어
    瑜伽 精髓 集要
    yújiā jīngsuǐ jíyào
  245. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=瑜伽精髓集要&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 9월 14일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 瑜伽精髓集要 Yújiā jīngsuǐ jí yào
    Chinese (Traditional): 瑜伽精髓集要 Yújiā jīngsuǐ jí yào
    English: Essentials of Yoga
    Korean: 요가의 필수 요소
  246. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yogasarasamgraha 2025년 9월 14일에 확인.
    Yogasarasamgraha, Yogasārasaṃgraha, Yogasārasaṅgraha, Yogasara-samgraha, Yogasara-sangraha, Yogasarasangraha: 5 definitions
    In Hinduism
    Ayurveda (science of life)
    Yogasarasamgraha in Ayurveda glossary
    Kalpa (Formulas, Drug prescriptions and other Medicinal preparations)
    Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह) or Yogasārasaṅgraha is a Keralite work on Āyurveda by one Vāsudeva. It is an unpublished but complete work in the form of manuscript. As the name indicates it is a compendium of the entire recipe in the route of administration. Hence it may come under the purview of pharmacy (bhaiṣajyakalpanā-vijñāna), which is a branch of pharmacology (dravyaguṇa-vijñāna). The work comprises eight chapters, division of which is based on the pharmaceutical forms of drugs.
    The eight chapters are
    1. kaṣāyakhaṇḍa,
    2. khalakhaṇḍa,
    3. tailakhaṇḍa,
    4. lepakhaṇḍa,
    5. ghṛtakhaṇḍa,
    6. cūrṇakhaṇḍa,
    7. gulikākhaṇḍa,
    8. lehakhaṇḍa.

    In total Yogasārasaṃgraha possesses about 880 recipes.
    Kasṣāyakhaṇḍa, the chapter on decoction, is the first chapter of Yogasārasaṃgraha. This chapter starts with an invocation verse which praises Lord Gaṇapati, the trouble shooter, and who desires fresh stalks of sugarcane the most. In the second verse the author mentions the name of the work as ‘Yogasārasaṃgraha’, i.e, compendium of the entire recipe in the route of administration and his name Vāsudeva, who desires the course of treatment. According to the author, physicians are specialized in administering special forms of drugs like kaṣāya (decoction), khala, taila (medicated oil), ghṛta (medicated ghee), cūrṇa (powder), vasti (clyster) and so on. Some others are famous for treating with Siddha medicine, gems, mystic spells, rejuvenators etc. Thus by implicitly indicating why division of the chapters has been done in such a manner, the author directly enters into the description of the combinations.
    Source: Shodhganga: Edition translation and critical study of yogasarasamgraha
    Yoga (school of philosophy)
    Yogasarasamgraha in Yoga glossary
    Yogasārasaṅgraha (योगसारसङ्ग्रह) [yoga-sāra-saṅgraha] is the name of a work dealing with the Yoga system of Philosophy. It deals with—A manual of Yoga practice. By Vijñāna Bhikṣu. Cf. North Western Provinces Catalogue. I., Cf. Hall’s Contributions, Cf. Kielhorn’s Central Provinces Catalogue.
    Source: archive.org: Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali with Bhoja Vritti
    Yogasārasaṅgraha (योगसारसङ्ग्रह) represents an 18th-century text dealing with Yoga.—The Yogasārasaṅgraha undoubtedly postdates the Haṭhapradīpikā and the Śivayogapradīpikā. The latter was probably composed in the late fifteenth century. However, the Yogasārasaṅgraha may post-date the Haṭharatnāvalī (seventeenth century), as it shares a verse on bhujaṅgīkaraṇa, a technique that is only taught in the Haṭharatnāvalī (2.31), as far as I am aware (cf. Yogasārasaṅgraha p. 28, lines 4–5).
    Source: Brill: Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions (yoga)
    Languages of India and abroad
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Yogasarasamgraha in Sanskrit glossary
    1) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—yoga. Rādh. 17. Oppert. 2973.
    —by Kṛṣṇa Śukla. NW. 436.
    2) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—a brief exposition of the Yoga system, by Vijñānabhikṣu. Oxf. 232^a. Hall. p. 12. K. 138. Ben. 67. NW. 422.
    3) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—med. by Tulasīdāsa. Peters. 3, 399.
    4) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—based on Bhavadeva's Yogasaṃgraha, by Harisevaka Miśra. L. 864.
    Yogasārasaṃgraha has the following synonyms: Yogasārasamuccaya.
    5) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—yoga. Gov. Or. Libr. Madras 73.
    6) Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—med. by Bhoja. Ulwar 1673.
    —Yogasūtrabhāṣya, by Bhoja. Ulwar 753.
    Yogasārasaṃgraha has the following synonyms: Rājamārtaṇḍa.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Yogasārasaṃgraha (योगसारसंग्रह):—[=yoga-sāra-saṃgraha] [from yoga-sāra > yoga] m. Name of [work]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary

  247. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=auto&tl=en&text=瑜伽释补&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified) - Detected: 瑜伽释补 Yújiā shì bǔ 위쟈 시뿌
    Chinese (Traditional): 瑜珈釋補 Yújiā shì bǔ 위쟈 시뿌
    English: Yoga Remedies 요가 레머디스
    Korean: 요가 레메디
  248. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽释补&range=all 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    瑜 아름다운 옥 유
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 13획 획순보기
    1. 아름다운 옥(玉) 2. 옥빛(玉-), 옥(玉)의 광채(光彩) 3. 아름다운 모양
    伽 절 가
    부수 亻(사람인변) 총 획수 7획 획순보기
    1. 절, 사찰(寺刹) 2. 가지(≒茄) 3. 가야(伽倻ㆍ伽耶ㆍ加耶)
    释 풀 석
    부수 釆(분별할변ㆍ캘채변) 총 획수 12획
    1. 풀다 2. 설명하다(說明--) 3. 풀리다, 깨닫다
    釋(석)의 간체자(簡體字). 釋(동자)
    补 기울 보/도울 보
    부수 衤(옷의변) 총 획수 7획 획순보기
    1. 깁다(떨어지거나 해어진 곳을 꿰매다) 2. 돕다, 보좌하다(補佐ㆍ輔佐--) 3. (관복을)꾸미다, 수식하다(修飾--: 겉모양을 꾸미다)
    補(보)의 간체자(簡體字). 補(동자)
  249. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽释补 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과
    총 2개 단어
    瑜伽 释补
    yújiā shìbǔ
    https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=瑜伽 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    瑜伽
    명사 음역어 요가(범 yoga).
    [ yújiā ]
    고려대 중한사전
    https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=释补 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    释
    번체 釋
    1. 동사 해석하다. 설명하다. 해설하다.
    2. 동사 (의심·원한 따위를) 풀다.
    3. 동사 석방하다.
    [ shì ]
    고려대 중한사전
    补
    번체 補
    1. 동사 보수하다. 때우다. 깁다.
    2. 동사 보충하다. 보태 채우다. 메우다.
    3. 동사 공백(空白)·공석(空席)을 채우다.
    [ bǔ ]
    고려대 중한사전
  250. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yogavarttika 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Yogavarttika in Sanskrit glossary
    Yogavarttikā (योगवर्त्तिका).—f.
    (-kā) A magical lamp, a magical lantern.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Yogavārttika (योगवार्त्तिक) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—by Vijñānabhikṣu. See Yogasūtra.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Yogavārttika (योगवार्त्तिक):—[=yoga-vārttika] [from yoga] n. Name of [work]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Yogavarttikā (योगवर्त्तिका):—f. ein magisches Licht, Zauberlaterne [Daśakumāracarita 71, 3.]
    --- OR ---
    Yogavārttika (योगवार्त्तिक):—n. Titel eines Commentars, = pātañjalabhāṣyavārttika [HALL 10.] [Oxforder Handschriften 232,a, No. 562.] [Colebrooke] [?I,231. 235. 335.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Böhtlingk and Roth Grosses Petersburger Wörterbuch
  251. ↑ 가 나 https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0857.jpg
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/yogavārttika/187089/1
    2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    yogavārttika योगवार्त्तिक
    Definition: n. Name of work
    Dictionary: Monier-Williams
  252. ↑ 가 나 https://www.kym.org/yoga-vaisharadi/ 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    COMMENTARIES OF YOGASŪTRAS
    14 Sanskrit commentaries to the Yogasūtras have been digitized as part of this project. They can be classified into two types.
    • Vyāsa’s commentary and it sub-commentaries – Phase One
    • Sanskrit commentaries that are independent of Vyāsa’s commentary – Phase Two.
    PHASE ONE Vyāsa’s commentary is considered the closest to the period of Yogasūtras (3rd or 4th Century CE) and hence it is respected as primary commentary. There are four known sub-commentaries to Vyāsa’s commentary to Yogasūtra.
    1. Tattvavaiśāradī of Vācaspati Miśra (9th or 10th century)
    2. Vivaraṇa of Śaṅkara (13th Century – not settled with finality)
    3. Vārttika of Vijñānabhikṣu (15th Century)
    4. Bhāsvatī of Hariharānanda Āraṇya (19th century)
    A sub commentary to Tattvavaiśāradī– Pātañjalarahasya by Rāghavānanda sarasvatī (1550-1600) has also been digitized as part of this phase.
    Along with these classical commentaries, the first chapter of Yogavallī, a Sanskrit commentary to the Yogasūtras by yogācārya Śrī T Krishnamacharya (20th Century) is provided.
    The views of Sri TKV Desikachar, son and student of Sri T Krishnamacharya on Yogasūtras in English – titled Reflections to Yogasūtras is also presented.
    Also, Complete Tamil translation of Sage Vyāsa’s commentary of Yogasūtras by Dr.M.Jayaraman has also been included as part of this phase.
    Thus currently the first phase of Yoga-vaiśāradī has Six Sanskrit commentaries of Yogasūtras (and one English commentary and one Tamil Translation).
    PHASE TWO
    This phase has added Eight independent classical Sanskrit Commentaries to Yogasūtras. They have been presented chronologically below:
    1. Rājamārtāṇḍa by Bhojadeva (1000 CE)
    2. Maṇiprabhā by Rāmānanda yati (1550-1600 CE)
    3. Pradīpikā by Bhāvagaṇeśa (1600 – 1700 CE)
    4. Yogasiddhāntacandrikā by Nārāyaṇatīrtha (1700-1750 CE)
    5. Sutrārthabodhinī by Nārāyaṇatīrtha(1700-1750 CE)
    6. Vṛtti by Nāgojibhaṭṭa (1700 – 1750 CE)
    7. Yogasudhākara by sadaśivendra sarasvatī (1700-1800 CE)
    8. Yogacandrikā anantadevapaṇḍita (1800 – 1900 CE)
    OTHER YOGA TEXTS
    Along with the above commentary texts, to facilitate cross-referencing of Yogic concepts few other important Yoga/ Sāṅkhya texts form part of the repository which are also searchable. They include:
    • Haṭhayogapradīpikā of svātmārāma (15th Century)
    • with Jyotsnā commentary by Brahmānanda (19th Century)
    • Bhagavadgītā only mūlaślokas
    Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā, Yogayājñavalkyasaṃhitā & sāṅkhyakārikā īśvarakṛṣṇa (to be included)
    NOTE
    Sanskrit commentaries are very detailed. Care has been taken to keep the content error-free. But some inadvertent typographical errors might have crept in. We seek the support of users/readers to point out those mistakes so that we can perfect this in due course. You may write to yoga-vaisaradi@kym.org. The web-repository Yoga Vaishararadi can be accessed at www.kymyogavaisharadi.org.
  253. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali#Medieval_commentaries 2025년 9월 10일에 확인
    Medieval commentaries
    Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include:
    • Vyasa (AD 4th or 5th Century), as mentioned above, has been attributed authorship of the commentary Yogabhāṣya, the first medieval commentary on the Yoga Sutras, and the one upon which all subsequent medieval commentaries were based. However, some scholars have argued that this commentary was written by Patanjali himself.[141]
    • Adi Shankara (AD 8th Century) is said to have authored the commentary Vivaraṇa, although the authorship of this commentary is debated.[142]
    • Vācaspati Miśra (AD 900–980) who composed the commentary Tattvavaiśāradī, described as the "most significant early subcommentary".[143]
    • Bhoja Raja's Raja-Martanda, 11th century.
    • Vijnanabhiksu's 16th century Yogabhashyavarttika or simply Yogavarttika ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher and exegete who tried to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the Bhedabheda view.[6]
    • Ramananda Sarasvati's Yogamani-Prabha (16th century).
    [6] Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360, p. Introduction.
    [141] Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360, p. 40.
    [142] Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360, p. 41.
    [143] Jacobsen, Knut A. (2019). "Classical Yoga Philosophy and the Legacy of Sāṃkhya: With Sanskrit Text and English Translation of Pātañjala Yogasūtra-s, Vyāsa Bhāṣya and Tattvavaiśāradī of Vācaspatimiśra, by Gerald James Larson". Religions of South Asia. 12 (3): 410–412. doi:10.1558/rosa.39892. ISSN 1751-2689.
  254. ↑ 가 나 https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/fcab5d6082584356ab6893bc25e4a061네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 28일에 확인.
    原因
    원인
    原 언덕 원 因 인할 인
    1. 어떤 사물(事物)이나 상태(狀態)를 변화(變化)시키거나 일으키게 하는 근본(根本)이 된 일이나 사건(事件).
    유의어
    原由(원유) 理由(이유)
    반의어
    結果(결과)
    原
    언덕 원/근원 원
    1. 언덕 2. 근원(根源), 근본(根本) 3. 저승
    부수 厂 (민엄호ㆍ민엄호밑, 2획) 총획 10획
    因
    인할 인
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    부수 囗 (큰입구몸, 3획) 총획 6획
  255. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=原因 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 28일에 확인.
    原因
    명사 원인. (=元因, 起因, 缘故)
    [ yuányīn ]
    고려대 중한사전
    原因
    명사 reason
    [ yuányīn ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    원인 2 原因 [워닌]
    명사 原因 ，缘由 ，缘故 。 (≒까닭, 빌미, 뿌리, 싹, 영문, 기인(起因・基因), 내인(內因), 도인(導因), 배태(胚胎), 소인(素因), 생인(生因), 시근(始根), 원유(原由), 이유(理由)), (↔결과(結果))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  256. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=原因&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 28일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 原因 Yuányīn
    Chinese (Simplified): 原因 Yuányīn
    English: reason
    Korean: 이유
  257. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/karana 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Karana in Sanskrit glossary
    Karaṇa (करण).—a. [kṛ-lyuṭ]
    1) Making, doing, effecting, producing.
    2) (Ved.) Clever, skilled; रथं न दस्रा करणा समिन्वथः (rathaṃ na dasrā karaṇā saminvathaḥ) Ṛgveda 1.119.7.
    -ṇaḥ 1 (Ved.) An assistant. यमस्य करणः (yamasya karaṇaḥ) Av.6.46.2.
    2) A man of a mixed tribe.
    3) A writer, जज्ञे धीमांस्ततस्तस्यां युयुत्सुः करणो नृप (jajñe dhīmāṃstatastasyāṃ yuyutsuḥ karaṇo nṛpa) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 1.115. 43; Manusmṛti 1.22.
    4) A child. cf. ...... करणः शिशौ । शूद्राविशोः सुतेऽपि स्यात् (karaṇaḥ śiśau | śūdrāviśoḥ sute'pi syāt) Nm.
    -ṇam 1) Doing, performing, accomplishing, effecting; परहित°, संध्या°, प्रिय° (parahita°, saṃdhyā°, priya°) &c.
    2) Act, action.
    3) Religious action; Y.1.251.
    4) Business, trade.
    5) An organ of sense; वपुषा करणोज्झि- तेन सा निपतन्ती पतिमप्यपातयत् (vapuṣā karaṇojjhi- tena sā nipatantī patimapyapātayat) R.8.38,42; पटुकरणैः प्राणिभिः (paṭukaraṇaiḥ prāṇibhiḥ) Meghadūta 5; R.14.5.
    6) The body; उपमानमभूद्विलासिनां करणं यत्तव कान्तिमत्तया (upamānamabhūdvilāsināṃ karaṇaṃ yattava kāntimattayā) Kumārasambhava 4.5.
    7) An instrument or means of an action, न तस्य कार्यं करणं न विद्यते (na tasya kāryaṃ karaṇaṃ na vidyate) Śvet.6.8; करणं च पृथग्विधम् (karaṇaṃ ca pṛthagvidham) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 18.14.18. उपमितिकरणमुपमानम् (upamitikaraṇamupamānam) T. S.; तस्य भोगाधिकरणे करणानि निबोध मे (tasya bhogādhikaraṇe karaṇāni nibodha me) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 3.181.19.
    8) (In Logic) The instrumental cause which is thus defined :व्यापारवद- साधारणं कारणं करणम् (vyāpāravada- sādhāraṇaṃ kāraṇaṃ karaṇam).
    9) A cause or motive (in general).
    10) The sense expressed by the instrumental case (in gram.); साधकतमं करणम् (sādhakatamaṃ karaṇam) P.1.4.42; or क्रियायाः परिनिष्पत्तिर्यद्- व्यापारादनन्तरम् । विवक्ष्यते यदा यत्र करणं तत्तदा स्मृतम् (kriyāyāḥ pariniṣpattiryad- vyāpārādanantaram | vivakṣyate yadā yatra karaṇaṃ tattadā smṛtam) ||
    11) (In law) A document, a bond, documentary proof; Manusmṛti 8.15,52,154.
    12) A kind of rhythmical pause, beat of the hand to keep time; अनुगर्जितसंधिग्धाः करणै- र्मुरजस्वनाः (anugarjitasaṃdhigdhāḥ karaṇai- rmurajasvanāḥ) Kumārasambhava 6.4.
    13) (In Astrol.) A Division of the day; (these Karaṇas are eleven).
    -bava, bālava, kaulava, taitila, gara, vaṇija, viṣṭi, śakuni, catuṣpāda, nāga and [rkistughna].
    14) The Supreme Being.
    15) Pronunciation.
    16) The posture of an ascetic.
    17) A posture in sexual enjoyment. बोभुज्यते स्म करणेन नरेन्द्रपुत्री (bobhujyate sma karaṇena narendraputrī) Bil. ch.42. वात्स्यायनोक्तकरणैर्निखिलैर्मनोज्ञै । संभुज्यते कविवरेण नरेन्द्रपुत्री (vātsyāyanoktakaraṇairnikhilairmanojñai | saṃbhujyate kavivareṇa narendraputrī) || Ibid.45.
    18) A field.
    19) Plastering with the hand.
    2) The usage of the writer caste.
    21) The Principle of intelligence; दृष्टाः करणाश्रयिणः (dṛṣṭāḥ karaṇāśrayiṇaḥ) Sāṃkhyakārikā 43.
    22) (In Astron.) Name of a treatise of Varāhamihira on the motion of planets.
    -ṇī 1) A woman of a mixed caste. माहिष्येण करण्यां तु रथकारः प्रजायते (māhiṣyeṇa karaṇyāṃ tu rathakāraḥ prajāyate) Y.1.95.
    2) Absurd or irrational number.
    -sutā f. An adopted daughter.
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇa (कारण).—[kṛ-ṇic lyuṭ]
    1) A cause, reason; कारणकोपाः कुटुम्बिन्यः (kāraṇakopāḥ kuṭumbinyaḥ) M.1.18; R.1.74; Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 13.21; oft. with loc. of the effect; Bhartṛhari 2.84.
    2) Ground, motive, object; प्रव्राज्य चीरवसनं किं नु पश्यसि कारणम् (pravrājya cīravasanaṃ kiṃ nu paśyasi kāraṇam) Rām.2.73. 12. किं पुनः कारणम् (kiṃ punaḥ kāraṇam) Mahābhārata ; Y.2.23; Manusmṛti 8.347; कारण- मानुषीं तनुम् (kāraṇa- mānuṣīṃ tanum) R.16.22.
    3) An instrument, means; गर्भस्रावे मासतुल्या निशाः शुद्धेस्तु कारणम् (garbhasrāve māsatulyā niśāḥ śuddhestu kāraṇam) Y.3.2,65.
    4) (In Nyāya phil.) A cause, that which is invariably antecedent to some product and is not otherwise constituted; or, according to Mill, 'the antecedent or concurrence of antecedents on which the effect is invariably and unconditionally consequent'; according to Naiyāyikas it is of three kinds; (1) समवायि (samavāyi) (intimate or inherent); as threads in the case of cloth; (2) असमवायि (asamavāyi) (non-intimate or non-inherent), as the conjunction of the threads in the case of cloth; (3) निमित्त (nimitta) (instrumental) as the weaver's loom.
    5) The generative cause, creator, father; Kumārasambhava 5.81.
    6) An element, elementary matter; Y.3.148; Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 18. 13.
    7) The origin or plot of a play, poem &c.
    8) An organ of sense; हित्वा तनुं कारणमानुषीं ताम् (hitvā tanuṃ kāraṇamānuṣīṃ tām).
    9) The body.
    10) A sign, document, proof or authority; प्रमाणं चैव लोकस्य ब्रह्मात्रैव हि कारणम् (pramāṇaṃ caiva lokasya brahmātraiva hi kāraṇam) Manusmṛti 11.84.
    11) That on which any opinion or judgment is based.
    12) Action; आत्मना कारणैश्चैव समस्येह महीक्षितः (ātmanā kāraṇaiścaiva samasyeha mahīkṣitaḥ) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.59.13.
    13) A legal instrument or document.
    14) Agency, instrumentality.
    15) A deity (as the proximate or remote cause of creation)
    16) Killing, injuring.
    17) A desire (vāsanā) created formerly (as pūrvavāsanā); पूर्वं नित्यं सर्वगतं मनोहेतुम- लक्षणम् । अज्ञानकर्मनिर्दिष्टमेतत्कारणलक्षणम् (pūrvaṃ nityaṃ sarvagataṃ manohetuma- lakṣaṇam | ajñānakarmanirdiṣṭametatkāraṇalakṣaṇam) || Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.211.6.
    -ṇā 1) Pain, agony.
    2) Casting into hell.
    3) Urging, instigation. (-kāraṇāt for the reason that; dveṣa° on account of hatred; matkāraṇāt for my sake; Pañcatantra (Bombay) 1.22.)
    4) Action; निमित्ते कारणात्मके (nimitte kāraṇātmake) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.289.7.
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Karaṇā (करणा).—(compare karaṇī; both = Sanskrit karaṇa, nt.), means, cause: Lalitavistara 434.2, repeated 3—4, sarva-sāmkleśikāntarāyika- dharmāntarāya-karaṇā-nirvāṇasye 'ti (both times one ms., a different one each time, with Calcutta (see LV.) °karaṇa-).
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇa (कारण).—cause (as in Sanskrit; a few special uses): (1) Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra 9.18 f. sarva-kāraṇa-tīrthya-vyapeta-buddheḥ (Laṅ- kādhipateḥ), probably having his intellect turned away from the heretics (who are characterized by the view that) all things are caused (Suzuki's version is impossible); (2) acc. adv., for the sake (of, gen.): Saddharmapuṇḍarīka 74.8 (prose) āgacchata (read probably °tha with most mss.) śīghraṃ teṣāṃ kāraṇaṃ nirdhāvata (°tha), come, run forth quickly for the sake of (getting) these (toys)!; (3) loc., quasi-adv., used in a way resembling Sanskrit sthāne, with good reason: Jātakamālā 223.20 (verse) jagad idam avakīrṇam kāraṇe tvadyaśobhiḥ.
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇā (कारणा).—(= Pali id.; essentially Buddhist word, tho cited in Sanskrit Lexx. and once from Daśak., [Boehtlingk and Roth] s.v.), torture, torment, especially applied to torments of hell: with kārayati, causes to undergo, inflicts, °ṇāṃ kārayanti Divyāvadāna 376.12; °ṇāḥ (so with mss.) sattvānām ārabdhāḥ kārayitum id. 16; kāraṇāviśeṣāḥ (in hell) pratiprasrabhyante, are allayed, quieted, Divyāvadāna 68.3; 138.10; 265.23 (°srabdhāḥ); 568.15; Avadāna-śataka i.4.10—11; 10.10—11, etc.; kāraṇābhiḥ kārito, tortured with torments (in hell and elsewhere) Śikṣāsamuccaya 186.11; of earthly torments, kāraṇāś ca kārenti Lalitavistara 259.19 (verse), they make him (the Bodhisattva, practising austerities) undergo (physical) torments; ātmanaḥ kāraṇāṃ kārayasi Śikṣāsamuccaya 39.3; you inflict torture on yourself.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
    Karaṇa (करण).—n.
    (-ṇaṃ) 1. An instrument or means of action. 2. Making, doing. 3. Action, act. 4. Cause, motive. 5. Business, occupation, as trade. &c. 6. An organ of sense. 7. The body. 8. The mind or heart. 9. A field. 10. Grain. 11. The posture, abstinence, &c. of an ascetic. 12. Copulation, (seu modus coeundi.) 13. The usage or practice of the writer caste. 14. Acting, dramatic action. 15. Song, singing. 16. The particular business of any tribe or caste. 17. Plaistering, spreading any thing with the hand. 18. A Karana, an astrological division of time; the Karanas are eleven: 7 moveable and 4 fixed, and two are equal to a lunar day; or the time during which the moon’s motion from the sun amounts to 6º. 19. (In grammar) The instrumental case, or noun in that case. m.
    (-ṇaḥ) A man of a mixed class, the son of a Sudra woman by a Vaisya; or, according to some, of an outcaste K'shetriya, by a K'shetriya female; the occupation of this class is writing, accounts, &c. a writer, a scribe. f. (-ṇī) 1. A woman of the same caste. 2. (In arithmetic, &c.) A surd or irrational quantity. E. kṛ to do, to act, &c. lyuṭ aff.
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇa (कारण).—n.
    (-ṇaṃ) 1. Cause, motive, origin, principle: in logic, cause is of three kinds; Samavayi inherent or direct; Asamavayi proximate or indirect; and Nimitta instrumental or incidental. 2. Action, agency. 3. Killing, injuring. 4. An organ of sense. 5. An instrument or means. 6. An element, elementary matter. 7. A deity, as the remote or proximate cause of creation. 8. A number of scribes. 9. A kind of musical instrument. 10. A sort of song, &c. see karaṇa. 11. The origin of a story (of a play or poem.) f.
    (-ṇā). 1. Pain, agony. 2. Casting into hell. 3. An astronomical period. E. kṛñ to do or act, in the causal form, and yuc or lyuṭ affix, or karaṇa, and aṇ added.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Karaṇa (करण).—i. e. kṛ + ana, I. adj., f. ṇī, Making, causing, e. g. vaidhavya-, Causing widowhood, [Rāmāyaṇa] 6, 95, 27. saṃjīva-, Causing health, [Rāmāyaṇa] 6, 26, 5. Ii. n. 1. Making, Mahābhārata 3, 15297; performing, [Pañcatantra] 40, 15. 2. Action, [Rāmāyaṇa] 1, 11, 17. 3. Instrument, Bhāṣāp. 57. 4. An organ of sense, [Raghuvaṃśa, (ed. Stenzler.)] 8, 38. 5. The body, [Kumārasaṃbhava, (ed. Stenzler.)] 4, 5. 6. A document, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 8, 51. 7. Musical time, [Kumārasaṃbhava, (ed. Stenzler.)] 6, 40. Iii. m. The son of a Vrātya Kṣatriya, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 10, 22.
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇa (कारण).—i. e. kṛ, [Causal.], + ana. I. m. 1. Motive, [Pañcatantra] iii. [distich] 99. 2. Cause, [Suśruta] 1, 310, 4; [Kathāsaritsāgara, (ed. Brockhaus.)] 3, 31 (with the loc.). 3. Primary cause, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 5, 152; [Bhartṛhari, (ed. Bohlen.)] 2, 82. 4. An element, [Yājñavalkya, (ed. Stenzler.)] 3, 148. 5. Basis, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 11, 84. 6. Argument, [Nala] 16, 27; proof, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 8, 200. 7. An instrument, a means, [Rāmāyaṇa] 1, 65, 10 (cf. Gorr. 1, 67, 4, who reads upāyaiḥ). 8. An organ of sense, [Raghuvaṃśa, (ed. Stenzler.)] 16, 22. 9. Abl. kāraṇāt, and loc. ṇe, On account of, [Rāmāyaṇa] 5, 56, 136; 5, 28, 9. Instr. ṇena, By some reason, [Cāṇakya] 23. yena kāraṇena, Because, [Pañcatantra] 175, 10. kiṃ punaḥ kāraṇam, From what motive, Mahābhārata 1, 3600. Ii. f. ṇā, Torture, [Daśakumāracarita] in <abrr title="my Sanskrit Chrestomathy">Chr. 195, 16.</abrr>
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Karaṇa (करण).—1. [adjective] active, clever, skilled.
    --- OR ---
    Karaṇa (करण).—2. [feminine] ī making, causing (—°). [masculine] helper, assistant, [Name] of a caste ([feminine] ī); complex of sounds, i.e. word. [neuter] making, doing, causing; action, occupation; organ, instrument; instrumentality or the instrumental case ([grammar]); document, bond, evidence ([jurisprudence]).
    --- OR ---
    Kāraṇa (कारण).—[adjective] = 1 kāra (—°). [neuter] (adj. —° [feminine] ī) cause, reason, motive, first or chief matter or element, substance; sign, mark, document, proof; means, instrument, organ. °—, [ablative], [instrumental], & [locative] from some cause or reason; for the sake of ([genetive]); [ablative] also instead of ([genetive]). —* Abstr. tā [feminine], tva [neuter]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Karaṇa (करण):—[from kara] a mf(ī) n (once karaṇa, [Ṛg-veda i, 119, 7]) doing, making, effecting, causing ([especially] ifc.; cf. antakaraṇa, uṣṇaṃ-k, etc.), [Rāmāyaṇa] etc.
    2) [v.s. ...] clever, skilful, [Ṛg-veda i, 119, 7]
    3) [v.s. ...] m. a helper, companion, [Atharva-veda vi, 46, 2; xv, 5, 1-6; xix, 57, 3]
    4) [v.s. ...] a man of a mixed class (the son of an outcast Kṣatriya, [Manu-smṛti x, 22]; or the son of a Śūdra woman by a Vaiśya, [Yājñavalkya i, 92]; or the son of a Vaiśya woman by a Kṣatriya, [Mahābhārata i, 2446; 4521]; the occupation of this class is writing, accounts etc.)
    5) [v.s. ...] writer, scribe, [Horace H. Wilson]
    6) [v.s. ...] m. (in [grammar]) a sound or word as an independent part of speech (or as separated from the context; in this sense usually n.), [Kāśikā-vṛtti on Pāṇini 3-1, 41; Patañjali] [commentator or commentary] on [Ṛgveda-prātiśākhya]
    7) [v.s. ...] m. (in mus.) a kind of time, [Kumāra-sambhava vi, 40]
    8) [from kara] n. the act of making, doing, producing, effecting, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa; Mahābhārata] etc. (very often ifc. e.g. muṣṭi-k, virūpa-k)
    9) [v.s. ...] an act, deed, [Ṛg-veda]
    10) [v.s. ...] an action ([especially] a religious one), [Yājñavalkya i, 250; Rāmāyaṇa]
    11) [v.s. ...] the special business of any tribe or caste, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    12) [v.s. ...] a calculation ([especially] an astronomical one), [Varāha-mihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā]
    13) [v.s. ...] an astrological division of the day (these Karaṇas are eleven, viz. vava, valava, kaulava, taitila, gara, vaṇija, viṣṭi, śakuni, catuṣpada, kintughna, and nāga, two being equal to a lunar day; the first seven are called a-dhruvāṇi or movable, and fill, eight times repeated, the space from the second half of the first day in the moon’s increase to the first half of the fourteenth day in its wane; the four others are dhruvāṇi or fixed, and occupy the four half-days from the second half of the fourteenth day in the wane of the moon to the first half of the first day in its increase), [Varāha-mihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā; Suśruta] etc.
    14) [v.s. ...] pronunciation, articulation, [Atharvaveda-prātiśākhya]
    15) [v.s. ...] (in [grammar]) a sound or word as an independent part of speech, separated from its context, [Pāṇini; Kāśikā-vṛtti] etc., (karaṇa may be used in this way like kāra e.g. iti-karaṇa, [Śāṅkhāyana-śrauta-sūtra])
    16) [v.s. ...] the posture of an ascetic
    17) [v.s. ...] a posture in sexual intercourse
    18) [v.s. ...] instrument, means of action, [Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad; Yājñavalkya; Meghadūta]
    19) [v.s. ...] an organ of sense or of speech, [Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā-prātiśākhya; Pāraskara-gṛhya-sūtra]
    20) [v.s. ...] (in law) an instrument, document, bond, [Manu-smṛti viii, 51; 52; 154]
    21) [v.s. ...] (in [grammar]) the means or instrument by which an action is effected, the idea expressed by the instrumental case, instrumentality, [Pāṇini 1-4, 42; ii, 3, 18; iii, 2, 45]
    22) [v.s. ...] cause (= kāraṇa)
    23) [v.s. ...] a spell, charm, [Kathāsaritsāgara] (cf. karaṇa-prayoga)
    24) [v.s. ...] rhythm, time, [Kumāra-sambhava]
    25) [v.s. ...] body, [Meghadūta; Kumāra-sambhava; Kādambarī]
    26) [v.s. ...] Name of a treatise of Varāha-mihira on the motion of the planets
    27) [v.s. ...] of a work belonging to the Śiva-darśana
    28) [v.s. ...] a field, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    29) [v.s. ...] the mind, heart, [Horace H. Wilson] (cf. antaḥ-karaṇa)
    30) [v.s. ...] grain, [Horace H. Wilson]
    31) [v.s. ...] (also) a sinew, tendon, muscle, [Kirātārjunīya]
    32) b etc. See p. 254, col. 1.
    33) Kāraṇa (कारण):—[from kāra] 1. kāraṇa n. cause, reason, the cause of anything ([genitive case], also often [locative case]), [Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra; Mahābhārata; Manu-smṛti] etc.
    34) [v.s. ...] instrument, means
    35) [v.s. ...] motive origin, principle
    36) [v.s. ...] a cause (in [philosophy] id est. that which is invariably antecedent to some product cf. samavāyi-k, asamavāyi-k, nimitta-k)
    37) [v.s. ...] an element, elementary matter, [Yājñavalkya iii, 148; Bhagavad-gītā xviii, 13]
    38) [v.s. ...] the origin or plot of a play or poem, [Sāhitya-darpaṇa]
    39) [v.s. ...] that on which an opinion or judgement is founded (a sign, mark; a proof; a legal instrument, document), [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
    40) [v.s. ...] an organ of sense, [Raghuvaṃśa xvi, 22 etc.]
    41) [v.s. ...] an action, [Mahābhārata xii, 12070]
    42) [v.s. ...] agency, instrumentality, condition, [Kathāsaritsāgara cxii, 178]
    43) [v.s. ...] ‘the cause of being’, a father, [Horace H. Wilson]
    44) [v.s. ...] ‘cause of creation’, a deity, [Horace H. Wilson]
    45) [v.s. ...] the body, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    46) [v.s. ...] a kind of musical instrument, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    47) [v.s. ...] a sort of song, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    48) [v.s. ...] a number of scribes or Kāyasthas, [Horace H. Wilson]
    49) Kāraṇā (कारणा):—[from kāraṇa > kāra] f. pain, agony, [Daśakumāra-carita]
    50) [v.s. ...] an astronomical period, [Horace H. Wilson] ([kāraṇāt, from some cause or reason, [Ṛgveda-prātiśākhya iii, 13; Manu-smṛti viii, 355]; kasmāt kāraṇāt, from what cause? mama-kāraṇāt, for my sake, [Rāmāyaṇa] etc.; a-kāraṇena, without a reason, [Yājñavalkya ii, 234]; yena kāraṇena, because; yasmin kāraṇe, from which motive, wherefore.])
    51) Kāraṇa (कारण):—[from kāra] 2. kāraṇa n. killing, injury, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Karaṇa (करण):—[(ṇaḥ-ṇaṃ)] 1. n. An instrument or means of action; act; organ; cycle; business. m. Man of a mixed caste.
    2) Kāraṇa (कारण):—(ṇaṃ) 1. n. Cause; or means. f. (ṇā) Agony; a cycle.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  258. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTXVBiGzFSE Karana Pronunciation Sanskrit कारण kāraṇa. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  259. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=am0yNIFT4P4 Karana Sharira Pronunciation Sanskrit कारणशरीर kāraṇa śarīra. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  260. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karana 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Karana may refer to:
    • Karana, ancient Assyrian-Babylonian city state, modern day Tell al-Rimah
    • Karrana, a village in Bahrain
    • Karana (dance) are the 108 key transitions in classical Indian dance described in Natya Shastra
    • Karan (caste) or Karana, a caste of Odisha state in India
    • Karana (astronomy), a historical genre of Indian texts on astronomy
    • Karana (pancanga), one among the five co-ordinate members (pancanga) in the Indian system of astronomical calculations
    • Karana (moth), a genus of moths of the family Noctuidae
    • Kāraṇa, cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta
    • Karana, colloquial term for Indians in Madagascar
    • Karana, the main character in Scott O'Dell's novel Island of the Blue Dolphins, who is based on the historical Juana Maria
    • Karana the Rainkeeper, the god of rain and storms in the EverQuest MMORPG
  261. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/karana Learn how to pronounce Karana. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  262. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/karana-sarira Learn how to pronounce karana-sarira. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  263. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Īśvarakṛṣṇa 2025년 8월 20일에 확인.
    Īśvarakṛṣṇa (Sanskrit: ईश्वर कृष्णः, Īśvara Kṛṣṇa, Chinese: 自在黑; pinyin: Zìzàihēi) (fl. c. 350 CE)[1] was an Indian philosopher and sage. He was the author of Samkhyakarika (“Verses on Samkhya”), an account of the universe and its components (tattvas) according to the Samkhya school, one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy.[2] Samkhyakarika is the earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy.[3]
    [1] "Sankhya | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 2022-02-21.
    [2] Davies, John (2013-10-08). Hindu Philosophy: The Sankhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-38973-3.
    [3] King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3.
  264. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/ishvarakrishna 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    [«previous (I) next»] — Ishvarakrishna in Sanskrit glossary
    Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण).—Name of the author of Sāṅkhya Kārikā.
    Derivable forms: īśvarakṛṣṇaḥ (ईश्वरकृष्णः).
    Īśvarakṛṣṇa is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms īśvara and kṛṣṇa (कृष्ण).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    1) Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—poet. [Subhāshitāvali by Vallabhadeva]
    2) Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण):—Sāṃkhyakārikā.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण):—[=īśvara-kṛṣṇa] [from īśvara > īś] m. Name of the author of the Sāṃkhya-kārikā.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण):—(ī + kṛ) m. Nomen proprium des Verfassers der [SĀṂKHYAKĀRIKĀ] [SĀṂKHYAK. 71.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Böhtlingk and Roth Grosses Petersburger Wörterbuch
    Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण):—m. Nomen proprium eines Autors.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung
  265. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0171.jpg 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
    Īśvará-kṛishṇa m., N. of the author of the Sāṃkhya-kārikā.
  266. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAR5arzzKQ4 Ishwara Pronunciation Sanskrit ईश्वर īśvara. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  267. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PBp_kgUII4 Krishna Pronunciation Sanskrit कृष्ण kṛṣṇa. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  268. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/isvara Learn how to pronounce isvara. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  269. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/krishna Learn how to pronounce krishna. 2025년 8월 21일에 확인.
  270. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=因中無果論&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 因中無果論 Yīn zhōng wú guǒ lùn 인쫑우꿔런 Did you mean: 因中無論
    Chinese (Simplified): 因中无果论 Yīn zhōng wú guǒ lùn 인쫑우꿔런
    English: Theory of No Effect in Cause
    Korean: 원인에 대한 무효과 이론
  271. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=all&query=因中无果论 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    因中无果论 문장 분석
    yīn zhōng wúguŏ lùn
    doctrine of effect being a new emergence.
    웹수집
  272. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/815a333940d6450981671a034a967be9 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    因中無果論
    인중무과론
    因 인할 인 中 가운데 중 無 없을 무 果 실과 과 論 논할 론(논)
    장단음 인중무과-론
    1. 결과(結果)와 원인(原因)은 등질(等質)이 아니라는 설(說). 따라서 만물(萬物)은 등질이 아니고, 일에서 다(多)가 생기는 일은 없음. 만유(萬有)의 원인(原因)은 다(多)이며, 그들의 결합(結合)에 의(依)하여 잡다(雜多)한 만물(萬物)이 생긴다고 함.
    因
    인할 인
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    부수 囗 (큰입구몸, 3획) 총획 6획
    中
    가운데 중
    1. 가운데 2. 안, 속 3. 사이
    부수 丨 (뚫을곤, 1획) 총획 4획
    無
    없을 무
    1. 없다 2. 아니다(≒非) 3. 아니하다(≒不)
    부수 灬 (연화발, 4획) 총획 12획
    果
    실과 과, 시중들 와, 벗을 라(나), 강신제 관
    1. (실과 과) 2. 실과(實果), 과실(果實) 3. 열매
    부수 木 (나무목, 4획) 총획 8획
    論
    논할 론(논), 조리 륜(윤)
    1. (논할 론(논)) 2. 논하다(論--), 논의하다(論議--) 3. 서술하다(敍述--)
    부수 言 (말씀언, 7획) 총획 15획
  273. ↑ 가 나 다 http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=因中無果 DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism). 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    因中無果
    Pronunciations
    [py] yīn zhōng wúguǒ
    [wg] yin-chung wu-kuo
    [hg] 인중무과
    [mc] in jung mugwa
    [mr] in chung mugwa
    [kk] インチュウムカ
    [hb] inchū muka
    [qn] nhân trung vô quả
    Basic Meaning: effects are not [necessarily] inherent in their causes
    Senses:
    • The theoretical position that causes do not always contain the character of their effects (Skt. asat-kārya). This position was held by the Vaiśeṣika school 勝論宗. As distinguished from the 因中無果 position held by the Sāṃkhyas. 〔中論 T 1564.30.6c17〕 [Charles Muller]
    • Search SAT
    • Search INBUDS Database

    [Dictionary References]
    Bukkyō jiten (Ui) 54
    Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary (Daitō shuppansha) 128b/140
    Bukkyōgo daijiten (Nakamura) 72a
    Fo Guang Dictionary 2272
    Bukkyō daijiten (Mochizuki) (v.1-6)184c,2819b

  274. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/asatkaryavada 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Asatkaryavada, Asatkarya-vada, Asatkāryavāda: 4 definitions
    In Hinduism
    Ayurveda (science of life)
    Asatkaryavada in Ayurveda glossary
    Asatkāryavāda (असत्कार्यवाद):—The ideology which believes that the effect is not present in the cause
    Source: gurumukhi.ru: Ayurveda glossary of terms
    Nyaya (school of philosophy)
    Asatkaryavada in Nyaya glossary
    Asatkāryavāda (असत्कार्यवाद) refers to a particular doctrine of “cause and effect”.—In Indian Philosophy, theory of causation has great significance. Satkāryavāda and asatkāryavāda are two prime doctrines. Asatkāryavādins say that though, the effect is produced out of the cause only and nothing else, still the effect, as an effect, is not in cause, since it is not seen to be present there. The final outcome of this theory is that, effect is only potentially and not actually present in the cause.
    This cause and effect relationship is very well explained in details here in Nyāya darśana as compared to similar theories of Jainism, Buddhism and Mimamsa. The prominent defect of Nyāya darśana is that it believes consciousness as accidental character of ātman, as free soul is unconsciousness. Many have criticized their theory of mokṣa, as “mokṣa of Nyāya is a word without any meaning”.
    Source: Shodhganga: Comparative study of spiritual practices in Jainism and Patanjala yoga (Nyaya)
    General definition (in Hinduism)
    Asatkaryavada in Hinduism glossary
    Asatkāryavāda (असत्कार्यवाद) refers to one of the philosophical systems regarding the cause and effect relation prevalent in Ancient India.—Asatkāryavāda has also two divisions: (a) Ārambhavāda and (b) Pratītyasamutpādavāda. According to the asatkāryavāda, the effect is a new beginning (arambha), a new creation; it is different from its cause and it can never be the same with cause. Uddyotakara, Vācaspati Miśra, and others also do not accept satkāryavāda and have given arguments to establish asatkāryavāda.
    Source: Shodhganga: A study of Nyāya-vaiśeṣika categories (h)
    Languages of India and abroad
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Asatkaryavada in Sanskrit glossary
    Asatkāryavāda (in Sanskrit) can be associated with the following Chinese terms:
    1) 無因 [wú yīn]: “nonexistence of cause”.
    2) 無因論 [wú yīn lùn]: “doctrine of non-causality”.
    Note: asatkāryavāda can be alternatively written as: asat-kārya-vāda.
    Source: DILA Glossaries: Sanskrit-Chinese-English (dictionary of Buddhism)
  275. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=因中有果論&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 因中有果論 Yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ lùn 인쫑 요 꿔런
    Chinese (Simplified): 因中有果论 Yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ lùn 인쫑 요 꿔런
    English: Theory of Cause and Effect
    Korean: 인과관계 이론
  276. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中有果論&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    因中有果論 인중유과론
    결과(結果)로서 생기게 되는 것은 그 형(形)이야 어떻든 이미 그것이 원인(原因) 가운데 선주(先主)한다는 설(說).
    因 인할 인
    부수 囗(큰입구몸) 총 획수 6획
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    𤇀(고자), 囙(속자), 㧢(동자)
    中 가운데 중
    부수 丨(뚫을곤) 총 획수 4획
    1. 가운데 2. 안, 속 3. 사이
    𠁦(고자), 𠁧(고자), 𠁩(고자), 𠔗(동자), 𠔈(동자)
    有 있을 유
    부수 ⺝(달월2) 총 획수 6획
    1. 있다 2. 존재하다(存在--) 3. 가지다, 소지하다(所持--)
    𢇔(동자)
    果 실과 과, 시중들 와, 벗을 라(나), 강신제 관
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 8획
    1. (실과 과) 2. 실과(實果), 과실(果實) 3. 열매
    𣐭(동자), 菓(동자)
    論 논할 론(논), 조리 륜(윤)
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 15획
    1. (논할 론(논)) 2. 논하다(論--), 논의하다(論議--) 3. 서술하다(敍述--)
    论(간체자), 𧪺(본자), 倫(동자), 𠐜(동자), 论(동자)
  277. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中有果論 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 3개 단어
    因中 有 果論
    yīnzhōng yǒu guǒlùn
  278. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中有果论 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 3개 단어
    因中 有 果论
    yīnzhōng yǒu guǒlùn
  279. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=all&query=因中 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    特别是，因中彩票成为富翁，引发不幸事件的情况不在少数。
    tèbié shì ， yīn zhōng căipiào chéngwéi fùwēng ， yĭnfā bùxìng shìjiàn de qíngkuàng bù zài shăoshù 。
    특히 복권 당첨으로 대박이 터진 경우 후일담은 쪽박인 경우가 적지 않다.
    웹수집
    因中无果论
    yīn zhōng wúguŏ lùn
    doctrine of effect being a new emergence.
    웹수집
  280. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=有 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    有
    1. 동사 가지고 있다. 소유하다. [소유를 나타냄]
    2. 동사 있다. [존재를 표시함]
    3. 동사 …만큼 되다. …만하다. [계량(計量) 또는 비교를 나타냄]
    검색 연관 이미지
    1
    [ yǒu ]
    고려대 중한사전
    有
    부사 문어 …과[와]. [우수리를 표시함] (=又(1f))
    [ yòu ]
    고려대 중한사전
    有
    1. 동사 have
    2. 동사 occur
    [ yǒu ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
  281. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=果论 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    金刚果论
    《金刚心总持论》又名《金刚果论》,2002年前后,先父在读此书后,发现其中有对“四句偈”的解释,认为对《金刚经》的注解意义重大
    [ jīn gāngguŏ lùn ]
    HDWIKI
  282. ↑ http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=因中有果 DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism). 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    因中有果
    Pronunciations
    [py] yīnzhōng yǒuguǒ
    [wg] yin-chung yu-kuo
    [hg] 인중유과
    [mc] injung yugwa
    [mr] injung yugwa
    [kk] インチュウウカ
    [hb] inchū uka
    [qn] nhân trung hữu quả
    Basic Meaning: the result exists within the cause
    Senses:

    [Dictionary References]
    Bukkyō jiten (Ui) 54
    Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary (Daitō shuppansha) 128b/140
    Bukkyōgo daijiten (Nakamura) 71d
    Fo Guang Dictionary 2271
    Bukkyō daijiten (Mochizuki) (v.1-6)184b

  283. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中有果&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    因 인할 인
    부수 囗(큰입구몸) 총 획수 6획
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    𤇀(고자), 囙(속자), 㧢(동자)
    中 가운데 중
    부수 丨(뚫을곤) 총 획수 4획
    1. 가운데 2. 안, 속 3. 사이
    𠁦(고자), 𠁧(고자), 𠁩(고자), 𠔗(동자), 𠔈(동자)
    有 있을 유
    부수 ⺝(달월2) 총 획수 6획
    1. 있다 2. 존재하다(存在--) 3. 가지다, 소지하다(所持--)
    𢇔(동자)
    果 실과 과, 시중들 와, 벗을 라(나), 강신제 관
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 8획
    1. (실과 과) 2. 실과(實果), 과실(果實) 3. 열매
    𣐭(동자), 菓(동자)
    因中有果論 인중유과론
    결과(結果)로서 생기게 되는 것은 그 형(形)이야 어떻든 이미 그것이 원인(原因) 가운데 선주(先主)한다는 설(說).
  284. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中有果 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    因中 有果
    yīnzhōng yǒuguǒ
  285. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=因中有果&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 因中有果 Yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ 인쫑 요꿔
    Chinese (Simplified): 因中有果 Yīn zhōng yǒu guǒ 인쫑 요꿔
    English: Cause and effect
    Korean: 원인과 결과
  286. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=有果 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    有果胡同
    有果胡同是北京胡同的其中一条胡同，解放前叫做“有鬼胡同”。
    [ yŏu guŏ hútòng ]
    HDWIKI
    《樱桃有果初长成》
    《樱桃有果初长成》是一个现代诗歌文学作品，作者：丁子
    [ yīngtáo yŏu guŏ chū chángchéng ]
    HDWIKI
    有
    1. 동사 가지고 있다. 소유하다. [소유를 나타냄]
    2. 동사 있다. [존재를 표시함]
    3. 동사 …만큼 되다. …만하다. [계량(計量) 또는 비교를 나타냄]
    검색 연관 이미지
    1
    [ yǒu ]
    고려대 중한사전
    果
    1. 명사 과실. 열매. (=菓, 果子(1))
    2. 명사 (사물의) 귀결. 결과. (↔因(3))
    3. 동사 이루다. 실행하다.
    [ guǒ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    오픈사전
    百因必有果
    자업자득 이란 뜻과 비슷하며 원인이 있으면 결과가 그에 따른다는 뜻 예) 1. 선한일을 하여 나중에 큰 보상을 받음 2. 나쁜일을 하여 나중에 큰 벌을 받음
  287. ↑ 가 나 http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=因中說果 DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism). 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    因中說果
    Pronunciations
    [py] yīn zhōng shuōguǒ
    [wg] yin-chung shuo-kuo
    [hg] 인중설과
    [mc] in jung seol gwa
    [mr] in chung sŏl kwa
    [kk] インチュウセッカ
    [hb] in chū sekka
    [qn] nhân trung thuyết quả
    Basic Meaning: to speak of the result before the cause has fully matured
    Senses:

    [Dictionary References]
    Bukkyō jiten (Ui) 54
    Bulgyo sajeon 734a
    Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary (Daitō shuppansha) 128b/140
    Fo Guang Dictionary 2272
    Ding Fubao {Digital Version}
    Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary (Hirakawa) 0283
    Bukkyō daijiten (Mochizuki) (v.1-6)184c
    Bukkyō daijiten (Oda) 96-1

  288. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yin-zhong-shuo-guo 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    Yin zhong shuo guo, Yīn zhōng shuō guǒ: 2 definitions
    In Buddhism
    Chinese Buddhism
    Yin zhong shuo guo in Chinese Buddhism glossary
    [The following represents an unverified English translation. For all purposes consult the original Chinese text.]
    因中說果 [yin zhong shuo guo]—"" (yīn zhōng shuō guǒ) — [Term] A method of discourse that speaks of the fruit (effect) based on the cause.
    Nirvana Sutra (涅槃經 [nie pan jing]), Chapter 37, states: "Sometimes, the Tathagata speaks of the fruit in the cause, and the cause in the fruit (果中說因 [guo zhong shuo yin]). For example, ordinary people say that mud is a bottle, and thread is clothing; this is called speaking of the fruit in the cause. As for speaking of the cause in the fruit (果中說因 [guo zhong shuo yin]), it is like saying a cow is water and grass, or a person is food."
    Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa (智度論 [zhi du lun]), Chapter 43, states: "Knowing that a person eats (food equivalent to) several bolts of cloth daily – though cloth itself is inedible – yet from the cause and condition of cloth, one obtains food; this is called speaking of the fruit in the cause. Like seeing a good painting and saying it's a good hand (meaning a good painter); this is speaking of the cause in the fruit (果中說因 [guo zhong shuo yin])."
    Source: DILA Glossaries: Ding Fubao: Dictionary of Buddhist Studies
    Languages of India and abroad
    Chinese-English dictionary
    Yin zhong shuo guo in Chinese glossary
    因中說果 [yīn zhōng shuō guǒ] refers to: “speak of the result before the cause has fully matured”.
    因中說果 is further associated with the following language/terms:
    [Sanskrit] kārye kāraṇopacāraḥ; sat-kārya-vāda.
    [Vietnamese] nhān trung thuyết quả.
    [Korean] 인중설과 / in jung seol gwa.
    [Japanese] インチュウセッカ / in chū sekka.
    Source: DILA Glossaries: Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
  289. ↑ https://glossaries.dila.edu.tw/search?locale=en&term=因中說果&commit=Search Dictionary of Buddhist Studies. 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    因中說果
    【術語】於因上說果之論法。涅槃經三十七曰：「如來或時，因中說果，果中說因。如世間人，說泥即是瓶，縷即是衣，是名因中說果。果中說因者，牛即水草，人即是食。」智度論四十三曰：「知人日食數匹布，不可食，從布因緣得食，是名因中說果。如見好畫而言好手，是為果中說因。」
  290. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=因中說果&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 因中說果 Yīn zhōng shuō guǒ 인쫑 슈어꿔
    Chinese (Simplified): 因中说果 Yīn zhōng shuō guǒ 인쫑 슈어꿔
    English: The effect from the cause
    Korean: 원인으로부터의 결과
  291. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中說果&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    因 인할 인
    부수 囗(큰입구몸) 총 획수 6획
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    𤇀(고자), 囙(속자), 㧢(동자)
    中 가운데 중
    부수 丨(뚫을곤) 총 획수 4획
    1. 가운데 2. 안, 속 3. 사이
    𠁦(고자), 𠁧(고자), 𠁩(고자), 𠔗(동자), 𠔈(동자)
    說 말씀 설, 달랠 세, 기뻐할 열, 벗을 탈
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 14획
    1. (말씀 설) 2. 말씀 3. 문체(文體)의 이름
    说(간체자), 𧧘(와자), 说(동자), 説(동자)
    果 실과 과, 시중들 와, 벗을 라(나), 강신제 관
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 8획
    1. (실과 과) 2. 실과(實果), 과실(果實) 3. 열매
    𣐭(동자), 菓(동자)
  292. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=因中说果 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 25일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    因中 说果
    yīnzhōng shuōguǒ
    因
    이체
    囙
    1. 동사 문어 (전례에) 따르다. (옛 것을) 그대로 좇다. 답습하다. 이어받다.
    2. 동사 문어 의거하다. 근거하다. 의지하다.
    3. 명사 연유. 까닭. 원인. 이유.
    [ yīn ]
    고려대 중한사전
    中
    1. 명사 한가운데. 복판. 중심. 중앙.
    2. 명사 중급(中級). 중등(中等). 중류.
    3. 명사 안. 속.
    [ zhōng ]
    中
    1. 동사 맞히다. 명중하다. 들어맞다. 당첨되다. 합격하다.
    2. 동사 맞다. 받다. 입다. 당하다.
    [ zhòng ]
    고려대 중한사전
    고려대 중한사전
    说
    번체
    說
    1. 동사 말하다. 이야기하다.
    2. 동사 설명하다. 해설하다.
    3. 명사 이론. 주장. 학설.
    [ shuō ]
    고려대 중한사전
    果
    1. 명사 과실. 열매. (=菓, 果子(1))
    2. 명사 (사물의) 귀결. 결과. (↔因(3))
    3. 동사 이루다. 실행하다.
    [ guǒ ]
    고려대 중한사전
  293. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satkaryavada 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    Satkaryavada
    The Samkhya school of philosophy, which follows Prakṛti Parinama-vada (doctrine of the transformation of objective nature), describes the origination and evolution of universe through its theory of Satkāryavāda (Sanskrit: सत्कार्यवाद) which is the theory of causation. According to this theory, the manifested effect is pre-existent in the cause; and the original material cause of everything that is perceived is Prakriti. When Prakriti is not in proximity with immutable Purusha, the conscious ability (chiti-shakti), the three modes (gunas-sattva, rajas and tamas) of prakriti are in equipoise and prakriti is an unmanifest potential. When the conscious ability and the objective ability interact the three modes of the objective nature become disturbed and enter a state of flux giving rise to diverse manifest appearance.
  294. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/satkaryavada 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Satkaryavada in Sanskrit glossary
    Satkāryavāda (सत्कार्यवाद):—[=sat-kārya-vāda] [from sat-kārya > sat] m. (or -siddhānta m., [Kapila]) the doctrine of the actual existence of an effect (in its cause), [Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma-sūtra [Scholiast or Commentator]]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Satkāryavāda (in Sanskrit) can be associated with the following Chinese terms:
    1) 因中說果 [yīn zhōng shuō guǒ]: “speak of the result before the cause has fully matured”.
    Note: satkāryavāda can be alternatively written as: sat-kārya-vāda.
    Source: DILA Glossaries: Sanskrit-Chinese-English (dictionary of Buddhism)
  295. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFJs9-disjI Satkaryavada in Indian Philosophy || #Philosophyin60sec || by Namrata Choudhury. 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
  296. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/satkaryavada#hinduism 2025년 10월 24일에 확인.
    Satkaryavada, Satkarya-vada, Satkāryavāda: 9 definitions
    In Hinduism
    Samkhya (school of philosophy)
    Satkaryavada in Samkhya glossary
    Satkāryavāda (सत्कार्यवाद) refers to one of the philosophical systems regarding the cause and effect relation prevalent in Ancient India.—Satkāryavāda is upheld by the Sāṃkhya-Yoga and Advaita Vedānta philosophers. According to Satkāryavāda the effect already exists in the cause in a potential condition. So, it is not basically new creation and different from the material cause. But effect is only an explicit manifestation of that which are contained in its material cause. For example, a pot is not different from the clay, a cloth is not different from the threads.
    There are two divisions of Satkāryavāda—a) Pariṇāmavāda and b) Vivartavāda. They are called to be Pariṇāmavādins, who believes that the effect is a real transformation of its cause, but who believes that the effect is unreal, they are Vivartavādins. Sāṃkhya-Yoga’s view is known as Prakṛti-Pariṇāmavāda, Rāmānuja’s view is known as Brahma-Pariṇāmavāda, Śaṃkara is Vivartavādin.
    It is the Sāṃkhyas who have actually established the theory satkāryavāda by different arguments. Īśvaṛakṛṣṇa has discussed the theory of satkāryavāda in his Sāṃkhyakārikā. He gives five arguments to prove this theory. The five arguments are discussed here as follows:
    1. asadakaranād,
    2. upādāna-grahaṇāt,
    3. sarvasambhavābhāvāt,
    4. śaktasya-śakyakaraṇāt,
    5. kāraṇabhāvāt.
    Source: Shodhganga: A study of Nyāya-vaiśeṣika categories (samkhya)

    Satkāryavāda (सत्कार्यवाद, “form”) refers to the Sāṃkhya’s concept of causation.—Satkāryavāda (the doctrine that the effect pre-exists in its cause), presents the three fundamental qualities (i.e. triguṇa) as the grounds for an argument by asserting that the diversity of the phenomenal world is also nothing but the transformation of the three qualities according to the relative superiority or inferiority among their forces. In this case, an aspect of superiority or inferiority among the three qualities is expressed in the concept of saṃsthāna.
    Source: krindology.com: Dignāga’s Critical Issues against the Sāṃkhya Definition of Perception (s)

  297. ↑ 가 나 https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=轉變說&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    轉變說 전변설
    인도(印度) 철학(哲學)의 우주론(宇宙論)의 하나. 유일(唯一)의 실재(實在)가 스스로 개전(開展), 변화(變化)하여 잡다(雜多)의 세계(世界)가 된다는 설(說).
    轉 구를 전
    부수 車(수레거) 총 획수 18획
    1. 구르다, 회전하다(回轉ㆍ廻轉--) 2. 선회하다(旋回--), 맴돌다 3. (벼슬을)옮기다
    转(간체자), 転(일본자), 転(약자), 转(동자), 䡱(동자)
    變 변할 변
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 23획
    1. 변하다(變--), 변화하다(變化--) 2. 고치다, 변경하다(變更--) 3. 변통하다(變通--)
    变(간체자), 𢒛(고자), 𢒟(고자), 㣐(고자), 𢒦(고자), 𢒪(고자), 变(약자), 𠮓(속자), 変(속자), 變(속자), 𣁧(와자), 𢒭(동자), 𢻝(동자), 𣀵(동자), 𦇥(동자), 變(동자)
    變 변할 변
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 22획
    1. 변하다(變--), 변화하다(變化--) 2. 고치다, 변경하다(變更--) 3. 변통하다(變通--)
    變(변)과 동자(同字). 變(동자)
    變 변할 변
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 22획
    1. 변하다(變--), 변화하다(變化--) 2. 고치다, 변경하다(變更--) 3. 변통하다(變通--)
    變(변)의 속자(俗字). 變(본자)
    說 말씀 설, 달랠 세, 기뻐할 열, 벗을 탈
    부수 言(말씀언) 총 획수 14획
    1. (말씀 설) 2. 말씀 3. 문체(文體)의 이름
    说(간체자), 𧧘(와자), 说(동자), 説(동자)
  298. ↑ https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&Name=数论派#section1-4 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版의《数论派》항목(중국어 간체). 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    因中有果论
    所谓“因中有果论”是数论派在展示其转变说理论体系时的一个基本论证。数论派认为，世间事物或人生现象都是由一个根本因转变出来的。诸种事物千变万化，都具有结果的性质，而任何结果都仅仅是原因的转变。在一切事物的原因中，已经包含了结果。结果是潜在于原因中的，原因和结果是同一物的隐蔽状态和显现状态，是同一物的因位和果位，二者在本质上是相同的。例如，从种子生长出果实，种子在这里是因，果实是果。在数论派看来，它们是同一个东西，种子是果实的隐蔽状态，是因位，而果实是种子的显现状态，是果位。二者无本质差别，种子在未结成果实之前已包含了果实（因中有果）。与此类似，世间一切事物是一种果，它们是由某一根本因转变而来的。这根本因在转化出世间现象之前，已经在自身内部中包含着世间现象了。
    数论派的这种因果理论强调了事物在发展过程中的联系，但也在一定程度上忽视了因与果之间的差别。这在印度古代曾引起其他派别的指责。佛教等派别经常对数论派的因中有果论进行破斥。
  299. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=轉變說&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 轉變說 Zhuǎnbiàn shuō 쫜비앤 슈어
    Chinese (Simplified): 转变说 Zhuǎnbiàn shuō 쫜비앤 슈어
    English: Transformation Theory
    Korean: 변환 이론
  300. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=转变说 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    转变
    1. 동사 전변하다. (점점) 바뀌다. 전환(轉換)하다. (→改变)
    2. 동사 (사상적인 면에서) 전향하다.
    [ zhuǎnbiàn ]
    고려대 중한사전
    说
    번체 說
    1. 동사 말하다. 이야기하다.
    2. 동사 설명하다. 해설하다.
    3. 명사 이론. 주장. 학설.
    [ shuō ]
    고려대 중한사전
    转变
    1. 동사 (상황·관념·사상 등이) 점점 바뀌다, 전환하다, 전향하다
    2. 술어로 쓰이는 경우
    [ zhuǎnbiàn ]
    중국어-한국어 학습사전 (한국외국어대학교)
    说
    번체 說
    동사 설득하다. 설복하다.
    [ shuì ]
    고려대 중한사전
    说
    번체 說
    (☞悦(1,2))
    [ yuè ]
    고려대 중한사전
  301. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/parinamavada 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Parinamavada, Pariṇāmavāda, Parinama-vada, Parīṇāmavāda: 5 definitions
    In Hinduism
    Ayurveda (science of life)
    Parinamavada in Ayurveda glossary
    Pariṇāmavāda (परिणामवाद):—[pariṇāmavādaḥ] Theory of tramsformation which states that all the substances get changes continously
    Source: gurumukhi.ru: Ayurveda glossary of terms
    Languages of India and abroad
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Parinamavada in Sanskrit glossary
    Pariṇāmavāda (परिणामवाद) or Parīṇāmavāda (परीणामवाद).—the Sāṅkhya doctrine of evolution.
    Derivable forms: pariṇāmavādaḥ (परिणामवादः), parīṇāmavādaḥ (परीणामवादः).
    Pariṇāmavāda is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms pariṇāma and vāda (वाद).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Pariṇāmavāda (परिणामवाद):—[=pari-ṇāma-vāda] [from pari-ṇāma > pari-ṇam] m. the ‘doctrine of evolution’, the Sāṃkhya doctrine, [Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pariṇāmavāda (परिणामवाद):—m. die Entwickelungstheorie , die Sāṃkhya-Theorie.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung
  302. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QKsC3XVrAHI Parinamavada Pronunciation Sanskrit परिनामवाद parināmavāda. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  303. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta#Parinamavada_and_vivartavada_-_causality_and_change 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Parinamavada and vivartavada - causality and change
    See also: Satkāryavāda, Ajativada, and Vivartavada Cause and effect are an important topic in all schools of Vedanta.[note 52] Two sorts of causes are recognised, namely Nimitta kāraṇa, the efficient cause, that which causes the existence of the universe, and Upādāna kāraṇa, the material cause, that from which the matery of this universe comes.[310] All schools of Vedānta agree that Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause, and all subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda,[web 18] which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause.[23][note 53]
    There are different views on the origination of the empirical world from Brahman. All commentators "agree that Brahman is the cause of the world," but disagree on how exactly Brahman is the cause of the world.[23] According to Nicholson, "Mediaeval Vedantins distinguished two basic positions." Parinamavada is the idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman.[23] Vivartavada is the idea that
    the world is merely an unreal manifestation (vivarta) of Brahman. Vivartavada states that although Brahman appears to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are unreal manifestation, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.[23]
    20th verse of Brahmajnanavalimala, attributed to Shankara:
    ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या
    जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः
    Brahman is real, the world is an illusion
    Brahman and Jiva are not different.
    Brahmajnanavalimala 1.20[web 20]
    The Brahma Sutras, the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta,[23][web 18] as well as Samkhya argue for parinamavada.[web 18] The "most visible advocates of Vivartavada," states Nicholson, are the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara.[23] "Although the world can be described as conventionally real", adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman's effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated".[web 18][note 54]
    Yet, Adi Shankara himself most likely explained causality through parinamavada.[web 18][23][24][312] In Shankara's works "Brahman constitutes the basic essence (svabhava) of the universe (BS Bh 3.2.21) and as such the universe cannot be thought of as distinct from it (BS Bh 2.1.14)." In Shankara's view, then, "The world is real, but only in so far as its existence is seen as totally dependent upon Brahman."[312]
    Shankara introduced the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to Prakriti, from which the world evolves,[223] but this concept was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition.[24] Vivartavada became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.[219][220] Scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker already noted that Adi Shankara did not advocate Vivartavada, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion".[24][note 55]
    Manisha Panchakam, attributed to Adi Shankara:[web 21]
    2. I am Brahman (pure consciousness). It is pure consciousness that appears as this universe.
    It was the 13th century scholar Prakasatman, who founded the influential Vivarana school, who gave a definition to vivarta, introducing the notion that the world is illusory. It is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position.[24] Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the vivarta-vada isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to parinama-vada, and the vivarta explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.[web 18][note 56]
    [23] Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, p. 27.
    [24] Mayeda, Sengaku (2006), "An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara", in Mayeda, Sengaku (ed.), A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120827714, pp. 25–27.
    [219] Koller, John M. (2006), "Foreword", A thousand teachings: the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, Motilall Banarsidass.
    [220] Koller, John M. (2013), "Shankara", in Meister, Chad; Copan, Paul (eds.), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge.
    [223] Mayeda, Sengaku (1992), "An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara", in Mayeda, Sengaku (ed.), A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, State University of New York City Press, ISBN 0-7914-0944-9, p. 20.
    [309] Nagao, Gadjin M. (1991). Madhyamika and Yogacara: A Study of Mahayana Philosophies. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0187-3., pp. 127–128.
    [310] Lipner, Julius J. (1996). "Ancient Banyan: an Inquiry into the Meaning of 'Hinduness'". Religious Studies. 32 (1). Cambridge University Press: 109–126. doi:10.1017/s0034412500024100. S2CID 170138813., pp. 109–126.
    [311] Deutsch, Eliot (1973), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-0271-4, archived from the original on 16 January 2024, retrieved 21 September 2016, pp. 40–43.
    [312] King, Richard (1999). "Orientalism and the Modern Myth of "Hinduism"". NUMEN. 46 (2). BRILL: 146–185. doi:10.1163/1568527991517950. S2CID 45954597., p. 221.
    [313] Nicholson, Hugh (2011). Comparative Theology and the Problem of Religious Rivalry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977286-5. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 3 February 2017., pp. 266 note 20, 167–170.
    [314] Nicholson, Hugh (2011). Comparative Theology and the Problem of Religious Rivalry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977286-5. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 3 February 2017., p. 266 note 21.
    [web 17] "cause". Archived from the original on 11 February 2017, "effect". Archived from the original on 11 February 2017, Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany.
    [web 18] "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Bhedābheda Vedānta". Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
    [web 19] "Brahma Sutras by Swami Sivananda". Swami-krishnananda.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
    [web 20] Sanskrit:Sanskrit documents Archived 23 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Brahmajnanalimala 1.20
    [web 21] "manIShApanchakam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
    [note 52] These concepts are discussed in ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism, and other Indian religions, using synonymous terms. Cause is referred to as kāraṇa (कारण), nidana (निदान), hetu (हेतु) or mulam (मूलम्), while effect is referred to as kārya (कार्य), phala (फल), parinam (परिणाम) or Shungam (शुङ्ग).[web 17][309]
    [note 53] Advaita furthermore states that effect (kārya) is non-different from cause (kāraṇa), but the cause is different from the effect. This principle is called kārya-kāraṇa ananyatva. When the cause is destroyed, the effect will no longer exist. For example, cotton cloth is the effect of the cotton threads, which is the material cause. Without threads there will be no cotton cloth. Without cotton there will be no thread. According to Swami Sivananda, in his comments on the Brahmasūtra-Bhāṣya 2.1.9, Adi Shankara describes this as follows:
    ananyatve'pi kāryakāraṇayoḥ kāryasya kāraṇātmatvaṃ na tu kāraṇasya kāryātmatvaṃ
    Despite the non-difference of cause and effect, the effect has its self in the cause but not the cause in the effect.
    The effect is of the nature of the cause and not the cause the nature of the effect.
    Therefore the qualities of the effect cannot touch the cause.[web 19]
    [note 54] According to Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta states that from "the standpoint of Brahman-experience and Brahman itself, there is no creation" in the absolute sense, all empirically observed creation is relative and mere transformation of one state into another, all states are provisional and a cause-effect driven modification.[311]
    [note 55] According to Hugh Nicholson, "the definitive study on the development of the concept of vivarta in Indian philosophy, and in Advaita Vedanta in particular, remains Hacker's Vivarta.[313] According to Hacker, "the word maya has for [Shankara] hardly any terminological weight."[314]
    [note 56] Compare the misunderstanding of Yogacharas concept of vijñapti-mātra, 'representation-only', as 'consciousness-only'.
  304. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/parinamavada Learn how to pronounce parinamavada. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  305. ↑ 가 나 다 https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/0f240097fd3340d79880b851909f3ac6 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    第一原因
    제일원인
    第 차례 제 一 한 일 原 언덕 원 因 인할 인
    1. 운동(運動)의 구극(究極) 원인(原因). 그것 자신(自身)은 운동(運動)하지 않으며 다른 것의 운동(運動)의 원인(原因)이 되는 부동(不動)의 동자(動者)임.
    2. 만물(萬物)의 창조자(創造者)ㆍ지배자(支配者)로서의 신(神). 인용 오류: 잘못된 <ref> 태그; "hanja.dict.naver/第一原因"이 다른 콘텐츠로 여러 번 정의되었습니다
  306. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=第一原因&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 第一原因 Dì yī yuányīn 디이 웬인
    Chinese (Simplified): 第一原因 Dì yī yuányīn 디이 웬인
    English: First reason
    Korean: 첫 번째 이유
  307. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pradhana 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    In Samkhya, pradhāna (Sanskrit: प्रधान) is the "primal matter," "the first principle from which all material things have evolved.[1] It is an alternate term for prakriti ('material nature' and material desires) in a state of equilibrium of the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas, the three modes of prakrti. When purusha (primal consciousness) comes in contact with prakriti, the balance is distorted, and the 23 principles ('the world') evolves from prakriti.[2]
    Badarayana’s Brahma sutras state that pradhana is asabadam, 'not mentioned in the Upanishads', and therefore to be rejected as the first cause.[3] Instead, the later Advaita tradition postulates Brahman as the intelligent, conscious first principle and material and efficient cause of the universe.
    Etymology
    Pradhāna (Sanskrit: प्रधान) is an adjective meaning "most important, prime, chief or major".[web 1] The Shatapatha Brahmana (शतपथ ब्राह्मण) gives its meaning as "the chief cause of the material nature" (S.B.7.15.27) or "the creative principle of nature" (S.B.10.85.3).[web 2]
    Samkhya
    In Samkhya, pradhāna (Sanskrit: प्रधान) is an alternate term for prakriti ('material nature' and material desires), the "primal matter" and "the first principle from which all material things have evolved."[1] It is a state of equilibrium of the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas, the three modes of prakrti. When purusha (primal consciousness) comes in contact with prakriti, the balance is distorted, and the 24 principles ('the world') evolves from prakriti.[2]
    The term 'samkhya' is derived from the word sankhya (numbers), referring to the listing or numbering of the basic principles, purusha, the twenty-four principles of prakrti, and the 'right discrimination' between these principles. Purusha is unproduced, free from all action and modification, without attributes, all-pervading consciousness, individual and separate for each body. When Pradhana manifests it becomes the efficient and the material cause of creation.[4] Prakrti is eternal and all-pervading, unlimited and the material cause, eternally producing everything but insentient.[4]
    [1] Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., p. 518.
    [2] Rajarshi, Mini S. (2006). Yoga: A Synthesis of Psychology and Metaphysics. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. ISBN 978-81-208-3098-1., p. 48.
    [3] Patton, Laurie L. (1994). Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791419380., p. 146.
    [4] Hughes, David Bruce. Sri Vedanta-sutra, Adhyaya 2. Esoteric Teachings Seminar., p. 76.
    [web 1] "Sanskrit Dictionary". Spokensanskrit.de.
    [web 2] "Pradhana". Vedabase.
  308. ↑ 가 나 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pradhana 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Pradhana in Sanskrit glossary
    Pradhana (प्रधन).—
    1) A battle, fight, war, contest; प्रहितः प्रधनाय माधवानहमाकारयितुं महीभृता (prahitaḥ pradhanāya mādhavānahamākārayituṃ mahībhṛtā) Śiśupālavadha 16.52; क्षेत्रं क्षत्रप्रधनपिशुनं कौरवं तद्भजेथाः (kṣetraṃ kṣatrapradhanapiśunaṃ kauravaṃ tadbhajethāḥ) Meghadūta 5; R.11.77; Mv.6.33; Uttararāmacarita 5.1.
    2) Spoil taken in battle.
    3) Destruction.
    4) Tearing, rending.
    Derivable forms: pradhanam (प्रधनम्).
    --- OR ---
    Pradhāna (प्रधान).—a.
    1) Chief, principal, pre-eminent, main, best, most excellent; as in; प्रधानामात्य, प्रधानपुरुष (pradhānāmātya, pradhānapuruṣa) &c.; रत्नैश्च पूजयेदेनं प्रधानपुरुषैः सह (ratnaiśca pūjayedenaṃ pradhānapuruṣaiḥ saha) Manusmṛti 7.23; प्रधानफलं वा आनुषङ्गिकं वा सर्वमेव आधातरि समवेतुमर्हति (pradhānaphalaṃ vā ānuṣaṅgikaṃ vā sarvameva ādhātari samavetumarhati) ŚB. on. MS.6.2.1; 'यस्मिन् कुले यः पुरुषः प्रधानः स सर्वयत्नेन हि रक्षणीयः (yasmin kule yaḥ puruṣaḥ pradhānaḥ sa sarvayatnena hi rakṣaṇīyaḥ)'.
    2) Principally inherent, prevalent, predominant.
    -nam 1 The chief thing or object, most important thing; head, chief; न परिचयो मलिनात्मनां प्रधानम् (na paricayo malinātmanāṃ pradhānam) Śiśupālavadha 7.61; G. L.18; प्रयोगप्रधानं हि नाट्यशास्त्रम् (prayogapradhānaṃ hi nāṭyaśāstram) M.1; शमप्रधानेषु तपो- धनेषु (śamapradhāneṣu tapo- dhaneṣu) Ś.2.7; गुणैश्च तैस्तैर्विनयप्रधानैः (guṇaiśca taistairvinayapradhānaiḥ) R.6.79.
    2) The first evolver, originator, or source of the material world, the primary germ out of which all material appearances are evolved, according to Sāṅkhya philosophy; न पुनरपि प्रधानवादी अशब्दत्वं प्रधानस्या सिद्धमित्याह (na punarapi pradhānavādī aśabdatvaṃ pradhānasyā siddhamityāha) Ś. B.; see प्रकृति (prakṛti) also; प्रधानक्षेत्रज्ञपतिर्गुणेशः (pradhānakṣetrajñapatirguṇeśaḥ) Śvet. Up.6.16; एतस्याद्या प्रवृत्तिस्तु प्रधानात् संप्रवर्तते (etasyādyā pravṛttistu pradhānāt saṃpravartate) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.25.25.
    3) The Supreme Spirit.
    4) Intellect, understanding; एको मयेह भगवान् विबुधप्रधानैश्चित्तीकृतः प्रजननाय कथं नु यूयम् (eko mayeha bhagavān vibudhapradhānaiścittīkṛtaḥ prajananāya kathaṃ nu yūyam) Bhāgavata 4.1.28.
    5) The principal member of a compound.
    -naḥ, -nam 1 The principal attendant or companion of a king (his minister or confidant).
    2) A noble, courtier.
    3) An elephant-driver.
    4) The commander-in-chief.
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Pradhāna (प्रधान).—(nt.; also, oftener, prahāṇa 1, q.v.; see also prahita; = Pali padhāna; n. act. to pradadhāti), exertion: rūkṣa-pradhānaṃ prahitātmanaḥ Lalitavistara 255.3 (prose), of (me) having exerted myself in harsh exertions; rūkṣapradhānaprahitātmakatvāt Lalitavistara 256.6 (prose); the Mahāvastu parallels to these passages read lūha-prahāṇa-, see these words; samyakpradhānā caturo me aśvā Mahāvastu iii.120.14 (verse), my horses are the four right exertions, for which see also (samyak)prahāṇa; compare Pali sammappadhāna; the four (cited in Childers and [Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary]) are, exertion to prevent sinful states (dhamma = dharma) from arising, to get rid of those that exist, to produce good states, and to maintain those already existing; for [Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit] definitions (agreeing with this) see prahāṇa. In Abhidharmakośa LaV-P. vi.281, Vyākhyā, four samyakpradhāna; the older Chin. rendering has effort, the later abandonment, as if (Sanskrit) prahāṇa; Tibetan also the latter.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
    Pradhana (प्रधन).—n.
    (-naṃ) 1. War, battle. 2. Tearing, rending, destroying. 3. Spoil taken in battle. E. pra before, dhā to have, aff. kyu .
    --- OR ---
    Pradhāna (प्रधान).—n.
    (-naṃ) 1. Nature, the natural state of anything, or the cause of the material world. 2. The Supreme God. 3. Intellect, understanding. 4. Chief, principal, (in this sense, it is always neuter and confined to the singular number.) mn.
    (-naḥ-naṃ) 1. The first companion of a king, his minister, his eunuch or confident, &c. a courtier, a noble, 2. An elephant-driver. f.
    (-nā) Prevalent, predominant. E. pra before, dhā to have, aff. lyuṭ .
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pradhana (प्रधन).—[pra-dhana] (see nidhana), n. 1. Tearing, destroying, [Meghadūta, (ed. Gildemeister.)] 49; destruction, [Uttara Rāmacarita, 2. ed. Calc., 1862.] 119, 7. 2. War, battle.
    --- OR ---
    Pradhāna (प्रधान).—i. e. pra-dhā + ana, I. n. 1. Nature, Mahābhārata 13, 1009. 2. The Supreme God. 3. Intellect. 4. Chief, [Hitopadeśa] 49, 18; principal (only sing.), excellent, [Pañcatantra] 156, 15. 5. The first companion of a king, his minister, his confidant, etc. Ii. adj. Chief, principal, [Pañcatantra] i. [distich] 324; [Hitopadeśa] 60, 22; [Bhartṛhari, (ed. Bohlen.)] 2, 99.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pradhana (प्रधन).—[neuter] the prize of the contest; contest, fight.
    --- OR ---
    Pradhāna (प्रधान).—[neuter] the main thing or person, chief, head; original matter or supreme spirit (ph.); often —° having — as chief thing or person i.e. devoted to, excelling or delighting in, full of. Adj. & °— chief, main, principal, best.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Pradhana (प्रधन):—[=pra-dhana] n. (cf. dhana) spoil taken in battle, a prize gained by a victor, the battle or contest itself, [Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    2) [v.s. ...] the best of one’s goods, valuables, [Nārada-smṛti, nāradīya-dharma-śāstra]
    3) [v.s. ...] tearing, bursting etc. (= dāraṇa), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    4) [v.s. ...] m. Name of a man
    5) [v.s. ...] m. [plural] his descendants, [Brahma-purāṇa]
    6) Pradhāna (प्रधान):—[from pra-dhā] n. a chief thing or person, the most important or essential part of anything, [Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra; Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
    7) [v.s. ...] ([in the beginning of a compound]) the principal or first, chief, head of
    8) [v.s. ...] ([often also ifc. (f(ā). ) e.g. indra-pradhāna, (a hymn) having Indra as the chief object or person addressed, [Nirukta, by Yāska]; prayoga-p, (the art of dancing) having practice as its essential part, chiefly practical, [Mālavikāgnimitra]])
    9) [v.s. ...] ‘the Originator’, primary germ, original source of the visible or material universe (in Sāṃkhya = prakṛti q.v.), [Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 53, 1 etc.]
    10) [v.s. ...] primary or unevolved matter or nature, [Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha]
    11) [v.s. ...] supreme or universal soul, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    12) [v.s. ...] intellect, understanding, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    13) [v.s. ...] the first companion or attendant of a king, a courtier, a noble (also m.), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    14) [v.s. ...] an elephant-driver (also m.), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    15) [v.s. ...] (in gram.) the principal member of a compound (opp. to upasarjana q.v.)
    16) [v.s. ...] mf(ā)n. chief, main, principal, most important
    17) [v.s. ...] pre-eminent in ([instrumental case])
    18) [v.s. ...] better than or superior to ([ablative]), [Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature] etc.
    19) [v.s. ...] m. Name of an ancient king, [Mahābhārata]
    20) Pradhānā (प्रधाना):—[from pradhāna > pra-dhā] f. Name of a Śakti, [Tantr.] (cf. [Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 522]).
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Pradhana (प्रधन):—[pra-dhana] (naṃ) 1. n. War, battle; destroying, tearing, rending.
    2) Pradhāna (प्रधान):—[pra-dhāna] (naṃ) 1. n. Nature; God; intellect; being chief. m. King’s companion; elephant-driver.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  309. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0680.jpg Pradhāna. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  310. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/pradhana Learn how to pronounce Pradhana. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  311. ↑ 가 나 https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=存在&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    存在 존재
    현존(現存)하여 있음. 또는 있는 그것.
    存 있을 존
    부수 子(아들자) 총 획수 6획
    1. 있다, 존재하다(存在--) 2. 살아 있다 3. 안부를 묻다, 노고를 치하하고 위로하다(慰勞--)
    𠩯(고자), 侟(동자), 𡥅(동자)
    在 있을 재
    부수 土(흙토) 총 획수 6획
    1. 있다, 존재하다(存在--) 2. 찾다, 안부(安否)를 묻다 3. 보다, 살피다
    𡉈(본자), 扗(본자), 𥩴(동자)
  312. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=存在 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    存在
    1. 명사,동사 존재(하다). 현존(하다). [주로 ‘存在着’로 쓰임]
    2. 명사 철학 존재. 자인(독 Sein).
    [ cúnzài ]
    고려대 중한사전
    存在
    동사 (…에) 맡기다. 절약하여 두다.
    [ cún‧zai ]
    고려대 중한사전
    存在
    동사 exist
    [ cúnzài ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    존재 存在 [존재] 듣기
    1. 명사 存在 ，存留 ，在 。
    2. 명사 存在 ，大腕 ，腕儿 ，人物 ，地位 。
    3. 명사 철학 存在 。 (≒자인(sein))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  313. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=存在&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 存在 Cúnzài 천짜이
    Chinese (Simplified): 存在 Cúnzài 천짜이
    English: exist
    Korean: 존재하다
  314. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/sat 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Sat in Sanskrit glossary
    Śaṭ (शट्).—I. 1 P. (śaṭati)
    1) To be sick.
    2) To divide, separate.
    3) To be dissolved.
    4) To be weary or dejected.
    5) To go, -II. 1 Ā. (śāṭayate) To praise, flatter.
    --- OR ---
    Ṣāṭ (षाट्).—ind. A vocative particle; interjection of calling.
    --- OR ---
    Saṭ (सट्).—I. 1 P. (saṭati) To form a part. -II. 1 U. (sāṭayati-te) To show, display, manifest.
    --- OR ---
    Sat (सत्).—a. (-tī f.)
    1) Being, existing, existent; सन्तः स्वतः प्रकाशन्ते गुणा न परतो नृणाम् (santaḥ svataḥ prakāśante guṇā na parato nṛṇām) Bv.1.12; सत्कल्पवृक्षे वने (satkalpavṛkṣe vane) Ś.7.12.
    2) Real, essential, true; Bṛ. Up.2.3.1.
    3) Good, virtuous, chaste; सती सती योगविसृष्टदेहा (satī satī yogavisṛṣṭadehā) Kumārasambhava 1. 21; Ś.5.17.
    4) Noble, worthy, high; as in सत्कुलम् (satkulam).
    5) Right, proper.
    6) Best, excellent.
    7) Venerable, respectable.
    8) Wise, learned.
    9) Handsome, beautiful.
    1) Firm, steady.
    -m. A good or virtuous man, a sage; आदानं हि विसर्गाय सतां वारिमुचामिव (ādānaṃ hi visargāya satāṃ vārimucāmiva) R.4.86; अविरतं परकार्यकृतां सतां मधुरिमातिशयेन वचोऽमृतम् (avirataṃ parakāryakṛtāṃ satāṃ madhurimātiśayena vaco'mṛtam) Bv.1.113; Bhartṛhari 2. 78; R.1.1.
    -n. 1) That which really exists, entity, existence, essence.
    2) The really existent truth, reality.
    3) Good; as in सदसत् (sadasat) q. v.
    4) Brahman or the Supreme Spirit.
    5) Ved. Water.
    6) The primary cause (kāraṇa); य ईक्षिताऽहं रहितोऽप्यसत्सतोः (ya īkṣitā'haṃ rahito'pyasatsatoḥ) Bhāgavata 1.38.11.
    7) (In gram.) The termination of the present participle. (satkṛ means 1) to respect, treat with respect, receive hospitably. 2) to honour, worship, adore. 3) to adorn.)
    --- OR ---
    Sāṭ (साट्).—1 U. (sāṭayati-te) To show, manifest.
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्).—ind. A Taddhita affix added to a word to show that something is completely changed into the thing expressed by that word, or that it is left at the complete disposal or control of that thing; भस्मसात् भू (bhasmasāt bhū) 'to be completely reduced to ashes'; अग्निसात् कृत्वा (agnisāt kṛtvā) M.5; भस्मसात् कृतवः पितृद्विषः पात्रसाच्च वसुधां ससागराम् (bhasmasāt kṛtavaḥ pitṛdviṣaḥ pātrasācca vasudhāṃ sasāgarām) R.11.86; विभज्य मेरुर्न यदर्थिसात् कृतः (vibhajya merurna yadarthisāt kṛtaḥ) N.1.16; so ब्राह्मणसात्, राजसात् (brāhmaṇasāt, rājasāt) &c.; Śiśupālavadha 14.36.
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Śaṭ (शट्).—r. 1st cl. (śaṭati) 1. To be diseased or sick. 2. To divide, to pierce or separate. 3. To go. 4. To be low spirited, to be weary or dejected. r. 10th cl. (śāṭayate) To flatter, to praise.
    --- OR ---
    Ṣaṭ (षट्).—r. 1st cl. (ṣaṭati) To be a part or portion.
    --- OR ---
    Ṣāṭ (षाट्).—Ind. An interjection of calling.
    --- OR ---
    Saṭ (सट्).—r. 1st cl. (saṭati) To form a part. r. 10th cl. (sāṭayati-te) To show, to manifest.
    --- OR ---
    Sat (सत्).—mfn. (-san-santī-sat) 1. True. 2. Good, virtuous. 3. Being, existing. 4. Excellent, best. 5. Venerable, respectable. 6. Wise, learned. 7. Firm, steady. 8. Right, proper. f. (-satī) 1. A virtuous wife; in ordinary use applied especially to the wife, who burns herself with her husband’s corpse. 2. The goddess Uma. 3. A fragrant earth, commonly Surat-earth. 4. A species of the Pratishtha metre. n. (sat) 1. The true God, the always present and all-pervading spirit. 2. That which really is, entity, existence, essence. 3. Truth, reality. 4. That which is good. m. (-san) A virtuous man. Ind. (-sat) In composition, a particle of reverence or respect, implying, good, fit, &c.; as satkriyā virtue, doing what is right, &c. E. as to be, aff. of the participle of the present tense śatṛ .
    --- OR ---
    Sāṭ (साट्).—r. 10th cl. (sāṭayati-te) To make visible, to show.
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्).—r. 10th cl. (sātayati-te) To give pleasure; according to some it is a Sautra root.
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्).—Ind. A Tadhita affix which, when put after a word, denotes either a total change of anything into the thing expressed by that word, or complete control.
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्).—n. (-sāt) Brahma, God. E. sāti to cause happiness, aff. kvip .
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Śaṭ (शट्).—i. 1, [Parasmaipada.] 1. To be diseased. 2. To divide. 3. To be dissolved. 4. To be low-spirited. 5. To go.
    — Cf. 2. śaṭh.
    --- OR ---
    Saṭ (सट्).—i. 1, [Parasmaipada.] To be a part or portion.
    --- OR ---
    Sāṭ (साट्).—i. 10, [Parasmaipada.] To make manifest.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Śat (शत्).—śātayati śātayate cut in pieces, cause to fall off, break or throw down, destroy.
    --- OR ---
    Sat (सत्).—v. sant.
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्).—go or come to ([accusative]).
    Sāt is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms sa and at (अत्).
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Śaṭ (शट्):—([probably] artificial) [class] 1. [Parasmaipada] śaṭati, to be sick;
    —to divide, pierce;
    —to be dissolved;
    —to be weary or dejected;
    —to go, [Dhātupāṭha ix, 12] : [class] 10. [Ātmanepada] śāṭayate, [Dhātupāṭha xxxiii, 18] [varia lectio] for √1. śaṭh.
    2) Śat (शत्):—śātayati See √2. śad, p.1051.
    3) Ṣaṭ (षट्):—a ṣaḍ (in [compound] for ṣaṣ) See below.
    4) [from ṣaṣ] b ind. six times, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa]
    5) [from ṣaṣ] c in [compound] for ṣaṣ.
    6) Ṣāṭ (षाट्):—ind. a vocative particle or interjection of calling, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    7) Saṭ (सट्):—[class] 1. [Parasmaipada] saṭati, to be a part of [Dhātupāṭha ix, 26]:—[Causal] or [class] 10. sāṭayati (See √sāṭ).
    8) Sat (सत्):—mf(satī)n. ([present participle] of √1. as) being, existing, occurring, happening, being present (sato me, ‘when I was present’; often connected with other participles or with an adverb e.g. nāmni kṛte sati, ‘when the name has been given’; tathā sati, ‘if it be so’; also [in the beginning of a compound], where sometimes = ‘possessed of’ cf. sat-kalpavṛkṣa), [Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    9) abiding in ([locative case]), [Mahābhārata]
    10) belonging to ([genitive case]), [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa]
    11) living, [Muṇḍaka-upaniṣad]
    12) lasting, enduring, [Kāvya literature; Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    13) real, actual, as any one or anything ought to be, true, good, right (tan na sat, ‘that is not right’), beautiful, wise, venerable, honest (often in [compound] See below), [Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    14) m. a being, ([plural]) beings, creatures, [Ṛg-veda] etc.
    15) a good or wise man, a sage, [Mahābhārata; Rāmāyaṇa]
    16) good or honest or wise or respectable people, [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
    17) n. that which really is, entity or existence, essence, the true being or really existent (in the Vedānta, ‘the self-existent or Universal Spirit, Brahma’), [Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    18) that which is good or real or true, good, advantage, reality, truth, [ib.]
    19) water, [Naighaṇṭuka, commented on by Yāska i, 12]
    20) (in gram.) the terminations of the present participle, [Pāṇini 3-2, 127 etc.]
    21) ind. (cf. sat-√kṛ etc.) well, right, fitly.
    22) cf. [Greek] ὥν, ἐών for ἐσων; [Latin] sens in absens, pra-sens; sons, ‘guilty’, [originally] ‘the real doer’; [Lithuanian] sās, ésas; [Slavonic or Slavonian] sy, sašta.
    23) Sāṭ (साट्):—[class] 10. [Parasmaipada] sāṭayati, to make visible or manifest, [Dhātupāṭha xxxv, 84.]
    24) Sāt (सात्):—1. sāt a Taddhita affix which when put after a word denotes a total change of anything into the thing expressed by that word (See agni-, bhasma-sāt etc.)
    25) 2. sāt a Sautra root meaning ‘to give pleasure’ [Pāṇini; Vopadeva]
    26) 3. sāt n. Name of Brahman, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Śaṭ (शट्):—śaṭati 1. a. To be sick; to divide; to go; to be dejected. śāṭayati 10. a. To flatter.
    2) Ṣaṭ (षट्):—ṣaṭati 1. a. To be a part or portion.
    3) Ṣāṭ (षाट्):—ind. An interjection of calling.
    4) Sat (सत्):—[(n-tī-t) a.] Existing, being; real; stable; genuine, true; good, excellent; venerable, wise. f. (ī) A satī, who burns herself with her husband; Durgā; fragrant earth. n. The supreme Being. In comp., good.
    5) Sāt (सात्):—(t) 5. m. Brahmā, God.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Śaṭ (शट्):—, śaṭati (rujāviśaraṇagatyavasādaneṣu) [DHĀTUP. 9, 12.] śāṭayate (ślāghāyām) [33, 18, v. l.] für śaṭh .
    --- OR ---
    Śat (शत्):—
    --- OR ---
    Ṣāṭ (षाट्):—interj. [ŚABDĀRTHAK.] bei [WILSON.]
    --- OR ---
    Saṭ (सट्):—, saṭati [DHĀTUP. 9, 26] (avayave).
    --- OR ---
    Sāt (सात्):—
    1) eine Sautra-Wurzel [Pāṇini’s acht Bücher 3, 1, 138.] [Vopadeva’s Grammatik 26, 35.] —
    2) n. = brahman [Śabdakalpadruma] und [WILSON] ohne Angabe einer Aut.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Böhtlingk and Roth Grosses Petersburger Wörterbuch
    Sat (सत्) in the Sanskrit language is related to the Prakrit words: Sa, Saḍa, Samāṇa.
    Source: DDSA: Paia-sadda-mahannavo; a comprehensive Prakrit Hindi dictionary (S)
  315. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9elq4wG8OQc Tat Sat Pronunciation Sanskrit तत् सत् tat sat. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  316. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/sat-chit-ananda Learn how to pronounce ㄴat chit ananda. 2025년 10월 29일에 확인.
  317. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/tattvakaumudi 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Tattvakaumudi in Sanskrit glossary
    1) Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—by Vācaspatimiśra. See Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī.
    2) Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—Vāsavadattāṭīkā by Rāmadeva. L. 2434.
    3) Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—Śiśupālavadhaṭīkā by Bhavadatta. L. 2405.
    4) Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—[tantric] Mentioned in Āgamatattvavilāsa.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—[=tat-tva-kaumudī] [from tat-tva > tat] f. ‘Tattva-moonlight’, Name of a [commentator or commentary] on [Sāṃkhyakārikā; Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha xiv, 20]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—(ta + kau) f. Mondschein der Wahrheit, oder vollst. sāṃkhyatattva Titel eines Commentars zu der Sāṃkhyakārikā [Colebrooke I, 233.] [WILSON,] [SĀṂKHYAK. S. VII.] [Weber’s Verzeichniss No. 637. fg.]
    --- OR ---
    Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—[SARVADARŚANAS. 148, 19.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Böhtlingk and Roth Grosses Petersburger Wörterbuch
    Tattvakaumudī (तत्त्वकौमुदी):—f. , tattvakaustubha n. ([Private libraries (Gustav) 1]), tattvagurukāntīya n. ([ebend.]) , tattvacandra m. , candrikā f. , tattvacintāmaṇi m. , maṇiprakāśa m. , maṇiprabhā f. und maṇivyākhyā f. Titel von Werken , insbes. Commentaren.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung
  318. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0433.jpg 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
  319. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=眞理通曉&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 眞理通曉 Zhēnlǐ tōngxiǎo 쩐리 통시오 Did you mean: 真理通曉
    Chinese (Simplified): 眞理通晓 Zhēnlǐ tōngxiǎo 쩐리 통시오
    English: True Understanding
    Korean: 진정한 이해
  320. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=真理通曉&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 真理通曉 Zhēnlǐ tōngxiǎo 쩐리 통시오
    Chinese (Simplified): 真理通晓 Zhēnlǐ tōngxiǎo 쩐리 통시오
    English: Truth Knowing
    Korean: 진실을 아는 것
  321. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=眞理通曉&range=all 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    眞 참 진
    부수 目(눈목) 총 획수 10획
    1. 참 2. 진리(眞理) 3. 진실(眞實)
    真(간체자), 真(일본자), 𠤛(고자), 𡙊(고자), 眞(약자), 真(약자), 真(속자)
    理 다스릴 리(이)
    부수 𤣩(구슬옥변) 총 획수 11획
    1. 다스리다 2. 다스려지다 3. 하소연하다
    通 통할 통
    부수 辶(책받침2) 총 획수 11획
    1. 통하다(通--) 2. 내왕하다(來往--) 3. 알리다
    𢓶(고자), 𨓛(동자)
    曉 새벽 효
    부수 日(날일) 총 획수 16획
    1. 새벽, 동틀 무렵 2. 밝다, 환하다 3. 깨닫다, 환히 알다
    晓(간체자), 暁(일본자), 暁(속자), 𣉊(속자), 晓(동자), 皢(동자)
  322. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=真理 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    真理
    명사 진리. (↔谬误)
    [ zhēnlǐ ]
    고려대 중한사전
  323. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=通曉 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    通晓
    1. 동사 잘 알다. 통달하다. 완벽하게 이해하다.
    2. 동사 철야하다.
    [ tōngxiǎo ]
    고려대 중한사전
  324. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=auto&tl=zh-CN&text=真實探奧&op=translate 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 真實探奧 Zhēnshí tàn ào 쩐씨 탕오
    Chinese (Simplified): 真实探奥 Zhēnshí tàn ào 쩐씨 탕오
    English: Real Exploration
    Korean: 실제 탐험
  325. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=真實探奧 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어 真實 探奧 zhēnshí tànào
    真实
    형용사 진실하다. (↔虚假, 假(1))
    [ zhēnshí ]
    고려대 중한사전
  326. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=探奥 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    三峡探奥
    《三峡探奥》是2006年长江出版社出版的图书，作者是刘不朽。
    [ sānxiá tàn ào ]
    HDWIKI
    . . .
    번역 결과
    探奥
    심오한 경지를 탐구하다
    파파고 번역
  327. ↑ https://www.google.com/search?q=sanskrit+pronunciation+of+तत्त्ववैशारदी 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Wisdom Library
    https://www.wisdomlib.org › Hinduism › Books
    Yoga-sutras (with Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra)
    Nov 28, 2023 — ... तत्त्ववैशारदी), Vācaspatimishra Tattvavaisharadi. Source 1: exoticindiaart.com. Source 2: archive.org. Contents of this online ...
  328. ↑ 가 나 다 https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/yoga-sutras-with-commentaries 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Yoga-sutras (with Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra)
    by Rama Prasada | 1924 | 154,800 words | ISBN-10: 9381406863 | ISBN-13: 9789381406861
    Hinduism, Hindu Philosophy, Yoga
    Summary: The English translation of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (500 BCE), including Vyasa’s commentary called the Sankhya Pravachana (7th century) or Yogabhashya; and the gloss by Vachaspati Mishra (9th century) called the Tattvavaisaradi. The Yogasutra is a collection of aphorisms dealing with Samadhi (meditative absorption), Sadhana (Yoga practice), Vibhuti (powers or Siddhis), Kaivaly (isolation) and Moksha (liberation).
    Alternative titles: Patañjali Yogasūtra (पतञ्जलि योगसूत्र), Pātañjalayogaśāstra (पातञ्जलयोगशास्त्र), Pātañjala-yogaśāstra, Vyāsa Sāṅkhyapravacana (साङ्ख्यप्रवचन), Sāṅkhya-pravacana, Sāṃkhyapravacana (सांख्यप्रवचन), Sāṃkhya-pravacana, Sankhya-pravacana, Samkhya-pravacana, Yogabhāṣya (योगभाष्य), Yogabhasya, Vācaspatimiśra Tattvavaiśāradī (वाचस्पतिमिश्र तत्त्ववैशारदी), Vācaspatimishra Tattvavaisharadi.
  329. ↑ https://www.hindupedia.com/en/Tattvavaiśāradī 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    Tattvavaiśāradī
    By Swami Harshananda
    The Yogasutras of Patañjali (200 B. C.) is the basic work of Yoga philosophy. This philosophy is one of the six systems of philosophy. This has a commentary called Vyāsabhāsya by one Vyāsa (A. D. 600). On this Vācaspati (A. D. 850) has written a learned gloss known as Tattvavaiśāradī. This is considered a standard elucidation of not only the Vyāsabhāsya but even of Yoga philosophy also.
    References
    The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore
  330. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbjfcpe3rfw Tattwa Pronunciation Tattva Sanskrit तत्त्व tattva. 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
  331. ↑ https://www.google.com/search?q=sanskrit+pronunciation+of+vaiśārada 2025년 9월 10일에 확인.
    AI Overview
    The pronunciation of vaiśārada is approximately vy-SHAA-ruh-duh, with the emphasis on the second syllable "śā" (pronounced like "shaa") and the vowels short, with the "ai" like the "i" in "sit", and the final "a"s like the "u" in "but".
    Here's a breakdown:
    • vai: (वੈ): Like the "vai" in "vai"ce or the "wi" in "wit", but longer.
    • śā: (शा): Pronounced "shaa", like in "shah", with a long "a" sound.
    • ra: (र): A short "u" sound, as in "but" or "cup".
    • da: (द): Also a short "u" sound.
    Therefore, the full word is pronounced vy-SHAA-ruh-duh.
  332. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/四因說 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    四因說由古希臘哲學家亞里斯多德提出，將世界上事物的變化與運動的背後原因（古希臘語：αἴτιον）歸納為四大類。四因包括：
    1. 質料因：即構成事物的材料、元素或基質，例如磚瓦就是房子的質料因；
    2. 形式因：即決定事物「是什麼」的本質屬性，或者說決定一物「是如此」的樣式，例如建築師心中的房子式樣，就是房子的形式因；
    3. 動力因：即事物的構成動力，例如，建築師就是建成房子的動力因；
    4. 目的因：即事物所追求的目的，例如「為了安置人和財產」就是房子的目的因。

    亞里斯多德認為，凡感性實體，包括自然物和人造物，都具備這四種原因。

  333. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/四因說 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    四因说由古希腊哲学家亚里士多德提出，将世界上事物的变化与运动的背后原因（古希腊语：αἴτιον）归纳为四大类。四因包括：
    1. 质料因：即构成事物的材料、元素或基质，例如砖瓦就是房子的质料因；
    2. 形式因：即决定事物“是什么”的本质属性，或者说决定一物“是如此”的样式，例如建筑师心中的房子式样，就是房子的形式因；
    3. 动力因：即事物的构成动力，例如，建筑师就是建成房子的动力因；
    4. 目的因：即事物所追求的目的，例如“为了安置人和财产”就是房子的目的因。

    亚里士多德认为，凡感性实体，包括自然物和人造物，都具备这四种原因。

  334. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=質料因&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    質 바탕 질, 폐백 지
    부수 貝(조개패) 총 획수 15획
    1. (바탕 질) 2. 바탕 3. 본질(本質)
    质(간체자), 貭(약자), 劕(동자), 质(동자)
    料 헤아릴 료(요)
    부수 斗(말두) 총 획수 10획
    1. 헤아리다, 생각하다 2. 되질하다(되로 되어 헤아리다), 말로 용량을 헤아리다 3. 요량하다(料量--: 앞일을 잘 헤아려 생각하다)
    𥸾(동자), 䉼(동자)
    因 인할 인
    부수 囗(큰입구몸) 총 획수 6획
    1. 인하다(因--: 어떤 사실로 말미암다) 2. 말미암다(어떤 현상이나 사물 따위가 원인이나 이유가 되다), 원인이나 계기(契機)로 되다 3. 의지하다(依支--)
    𤇀(고자), 囙(속자), 㧢(동자)
  335. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=質料因&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 質料因 Zhìliào yīn 쯔랴오 인
    Chinese (Simplified): 质料因 Zhìliào yīn 쯔랴오 인
    English: Material Factor
    Korean: 재료 요소
  336. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=质料因 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
    因
    이체
    囙
    1. 동사 문어 (전례에) 따르다. (옛 것을) 그대로 좇다. 답습하다. 이어받다.
    2. 동사 문어 의거하다. 근거하다. 의지하다.
    3. 명사 연유. 까닭. 원인. 이유.
    [ yīn ]
    고려대 중한사전
    质料
    명사 재료. 원료.
    검색 연관 이미지
    1
    [ zhìliào ]
    고려대 중한사전
  337. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/upadanakarana 2025년 10월 21일에 확인.
    In Jainism
    Jain philosophy
    Upadanakarana in Jain philosophy glossary
    Upādānakāraṇa (उपादानकारण) refers to a “material cause”, as used in the Anekāntajayapatākā-prakaraṇa, a Śvetāmbara Jain philosophical work written by Haribhadra Sūri.—[Cf. Vol. I, P. 5, l. 17]—Upādānakāraṇa means a material cause. It is also called ‘samavāyikāraṇa’ i.e. an intimate or constituent cause, and it represents the material of which an effect is made. Thus clay is the samavāyi-kāraṇa of a jar, and so is yarn m the case of a piece of cloth. A samavāyi-kāraṇa is always a dravya (substance).
    Source: archive.org: Anekanta Jaya Pataka of Haribhadra Suri
    Languages of India and abroad
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Upadanakarana in Sanskrit glossary
    Upādānakāraṇa (उपादानकारण).—a material cause; प्रकृतिश्चोपादान- कारणं च ब्रह्माभ्युपगन्तव्यम् (prakṛtiścopādāna- kāraṇaṃ ca brahmābhyupagantavyam) Ś. B.
    Derivable forms: upādānakāraṇam (उपादानकारणम्).
    Upādānakāraṇa is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms upādāna and kāraṇa (कारण).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Upādānakāraṇa (उपादानकारण).—n.
    (-ṇaṃ) A proximate cause. E. upādāna and kāraṇa cause.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Upādānakāraṇa (उपादानकारण):—[=upā-dāna-kāraṇa] [from upā-dāna > upā-dā] n. a proximate cause.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Upādānakāraṇa (उपादानकारण):—[upādāna-kāraṇa] (ṇaṃ) 1. n. Proximate or immediate cause.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Kannada-English dictionary
    Upadanakarana in Kannada glossary
    Upādānakāraṇa (ಉಪಾದಾನಕಾರಣ):—[noun] the material out of which anything is made; the material cause.
    Source: Alar: Kannada-English corpus
  338. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/upadana 2025년 10월 21일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Upadana in Sanskrit glossary
    Upadāna (उपदान).—
    1) An oblation, a present (in general).
    2) A gift made for procuring favour or protection, such as a bribe.
    Derivable forms: upadānam (उपदानम्).
    See also (synonyms): upadānaka.
    --- OR ---
    Upādāna (उपादान).—1 Taking, receiving, acquisition, obtaining; विश्रब्धं ब्राह्मणः शूद्राद् द्रव्योपादानमाचरेत् (viśrabdhaṃ brāhmaṇaḥ śūdrād dravyopādānamācaret) Manusmṛti 8.417; 12.7; विद्या° (vidyā°) K.75.
    2) Taking away, appropriating to oneself.
    3) Employment, using; becoming familiar with.
    4) Mention, enumeration; किमास्योपादाने प्रयोजनम् (kimāsyopādāne prayojanam) Mahābhārata I.1.9.
    5) Saying, speaking.
    6) Including, containing.
    7) Withdrawing the organs of sense and perception from the external world and its objects.
    8) A cause; motive, natural or immediate cause; पाटवोपादानः भ्रमः (pāṭavopādānaḥ bhramaḥ) Uttararāmacarita 3. v. l.; प्रकृष्टपुण्य- परिपाकोपादानो महिमा स्यात् (prakṛṣṭapuṇya- paripākopādāno mahimā syāt) Uttararāmacarita 6.
    9) The material out of which anything is made, the material cause; निमित्तमेव ब्रह्म स्यादुपादानं च वेक्षणात् (nimittameva brahma syādupādānaṃ ca vekṣaṇāt) adhikaraṇamālā.
    1) A mode of expression in which a word used elliptically, besides retaining its own primary sense, conveys another (in addition to that which is actually expressed); स्वसिद्धये पराक्षेपः (svasiddhaye parākṣepaḥ) ... उपादानम् (upādānam) K. P.2.
    11) (With Buddhists) conception; grasping at or clinging to existence (caused by tṛṣṇā and causing bhava). (With Rāmānujas) preparation (of perfumes, flowers &c. as one of the five elements of worship).
    12) Effort of body or speech.
    13) Name of the four contentments mentioned in सांख्यकारिका (sāṃkhyakārikā) as प्रकृत्युपादानकालभागाख्याः (prakṛtyupādānakālabhāgākhyāḥ) Sāṃkhyakārikā 5.
    Derivable forms: upādānam (उपादानम्).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Upādāna (उपादान).—nt. (compare upādāya, °diyati; = Pali id., in all senses except 4; in Sanskrit hardly used in these mgs.), and in Bhvr cpds. (various mgs.) sopādāna (sa-up°) adj., [Page145-a+ 71] having, characterized by up°, and neg. an-up°, nir-up°, without up°: (1) fuel (app. as the substratum or material cause) of fire: Mahāvastu ii.270.14 analo upādānaṃ (sc. bhasmī- karoti); Gaṇḍavyūha 502.10—11 agnir yāvad upādānaṃ labhate; Śikṣāsamuccaya 226.1 yathāgnir upādānavaikalyān na jvalati; (2) grasping, clinging, addiction: Śikṣāsamuccaya 104.14 parṣad-anupādāna- tayā, (by) having no addiction to company (Bendall and Rouse); in most passages not clearly distinguishable from (3); Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra 23.7 (verse) te bhonti nirupādānā ihāmutra nirañ- janāḥ; Mahāvyutpatti 2144 upādānam, followed by granthaḥ, nīvaraṇam; 7066 upādāna-hetuḥ; Lalitavistara 180.12 sarvopādānaparigrahair anarthiko (of the Bodhisattva); 244.(2—)3 (nāpi saṃskṛtā- nāṃ sāśravānāṃ) sopādānānāṃ dhyānasamādhisamā- pattīnāṃ doṣo datto bhavet; 358.20 (verse) yāsyanti niru- pādānāḥ phalaprāptivaraṃ śubhaṃ; 392.13 anādāno 'nupādāno 'vijñapto…(of Buddha's dharma); Avadāna-śataka ii.188.10 abhinandanāyopādānāya adhyavasānāya (em.) saṃvartate (of a heretical opinion); Daśabhūmikasūtra 48.9 (saṃskārair avaropitaṃ cittabījaṃ) sāsravaṃ sopādānam…bhavati; (3) clinging to existence, specifically (undoubtedly this is meant in some passages cited under 2); especially as one of the links in the chain of the pratītyasamutpāda; it is produced by tṛṣṇā, and produces bhava (as in Pali, taṇhāpaccayā upā- dānaṃ, upādānapaccayā bhavo): Mahāvastu ii.285.10—11 tṛṣṇā- pratyayam upādānaṃ, upādānapratyayo bhavo; Mahāvyutpatti 2250; Dharmasaṃgraha 42; modulations of the same formula Lalitavistara 346.12, 15; Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā 48.6; Daśabhūmikasūtra 48.16; a peculiar one Lalitavistara 420.4—5 (verse) tṛṣṇāta sarva upajāyati duḥkhaskandhaḥ, (5) upādā- nato (read upa° m.c.) bhavati sarva bhavapravṛttiḥ, where obviously duḥkhaskandha = upādāna, see below, 4; also pañcopādāna-skandhāḥ (= Pali pañc’ upādānak- khandhā), the five skandha which are the basis of clinging to existence (otherwise called simply the 5 skandha, q.v.) Mahāvyutpatti 1831; Avadāna-śataka ii.168.1; pañcasu upādānaskandheṣu Mahāvastu iii.53.3; Divyāvadāna 294.4; (listed as rūpa, vedanā, saṃjñā, saṃskāra, pl., vijñāna, Mahāvyutpatti 1832—6; Mahāvastu iii.53.4—7; Divyāvadāna 294.5—7;) skandhā sopādānā jñānena mayā parijñātā Lalitavistara 371.20 (verse); in the first of the 4 noble truths, saṃkṣepeṇa (Lalitavistara °pāt, Mahāvastu saṃkṣiptena) pañcopādānaskandhā (Mahāvyutpatti °dha-) duḥkham (Mahāvastu duḥkhā) Mahāvyutpatti 2240; Mahāvastu iii.332.4; Lalitavistara 417.7; (4) in Saddharmapuṇḍarīka 75.2 sorrow, misery (compare Lalitavistara 420.4—5, cited under 3 above), prītīprāmodyajāto nir-upādāno (free from sorrow) vigata-nivaraṇo (see s.v. nivaraṇa), said of the man whose sons have been brought out of a burning house. Burnouf cites Tibetan as rendering upādāna here by mya ṅan, which regularly renders Sanskrit śoka, grief; and no other interpretation seems possible. It is an outgrowth of (3) as used in religious language.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
    Upādāna (उपादान).—n.
    (-naṃ) 1. Taking away, abduction, taking. 2. Abstraction, restraining the organs of sense and perception. 3. Cause, motive. 4. Immediate or proximate cause. 5. The formal or distinct form, the material cause. 6. A double meaning, an expression conveying a sense besides that which appears intended. 7. Saying, speaking. E. upa near, ādā to take, lyuṭ aff.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Upādāna (उपादान).—i. e. upa-ā-dā + ana, n. 1. Seizure, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 8, 417. 2. Learning, [Hitopadeśa] 4, 13, v. r. 3. Material cause, Bhāṣāp. 149.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Upādāna (उपादान).—[neuter] taking, acquiring, appropiating; non-exclusion, addition; enumeration, mention; the material cause (ph.).
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Upadāna (उपदान):—[=upa-dāna] [from upa-dā] 1. upa-dāna (for 2. See [column]2) n. a present, offering. = 2. upa-dā above, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    2) [=upa-dāna] [from upa-dī] 2. upa-dāna n., [ib.]
    3) Upādāna (उपादान):—[=upā-dāna] [from upā-dā] n. the act of taking for one’s self, appropriating to one’s self, [Mahābhārata; Manu-smṛti] etc.
    4) [v.s. ...] perceiving, noticing, learning, acquiring (knowledge), [Hitopadeśa; Vopadeva]
    5) [v.s. ...] accepting, allowing, including
    6) [v.s. ...] employment, use, [Sāhitya-darpaṇa; Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha; Kapila]
    7) [v.s. ...] saying, speaking, mentioning, enumeration, [Vedāntasāra; Kāśikā-vṛtti; Siddhānta-kaumudī]
    8) [v.s. ...] abstraction, withdrawing (the organs of sense from the outer world), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    9) [v.s. ...] (with, [Buddhist literature]) grasping at or clinging to existence (caused by tṛṣṇā, desire, and causing bhava, new births)
    10) [v.s. ...] (with Rāmānujas) preparation (of perfumes, flowers etc. as one of the five elements of worship), [Sarvadarśana-saṃgraha]
    11) [v.s. ...] cause, motive, material cause
    12) [v.s. ...] material of any kind, [Sāṃkhyakārikā; Vedāntasāra; Kapila] etc.
    13) [v.s. ...] offering, present, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Upādāna (उपादान):—[upā+dāna] (naṃ) 1. n. Taking away; abstraction; cause, double meaning; speaking.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  339. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upādāna 2025년 10월 21일에 확인.
    Upādāna (Hindi: उपादान) is a Sanskrit and Pali word that means "fuel, material cause, substrate that is the source and means for keeping an active process energized".[1][2] It is also an important Buddhist concept referring to "attachment, clinging, grasping".[3] It is considered to be the result of taṇhā (craving), and is part of the duhkha (dissatisfaction, suffering, pain) doctrine in Buddhism.
    [1] S.N.Dasgupta (1991). The Speech of Gold. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 136. ISBN 9788120804159.
    [2] Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade (1926). The constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 144.
    [3] "Avyakta". Charak Samhita. 2024-02-23. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
  340. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1nGjC-omx50 Upadhana Pronunciation Sanskrit उपधान upadhāna. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  341. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTXVBiGzFSE Karana Pronunciation Sanskrit कारण kāraṇa. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  342. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/upādāna-2 Learn how to pronounce Upādāna. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  343. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/karana Learn how to pronounce Karana. 2025년 10월 22일에 확인.
  344. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upādāna#Hinduism 2025년 10월 21일에 확인.
    Hinduism
    The term Upādāna appears in the sense of "material cause" in ancient Vedic and medieval Hindu texts.[21] For medieval era Vaishnavism scholar Ramanuja, the metaphysical Hindu concept of Brahman (as Vishnu) is the upadana-karana (material cause) of the universe.[22] However, other Hindu traditions such as the Advaita Vedanta disagree and assert alternate theories on the nature of metaphysical Brahman and the universe while using the term upadana in the sense of "substrate, fuel".[23][24]
    More generally, the realist Hindu philosophies such as Samkhya and Nyaya have asserted that Brahman is the Upādāna of the phenomenal world.[25] The philosophies within the Buddhist schools have denied Brahman, asserted impermanence and that the notion of anything real is untenable from a metaphysical sense.[25] The Hindu traditions such as those influenced by Advaita Vedanta have asserted the position that everything (Atman, Brahman, Prakriti) is ultimately one identical reality.[25] The concept Upādāna also appears with other sense of meanings, in Vedanta philosophies, such as "taking in".[26]
    [21] Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 1129. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
    VEDĀNTA \vā-'dän-tə\, one of the six orthodox systems (DARŚANS) of Indian philosophy and the one that forms the basis of most modern schools of HINDUISM. The term means the "conclusion" (anta) of the Vedas; it applies to the UPANISHADS and to the school that arose out of the "study" (mīmāṃsā) of the Upanishads. Thus Vedānta is also referred to as Vedānta-Mīmāṃsā ( "Reflection on Vedānta" ), Uttara-Mīmāṃsā ("Reflection on the Latter Part of the Vedas"), and Brahma-Mīmāṃsā ("Reflection on Brahman").
    The three fundamental Vedāntic texts are: the Upanishads; the Brahma SŪTRAS (also called Vedānta Sūtras), which are very brief, even one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads; and the BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ, which, because of its immense popularity, was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads.
    Several schools of Vedanta developed, differentiated by their conceptions of the nature of the relationship and the degree of identity between the individual self (ĀTMAN) and the absolute (BRAHMAN). These range from the nondualism (ADVAITA) of the 8th-century philosopher ŚAṂKARA to the THEISM (VIŚIṢTĀDVAITA) of the 11th-12th-century thinker RĀMĀNUJA and the DUALISM (DVAITA) of the 13th-century thinker MADHYA.
    The Vedāntic schools do, however, hold in com1non a number of beliefs; transmigration of the self (SAṂSĀRA) and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths; the authority of the VEDA on the means of release; that Brahman is both the material (upādāna) and the instrumental (nimitta) cause of the world; and that the self (ātman) is the agent of its own acts (KARMA) and therefore the recipient of the fruits, or consequences, of action (phala).
    [22] J. E. Llewellyn (2005). Defining Hinduism: A Reader. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-415-97449-3.
    Let us give one or two examples to clarify my point. Consider Brahman’s originative (i.e., “creative”) causality in Ramanuja’s thought. For Ramanuja, Brahman is simultaneously the upadana-karana (the “resource” or “material” cause12) and the nimitta karana (the “efficient” cause) of the world, that is, of the aggregate of individual beings, and of each individual being considered separately.
    The upadana-karana is that out of which something arises; thus clay is the upadana-karana of the clay pot.
    12. This is infelicitously translated, as I have myself done on occasion, as “substantial/ substantival” cause. Upadana does not necessarily connote a substance, the Sanskrit equivalent of which is, philosophically, dravya. Upadana denotes appropriate or self-referencing being, the stuff or resource-material out of which changes take place (from a-da, to take to oneself, to appropriate, and the prefix upa). It is significant that, in Buddhist thought, upadana is generally denotative of attachment or change (see, e.g., Gethin 1986, esp. 37-39).
    Gethin, R. 1986. “The Five Khandas: Their Treatment in the Nikayas and Early Abhidhamma.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 14: 37-39.
    [23] Andrew J. Nicholson (2010). Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Columbia University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-231-52642-5.
    Unlike Prakāśānanda, Vijñānabhikṣu argues that the true definition of material cause, “that which is a substratum, non-separate from its effect,” is broad enough to include a locus. Hence there is no need to appeal to figurative usage, and referring to a “locus cause” itself presents no contradictions. Prakāśānanda, however, freely admits to using figurative interpretation. He believes that strictly speaking, Brahman is not a cause at all. But we can make sense of Bādarāyaṇa’s clear statement in BS 1.1.2 that Brahman is cause of the world by understanding that a locus can be understood as a material cause (upādāna) in a figurative sense. Prakāśānanda sees this as the best way to reconcile scriptural passages that seem to disagree about the world’s causality:
    [24] Allen Thrasher (1993). The Advaita Vedānta of Brahma-siddhi. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-81-208-0982-6.
    [25] James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 720–721. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.
    Upadana
    In Indian philosophy, the word upadana denotes the "material cause" for something, that is, the stuff from which it is formed. Although this notion seems obvious to modern materialist ears, it carries several important assumptions that not all Indian philosophical schools were willing to concede一namely, that there were real objects in the world, that they were made from other things, and that these things underwent real transformations. The notion of a material cause was held by the "realist" schools, most notably the Samkhya, Nyaya-Vaisheshika, and Vishishthadvaita Vedanta. It was opposed by the Buddhist schools, whose assumption that reality was constantly changing made the notion of real things problematic. It was also opposed by the Advaita Vedanta school, whose starting assumption was that ultimately there was only one "real" thing一the formless Brahman (Supreme Reality)一and thus that the notion of anything becoming anything else was in error.
    [26] Hajime Nakamura (1983). A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 505. ISBN 978-81-208-0651-1.
    The ātman as the individual self is the agent of activity, being considered to be the actor (kartṛ, 2.3.32). This was probably asserted in total opposition to the Sāṃkhya theory that the puruṣa as the pure spiritual principle is inactive. In another section the author of the Sūtra states that ātman is the agent which makes possible all kinds of activities (kriyā, 2.3.36). Since it is essentially active in nature, it moves about freely in the body.9 As to cognition (upalabdhi), the individual self perceives both what is desirable and undesirable for itself, and as to activity, it actualises both what is desirable and undesirable, not being restricted to one side in any way (aniyama, 2.3.37). Thus, on this point the individual self cannot be said to be omnipotent. The individual self takes in (upādāna) the functions of the various organs within itself during sleep (2.3.35). The experience of samadhi is also based upon ātman. Thus one of the chief characteristics of the Brahma Sitra is that ātman has activity as its essentia! nature, but Śaṅkara almost completely disregards this fact.
  345. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/奥义书 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    7. 石氏奧義書（或譯伽陀奧義書，屬於黑夜柔吠陀）
  346. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/奥义书 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    7. 石氏奥义书（或译伽陀奥义书，属于黑夜柔吠陀）
  347. ↑ 가 나 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katha_Upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
    The Katha Upanishad (Sanskrit: कठोपनिषद्, IAST: Kaṭhopaniṣad), is an ancient Hindu text and one of the mukhya (primary) Upanishads, embedded in the last eight short sections of the Kaṭha school of the Krishna Yajurveda. It is also known as Kāṭhaka Upanishad, and is listed as number 3 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.
  348. ↑ https://forvo.com/word/katha_upanishad/ katha upanishad pronunciation in Sanskrit - Pronunciation by tesuji (Male from United States). 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  349. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/katha-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  350. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/katha-upanishad 2025년 8월 12일에 확인.
  351. ↑ https://kabc.dongguk.edu/m/content/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1032_T_001 금칠십론(金七十論) 상권, 진제(眞諦) 한역, 번역자 미상. 2025년 8월 16일에 확인.
    옛날 가비라(迦毘羅, Kapila)라고 이름하는 어떤 한 선인(仙人)이 있었는데, 허공으로부터 태어났다. 그는 태어나면서부터 자연적으로 네 가지 공덕을 갖추고 있었는데, 첫째는 법(法)이며, 둘째는 지혜[慧]이며, 셋째는 이욕(離欲)이며, 넷째는 자재(自在)로서2), 이 네 가지를 하나로 모아 몸을 삼았다. 그는 이 세간이 무지의 어둠[盲間]에 빠져 있는 것을 보고 크나큰 자비심을 일으켰다.
    2) 이것은 이해ㆍ판단작용[決智, adhyavasāya]의 원리인 대(大, mahat)가 갖는 삿트바(sattva)적인 성질의 공덕으로서, 자세한 내용은 제23송 참조.
  352. ↑ https://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T54n2137_001?format=line 金七十論卷上. 2025년 8월 16일에 확인.
    T54n2137_p1245a08║昔有仙人名迦毘羅。從空而生
    T54n2137_p1245a09║自然四德。一法二慧三離欲四自在總四為
    T54n2137_p1245a10║身。見此世間沈沒盲闇起大悲心。
  353. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/迦毘羅仙 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    迦毘羅（天城體：कपिल ऋषि，IAST：kapila、迦毘羅仙）是吠陀的仙人之一，印度的古典哲學數論派的開祖。生沒年不詳，一說是西元前300年前後的人物，另一說是前6世紀或前7世紀的人物。
  354. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/迦毘羅仙 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    迦毘罗（天城体：कपिल ऋषि，IAST：kapila、迦毘罗仙）是吠陀的仙人之一，印度的古典哲学数论派的开祖。生没年不详，一说是西元前300年前后的人物，另一说是前6世纪或前7世纪的人物。
  355. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/数论_(印度哲学) 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    根據傳統說法，數論的創始人是迦毗羅仙人(Kapila)（因此又稱為「迦毗羅論」）。但是，沒有任何可靠的證據能證明這一點。
  356. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/数论_(印度哲学) 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    根据传统说法，数论的创始人是迦毗罗仙人(Kapila)（因此又称为“迦毗罗论”）。但是，没有任何可靠的证据能证明这一点。
  357. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/?iencoding=iast&q=kapila&lang=sans&action=Search
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/kapila/49303/1
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0250.jpg
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0251.jpg
    2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    kapila कपिल
    Definition: m. Name of an ancient sage (identified by some with viṣṇu- and considered as the founder of the sāṃkhya- system of philosophy), mahābhārata; bhagavad-gītā etc.
  358. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=igZry2gEOgY Kapila Pronunciation Sanskrit कपिल kapila. 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
  359. ↑ https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=kapila 2025년 8월 14일에 확인.
    Kapila
    명사 카필라: 기원전 4-3세기경의 인도의 철학자, 산캬(Sankhya)학파의 시조.
    YBM 올인올 영한사전
  360. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., New York. p. 350.
    Kapila
    A powerful and ornery sage in Hindu mythology. Kapila’s most famous mythic exploit occurs in the story of the Descent of the Ganges. King Sagar is on the verge of completing his hundredth horse sacrifice (ashvamedha). This will give him enough religious merit to claim the throne of Indra, king of the gods. Indra forestalls this threat by stealing the sacrificial horse and tying it outside Kapila’s ashram. Sagar dispatches his sixty-thousand sons to find the horse. When they finally locate it at Kapila’s ashram, they find the sage deep in meditation. The sons assume that the sage’s meditation is a ploy to keep from having to answer their questions, so they begin to abuse him physically. Kapila becomes extremely angry. The accumulated power generated by his long asceticism (tapas) is released like fire, burning the sixty-thousand sons to ash. Kapila later informs Sagar’s sole surviving descendant, Anshuman, that the only way to bring peace to the souls of the departed is to bring the Ganges down to earth and have their ashes touched by her waters. Fulfilling this condition galvanizes several generations of Sagar’s descendants—Anshuman, Dilip, and Bhagirath—until the last is finally successful in bringing the river to earth.
    Kapila
     (2) Philosopher cited as the traditional founder of the Samkhya philosophical school, one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy. Little is known about him; much of what is known has a legendary tone that makes its value as historical data questionable. Kapila may have lived in the seventh century B.C.E. If this is true, Kapila would have lived about a thousand years earlier than Ishvarakrishna. The latter is the first Samkhya figure from whom we have a well-attested text, the Samkhyakarikas, which is the foundational text for the school.
  361. ↑ Margaret and James Stutley (1977, 2019), A Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore and Development 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500, Routledge, New York. p. 142.
    Kapila I. According to tradition the name of the founder of the Sāṁkhya system,1 but Hindu accounts of him are so full of legends and contradictions that little historical value can be attributed to them.2 The Buddhist references to Kapila deserve more serious consideration, since they connect his name with the city of Kapilavastu, the birthplace of the Buddha, and ascribe to him and his followers, some of whom are named, a sphere of activity which agrees well with the close relationship that existed between Buddhist and Sāṁkhya philosophy.3
    1 His date is unknown, but he probably lived during the seventh century B.C. (Radhakrishnan and Moore, Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, p. 425).
    2 Kapila is sometimes said to be a son of Brahmā; or an incarnation of Viṣṇu (DHI., p. 391); or of Agni.
    3 ERE., VII, p. 659.
    v. Darśana(s).
    II. A ṛṣi who burnt up Sagara’s 60,000 sons by his fiery glance (VP., IV.4).
    v. Aṁśumat; Bhagīratha.
  362. ↑ Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs, Michael S. Diener (1989), The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism • Hinduism • Taoism • Zen, Shambhala Publications, Inc., Boston. p. 174
    Kapila H, founder of the → Sankhya philosophy; a → rishi about whose life no details are known. His works have also been lost. The Tattvasamāsa ("summary of the truth"), a text that consists of only fifty-four words and is ascribed to him, holds no key to the origins of Sānkhya, its earliest authentic text is the so-called Sankhya-Kārikā of Īshvarakrishna, which undoubtedly dates back to sometime before 500 C.E.
  363. ↑ Constance A. Jones and James D. Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts On File, Inc., New York, pp. 227-228.
    Kapila (c. 100 C.E.) philosopher
    The sage Kapila is the legendary founder of Samkhya tradition, and thus a key figure in the history of yoga. He is said to have passed on his knowledge to Asuri, who in turn passed it on to Panchashikha. According to the oldest commentary on the samkhya karika, a later text, Kapila was a “wise ascetic, . . . born of heaven, . . . and innately endowed with the four fundamental dispositions of virtue, knowledge, renunciation, and supernatural power.”
    The story is told that Kapila, out of pity for suffering humanity, selected a Brahmin householder, Asuri, as an appropriate person to whom to reveal the knowledge of Samkhya. Kapila approached him as he was performing sacrifices (as he had been doing for thousands of years). Asuri would not listen. Only after being approached two more times did he relent and become Kapila’s student.
    Some sources say Kapila is the son of Svambhuva’s daughter, Manu, and Prajapati’s son, Kardama. Other sources say that he may be an incarnation of Vishnu who learned his wisdom directly from Shiva; as such he would then be known as Hiranyagarbha, or lord of the world. There are numerous references to Kapila in the epics and later texts, which give him various powers and statuses.
    Further reading: John Davies, Hindu Philosophy: An Exposition of the System of Kapila (New Delhi: Cosmo, 1981).
  364. ↑ Denise Cush, Catherine Robinson and Michael York (ed.) (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, New York, p. 409.
    KAPILA
    The Sāṃkhyakārikas (Verses on Sāṃkhya) form the earliest available complete work of classical Sāṃkhya (one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy). Its author was Īśvarakṛṣṇa (fourth to fifth century CE). According to tradition, Kapila is the name of the founder of the Sāṃkhya system.
    At Sāṃkhyakārika 69, Īśvarakṛṣṇa refers to a sage who explained and ‘enumerated’ the Sāṃkhya philosophy. According to Īśvarakṛṣṇa, this sage (identified by tradition as ‘Kapila’) passed on the Sāṃkhya teaching to Āsuri, who transmitted it to Pañcaśikha (who expanded and spread it). Commentators on Īśvarakṛṣṇa’s kārikas suggested possible lines of Sāṃkhya teachers (from Pañcaśika to Īśvarakṛṣṇa). Īśvarakṛṣṇa was regarded as having simplified the old system after a period of several centuries.
    In Sāṃkhya literature, Kapila has been described as a compassionate, wise ascetic, heaven-born, endowed with power, knowledge, virtue and renunciation. He has been called one of the seven great seers or sages (sapta mahāṛṣi), the others being Voḍhu, Āsuri, Pañcaśika, Sanātana, Sanaka and Sananda. For Vācaspati Miśra, Kapila was an incarnation of Viṣṇu, obtained total knowledge from Maheśvara and was born at the dawn of creation. Another account relates that, with the aid of an ‘artificial mind’ (nirmāṇacitta), Kapila, as a ‘primal wise man’, taught Āsuri Sāṃkhya wisdom.
    There are doubts about possible linkages between references to Kapila in earlier Hindu literature and later Sāṃ- khya writings. In the Ṛgveda and Upaniṣads, ‘kapila’ is a term for a colouṛ But at Śvetāśvatara Upaniśad 5.2, ‘kapila’ (as a colour reference) is connected to a seer born at the dawn of creation, possibly linking to Rudra.
    There are various references to Kapila in the Bhagavadgītā and Mokṣadharma of the Mahābhārata. In the Bhagavadgītā, there is reference to Kapila as a ‘perfected one’ (siddha). In the Moksadharma, Kapila is connected to Viṣṇu, Śiva and Agni. See also: Agni; Bhagavadgītā; Īśvarakṛṣna; Mahābhārata; Ṛṣi; Rudra; Ṣaḍdarśana; Saṃhitā; Sāṃkhya; Sāṃkhyakārikas; Siddha; Śiva; Upaniṣads; Vācaspati Miśra; Viśṇu
    Martin Ovens
    Further reading
    Larson, G.J. and R.S. Bhattacharya. 1987. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. 4, Sāṃkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
  365. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=波顛闍利&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    波 물결 파, 방죽 피
    顛 정수리 전
    闍 망루 도, 사리 사
    利 날카로울 리(이)
  366. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/entry/zhko/8b3a961b5d274db489489a9fafb480ca 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 8월 27일에 확인.
    波颠阇利
    발음 [ bōdiāndūlì ]
    인명 파탄잘리(《요가 수트라(Yoga Sutras)》의 편찬자로 힌두교의 정통 육파철학 중 하나인 요가 학파의 창시자).
  367. ↑ https://kabc.dongguk.edu/m/content/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1032_T_003 금칠십론(金七十論) 하권, 진제(眞諦) 한역, 번역자 미상. 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    “그렇다면 이러한 지혜는 누구로부터 획득된 것인가?”
    게송으로 답하겠다.
    이러한 지혜는 수승한 길상(吉祥)으로,是智勝吉祥
    모니(牟尼)께서 자비의 마음으로 설하신 것이니,牟尼依悲說
    먼저 아수리를 위해 설하셨고,先爲阿修利
    다음에 반시하에게 설하셨다.34)次與般尸訶
    34) 제70송.
    ‘이러한 지혜는 수승한 길상(吉祥)이다’라고 함은, 이러한 지혜는 그 옛날 네 가지 베다가 아직 출현하지 않았을 때 최초로 성취되었는데, 이러한 지혜에 의해 네 가지 베다와 여러 가지의 도(道)가 그 후에 성취될 수 있었기 때문에 모든 것 가운데 가장 뛰어난 것[一切最勝]이라고 말한 것이다. 또한 자아는 이러한 지혜로 말미암아 세 가지 괴로움과 스물네 가지 근본 괴로움, 그리고 세 가지 속박의 원리(遠離)를 획득하고,35) 독존 해탈한다. 그래서 이러한 지혜를 ‘가장 수승한 길상’이라고 말한 것이다.
    35) 세 가지 괴로움이란 내적 조건에 의한 괴로움[依內苦]과 외적 조건에 의한 괴로움[依外苦], 그리고 하늘에 의한 괴로움[依天苦]을 말하며(제1송 참조), 세 가지 속박이란 자성박ㆍ보시박ㆍ변이박을 말한다(제45송 참조).
    ‘모니(牟尼, mum)께서 자비의 마음으로 설하셨다.’ 즉 누가 처음으로 이러한 지혜를 획득하였던 것인가 하면, 바로 가비라 대선인(大仙人)이다. 앞(제1송)에서 설하였듯이 가비라선인은 처음 출현하면서부터 네 가지 공덕을 갖추고 있었는데, 첫째가 법이며, 둘째가 지혜이며, 셋째가 이욕이며, 넷째가 자재이다. 즉 그는 이러한 지혜를 얻고 나서 크나큰 자비심에 따라 그것을 설하셨던 것인데, 이러한 지혜를 수호하여 지니고, 다른 이를 제도하고자 하는 자비심으로 인해 ‘먼저 아수리를 위해 설하셨다.’
    그리고 아수리선인은 ‘다음에 반시하(般尸訶, Pañcaśikha)를 위해 설하셨다’ 이 반시하는 이 논을 자세히 설하였는데, 6십천(十千) 게송이나 되었다. 일찍이 가비라선인이 아수리를 위해 간략히 설한 것은 다음과 같은 것이었다.
    “최초에는 오로지 어둠[闇]만이 생겨났다. 이러한 어둠 중에 지혜의 밭[智田]이 있었다. 지혜의 밭이 바로 자아[人]이다. 즉 자아가 존재하여도 아직 지혜를 갖지 않았기 때문에 밭이라고 일컬은 것이다. 다음으로 회전 변이하였으니, 이것이 첫 번째 전변의 생[轉生]이다. 나아가 해탈한다.”
    아수리선인이 반시하를 위해 간략히 설한 것도 역시 이와 같은 것이었지만, 반시하가 이러한 지혜를 자세히 설하여 6십천 게송이나 되었던 것이다. 그 후 순서대로 계승되어 마침내 성(姓)은 구식(狗式, Kusala)이고, 이름은 자재흑(自在黑, Īśvarakṛṣṇa)이라고 하는 바라문이 이를 70게송으로 가려 취하게 되었으니, 게송으로 설하고 있는 바와 같다.
    제자들이 차례대로 출현하여弟子次第來
    위대한 스승의 지혜를 전수하였는데,傳受大師智
    자재흑이 간략히 설하였던 것은自在黑略說
    이미 진실의의 근본을 알았기 때문이다.36)已知實義本
    36) 제71송.
    ‘제자들이 차례대로 출현하여 위대한 스승의 지혜를 전수하였다’고 함은, 이러한 지혜는 가비라로부터 비롯되어 아수리에 이르고, 아수리는 반시하에게 전하였으며, 반시하는 갈가(褐伽, Garga)에게 전하였으며, 갈가는 우루거(優樓佉, Ulūka)에게 전하였으며, 우루거는 발바리(跋婆利)에게 전하였으며, 발바리는 자재흑에게 전한 것을 말한다. 이와 같은 순서로 자재흑은 이러한 지혜를 획득하였는데, 대론(大論)은 수지(受持)하기가 어렵다는 것을 알았기 때문에 70게송으로 간략하게 줄였으니, 앞에서 설한 바와 같다.
    세 가지 괴로움에 의한 핍박이 있기 때문에
    이것을 소멸하는 원인에 대해 알기 원한다.37)
    37) 제1송 전반.
    위의 게송이 바로 그것이다. 그래서 ‘자재흑이 간략히 설하였던 것은 이미 진실의의 근본을 알았기 때문이다’라고 말한 것이다.
  368. ↑ https://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T54n2137_003?format=line 金七十論卷上. 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    T54n2137_p1262a19║外曰。此智從何而得。以偈答
    T54n2137_p1262a20║曰。
    T54n2137_p1262a21║是智勝吉祥牟尼依悲說
    T54n2137_p1262a22║先為阿修利次與般尸訶
    T54n2137_p1262a23║是智勝吉祥者。此智昔四皮陀未出時初得
    T54n2137_p1262a24║成就。由此智四皮陀及諸道。後得成故。故
    T54n2137_p1262a25║說一切最勝。三種苦及二十四本苦并三縛。
    T54n2137_p1262a26║由此智故我得遠離獨存解脫。故說此智最
    T54n2137_p1262a27║吉祥。牟尼依悲說者。誰初得此智。謂迦毘羅
    T54n2137_p1262a28║大仙人。如前說。迦毘羅仙人初出有四德。一
    T54n2137_p1262a29║法二智三離欲四自在。得此智已依大悲說。
    T54n2137_p1262b01║護持此智為欲度他。由慈悲故先為阿修利
    T54n2137_p1262b02║說。是阿修利仙人。次為般尸訶說。是般尸
    T54n2137_p1262b03║訶廣說此論。有六十千偈。迦毘羅仙人為阿
    T54n2137_p1262b04║修利略說如此。最初唯闇生此暗中有智田。
    T54n2137_p1262b05║智田即是人有人未有智故稱為田。次迴轉
    T54n2137_p1262b06║變異。此第一轉生。乃至解脫。阿修利仙人為
    T54n2137_p1262b07║般尸訶略說亦如是。是般尸訶廣說此智有
    T54n2137_p1262b08║六十千偈。次第乃至婆羅門姓拘式名自在
    T54n2137_p1262b09║黑。抄集出七十偈。故說偈言。
    T54n2137_p1262b10║弟子次第來傳受大師智
    T54n2137_p1262b11║自在黑略說已知實義本
    T54n2137_p1262b12║弟子次第來傳受大師智者。是智者從迦毘
    T54n2137_p1262b13║羅來至阿修利。阿修利傳與般尸訶。般尸訶
    T54n2137_p1262b14║傳與褐伽。褐伽傳與優樓佉。優樓佉與跋
    T54n2137_p1262b15║婆利。跋婆利自在黑。如是次第自在黑得此
    T54n2137_p1262b16║智。見大論難可受持。故略抄七十偈。如前說。
    T54n2137_p1262b17║三苦所逼故欲知滅苦因等。故說自在黑略
    T54n2137_p1262b18║說已知實義本。
  369. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/数论颂 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    《數論頌》共有72頌（śloka），不過原本可能只有70頌。[4]據《數論頌》文中自述，作者的思想源自智者迦毗羅，其後傳至阿修利（Āsuri），再傳至般屍訶（Pañcaśikha），「般屍訶傳與褐伽，褐伽傳與優樓佉，優樓佉傳與跋婆利，跋婆利傳與自在黑，如是次第。」[5]
    [4] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 146-147
    [5] 《金七十論》
  370. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/数论颂 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    《数论颂》共有72颂（śloka），不过原本可能只有70颂。[4]据《数论颂》文中自述，作者的思想源自智者迦毗罗，其后传至阿修利（Āsuri），再传至般尸诃（Pañcaśikha），“般尸诃传与褐伽，褐伽传与优楼佉，优楼佉传与跋婆利，跋婆利传与自在黑，如是次第。”[5]
    [4] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 146-147
    [5] 《金七十论》
  371. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pancashikha 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    Purana and Itihasa (epic history)
    [«previous (P) next»] — Pancashikha in Purana glossary
    Pañcaśikha (पञ्चशिख).—A sage of ancient times. The Purāṇas give the following details about him.
    He was a disciple of Āsuri. He was brought up breastfed by Kapilā, wife of Āsuri and so he was known as Kāpila also. He dwelt in Pañcasrotas and performed a Yāga for a thousand years and got his name Pañcaśikha. He went to the assembly of the learned king Janaka and entered into a polemic contest with him and defeated him. The defeated King gave Pañcaśikha great respect and he lived in the court of Janaka as his Guru for a number of years. (Chapter 218, Śānti Parva).
    Source: archive.org: Puranic Encyclopedia
  372. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/pañcaśikha/124679/1
    https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0577.jpg 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    pañcaśikha पञ्चशिख
    Definition: m. Name of a sāṃkhya- teacher (called also -muni-, a pupil of āsuri-) mahābhārata, vāyu-purāṇa etc.
  373. ↑ Google 검색 sanskrit pronunciation of पञ्च 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
  374. ↑ Google 검색 pronunciation of शिख 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
  375. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piNiJEgBURg Shikha Pronunciation Sanskrit शिखा śikhā. 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
  376. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya#Historical_development 2025년 8월 18일에 확인
    Traditional credited founders
    Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.[136] It is unclear in which century of the 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.[137] Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means 'reddish-brown color'. Both Kapila as a 'seer' and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c.300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila; for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.[137] A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently note Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching and a much later scholar named Pancasikha[138] as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas.[139] Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.[137]
    [136] Sharma, C. (1997), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-0365-5. p. 149.
    [137] Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 107-109.
    [138] "Samkhya: Part Two: Samkhya Teachers". sreenivasarao's blogs. 3 October 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
    [139] Bilimoria, Purushottama; Mohanty, J. N.; Rayner, Amy; Powers, John; Phillips, Stephen; King, Richard; Chapple, Christopher Key (22 November 2017). Bilimoria, Purushottama (ed.). History of Indian Philosophy: Routledge history of world philosophies (1 ed.). New York : Routledge, 2017. pp. 131–132.
  377. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asuri_(Samkhya) 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    According to the references of the Shankhya philosophy, Asuri was the first recipient of the Shamkhya philosophy[3] and the second teacher after his teacher Kapila in the tradition of Shamkhya school of the Indian philosophy.[4] He was the teacher of the sage Panchashikha. He transmitted his knowledge of the Shamkhya philosophy to his disciple Panchashikha. And then Panchashikha taught Shamkhya philosophy to his disciple Kings Janadeva Janaka and Dharmadhwaja Janaka.
    [3] Kapila (1974). The Samkhya Philosophy, Containing (1) Sâmkhya-pravachana Sûtram: With the Vritti of Aniruddha, and the Bhâṣya of Vijnâna Bhikṣu and Extracts from the Vritti-sâra of Mahâdeva Vedantin (2) Tatva Samâsa (3) Sâmkhya Kârikâ (4) Panchaśikhâ Sûtram. AMS Press. ISBN 978-0-404-57811-4.
    [4] Larson, Gerald James (2001). Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3.
  378. ↑ https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/10/03/samkhya-part-two-samkhya-teachers/ 2025년 8월 18일에 확인.
    7.2. According to Samkhya traditions, it appears, there were as many as twenty-six Samkhya teachers. The more important of them are: Kapila, Asuri, Panchashikha, Vindyavasa, Varsaganya, Jaigisavya and Isvarakrishna.
  379. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T54n2137_001?format=line 金七十論卷上. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    T54n2137_p1245b27║此五過失。皮陀不為因。外曰。若爾何因為
    T54n2137_p1245b28║勝。答曰。翻此二因勝。謂二因者一醫方所說。
    T54n2137_p1245b29║二皮陀所說。翻此兩因欲知所得因。此因有
    T54n2137_p1245c01║五德。一定。二極。三淨。四不退。五平等。是故
    T54n2137_p1245c02║勝前兩。外曰。此因何因得。答曰。變性我知
    T54n2137_p1245c03║故。變者。一大。二我慢。三五塵。四五根。五五
    T54n2137_p1245c04║知根。六心。七五大。是七名變自性所作故。自
    T54n2137_p1245c05║性者無異本因。我者知者。諸人知此二十五
    T54n2137_p1245c06║真實之境不增不減決定脫三苦。如解脫中
    T54n2137_p1245c07║說偈。若知二十五隨處隨道住。編髮髻剃頭
    T54n2137_p1245c08║得解脫無疑。
  380. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://kabc.dongguk.edu/m/content/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1032_T_001 금칠십론(金七十論) 상권, 진제(眞諦) 한역, 번역자 미상. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    외도가 말하였다.
    “만약 그렇다면 어떤 원인이 괴로움을 소멸할 만한 가장 뛰어난 원인이라고 할 수 있는가?”
    “이러한 두 가지 원인과 반대되는 것이 보다 뛰어난 원인이다.”
    여기서 두 가지 원인이란, 첫째는 『의방』에서 말한 것이며, 둘째는 『베다』에서 말한 것이니, 바로 이러한 두 가지 원인과는 다른 괴로움의 소멸을 획득할 만한 것을 알기 원하는 것이다. 곧 이러한 원인에는 다섯 가지의 공덕이 있으니, 첫째는 궁극적이라는 것이며, 둘째는 절대적이라는 것이며, 셋째는 청정하다는 것이며, 넷째는 물러남이 없다는 것이며, 다섯째는 평등하다는 것이다. 그렇기 때문에 앞의 두 가지 원인보다 뛰어난 것이라고 한 것이다.
    외도가 말하였다.
    “그렇다면 그러한 원인은 무엇에 의해 획득되었기 때문인가?”
    “변이[變]와 자성[性]과 자아[我]에 대해 아는 것이기 때문이다.”
    여기서 변이란 자성에 의해 지어진 것[所作]으로, 첫째는 대(大)이며, 둘째는 아만(我慢)이며, 셋째는 5진(塵:唯의 다른 역어)이며, 넷째는 5근(根:作根,즉 행동기관)이며, 다섯째는 5지근(知根:지각기관)이며, 여섯째는 마음[心]이며, 일곱째는 5대(大)이니, 이러한 일곱 가지를 변이라고 한다. 자성이란 변이함이 없는 것으로, 근본원인[本因]이다. 자아란 지자(知者)를 말한다. 모든 이가 이러한 스물다섯 가지의 진실된 경계야말로 부증불감(不增不減)임을 안다면 세 가지의 괴로움에서 결정적으로 벗어나게 될 것이니, 이는 바로 『해탈』4) 중에서 말하고 있는 게송의 뜻과도 같다.

    만약 스물다섯 가지의 진리를 안다면
    어떠한 처소에 머물든, 어떠한 도를 닦든,
    변발하든, 상투를 틀어올리든, 삭발을 하든
    해탈하리라는 것은 의심의 여지가 없다.
    4) 이것은 현재 남아 있는 판차시카(Pañcaśikha)의 단편(Bhāvāganeśa의 Tattvāyāthārthadīpana) 중의 세 가지 해탈론(첫 번째 해탈은 지혜에 의한 해탈, 두 번째 해탈은 탐욕의 소멸에 의한 해탈, 세 번째 해탈은 악의 소멸에 의한 해탈)을 말한다. 이 게송은 제37송 장행에도 나온다.
  381. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=Purusha 네이버 영어사전. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    purusha
    명사 힌두교 (삼키아 학파(學派)·요가파에서) 진아(眞我): 영원하며 외적 사상(外的事象)에 좌우되지 않는다고 간주되는 참된 자아(自我).
    YBM 올인올 영한사전
  382. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=神我 네이버 중국어사전 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    神我
    神我，古印度婆罗门教六派哲学中数论派的主要学说。该派以"神我"为产生一切物质运动和生命现象的精神本体，居"二十五谛"之首。
    [ shén wŏ ]
    HDWIKI
  383. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=神我&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 神我 Shén wǒ 싱워
    Chinese (Traditional): 神我 Shén wǒ 싱워
    English: Divine Self
    Korean: 신성한 자아
  384. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=自我 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    自我
    1. 명사 자아. 자기 자신. [주로 쌍음절 동사 앞에 쓰여, 행위의 주체가 자기이며 동시에 그 대상도 자기임을 나타냄] (→自己(1), 自身)
    2. 형용사 광동어 이기적이다. 자기중심적이다.
    [ zìwǒ ]
    고려대 중한사전
  385. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=自我&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 自我 Zìwǒ 쯔워
    Chinese (Traditional): 自我 Zìwǒ 쯔워
    English: self
    Korean: 본인
  386. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=精神 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    精神
    1. 명사 원기. 활력. 기력. 정력.
    2. 형용사 활기차다. 생기발랄하다. 원기가 있다. 정력적이다.
    3. 동사 기운을 내다.
    [ jīng‧shén ]
    고려대 중한사전
  387. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=精神&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 精神 Jīngshén 징센
    Chinese (Traditional): 精神 Jīngshén 징센
    English: Spirit
    Korean: 영혼
  388. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=精神性的根本实体 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 4개 단어
    精神性 的 根本 实体
    jīngshénxìng de gēnběn shítǐ
  389. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=精神性的根本实体&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 精神性的根本实体 Jīngshén xìng de gēnběn shítǐ 징센싱더 근번 시티
    Chinese (Traditional): 精神性的根本實體 Jīngshén xìng de gēnběn shítǐ 징센싱더 근번 시티
    English: The fundamental spiritual entity
    Korean: 근본적인 영적 존재
  390. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=知者 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    知者
    词语释义zhīzhě能了解的人；有见识的人。相关条目知道能人聪慧慧者
    [ zhī zhĕ ]
    HDWIKI
  391. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=知者&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 知者 Zhì zhě 지즈
    Chinese (Traditional): 知者 Zhì zhě 지즈
    English: Knowledgeable
    Korean: 지식이 풍부한
  392. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=眞我 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    大我
    The greater self, or the true personality 眞我. Hīnayāna is accused of only knowing and denying the common idea of a self, or soul, whereas there is a greater self, which is a nirvana self. It especially refers to the Great Ego, the Buddha, but also to any Buddha ;v.大目經1, etc., and 涅...
    Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms
  393. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=真我 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    真我
    真我，佛教语。涅盘四德之一。亦称“大我”，与“妄我”相对，谓出离生死烦恼的自在之我。佛学常见词汇，真我，意思是真正的我。凡夫执着五蕴假合之身为我，其实那是妄我，要像佛那样具有八大自在之我，才是真我。...
    [ zhēn wŏ ]
    HDWIKI
  394. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=真我&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 真我 Zhēn wǒ 찡워
    Chinese (Traditional): 真我 Zhēn wǒ 찡워
    English: True Self
    Korean: 진정한 자아
  395. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/purusha#sanskrit 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    1) Puruṣa (पुरुष):—m. (mc. also pūr; [probably] [from] √pṝ and connected with puru, pūru ifc. f(ā). , rarely f(ī). ; cf. [Pāṇini 4-i, 24]) a man, male, human being ([plural] people, mankind), [Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
    2) a person, (pumān puruṣaḥ, a male person, [Śāṅkhāyana-gṛhya-sūtra; Manu-smṛti]; daṇḍaḥp, punishment personified, [Manu-smṛti]; [especially] grammatical [person]; with prathama, madhyama, uttama = the 3rd, 2nd, 1st [person] [Nirukta, by Yāska; Pāṇini]), an officer, functionary, attendant, servant, [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc. (cf. tat-p)
    3) a friend, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    4) a follower of the Sāṃkhya Philosophy (?), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    5) a member or representative of a race or generation, [Taittirīya-saṃhitā; Brāhmaṇa; Manu-smṛti] etc.
    6) the height or measure of a man (= 5 Aratnis = 120 Aṅgulas), [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa; Śulba-sūtra; Varāha-mihira]
    7) the pupil of the eye, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa]
    8) (also with nārāyaṇa) the primaeval man as the soul and original source of the universe (described in the Puruṣa-sūkta q.v.), [Ṛg-veda; Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa] etc.
    9) the personal and animating principle in men and other beings, the soul or spirit, [Atharva-veda] etc. etc.
    10) the Supreme Being or Soul of the universe (sometimes with para, parama, or uttama; also identified with Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva and Durgā), [Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā; Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa] etc. etc.
    11) (in Sāṃkhya) the Spirit as passive and a spectator of the Prakṛti or creative force, [Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 82 etc.]
    12) the, ‘spirit’ or fragrant exhalation of plants, [Ṛg-veda x, 51, 8]
    13) (with sapta) Name of the divine or active principles from the minute portions of which the universe was formed, [Manu-smṛti i, 19]
    14) Name of a Pāda in the Mahā-nāmnī verses, [Lāṭyāyana]
    15) of the Ist, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and 11th signs of the zodiac, [Jyotiṣa]
    16) of a son of Manu Cākṣuṣa, [Bhāgavata-purāṇa]
    17) of one of the 18 attendants of the sun, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    18) [plural] men, people (cf. above)
    19) Name of the Brāhmans of Krauñca-dvīpa, [Bhāgavata-purāṇa]
    20) (with pañca) Name of 5 princely personages or miraculous persons born under [particular] constellations, Var
    21) Rottleria Tinctoria, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    22) Clerodendrum Phlomoides, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    23) m or n. = puruṣaka m. n., [Śiśupāla-vadha v, 56 [Scholiast or Commentator]]
    24) n. (!) Name of mount Meru, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    25) Pūruṣa (पूरुष):—[from pūru] m. (mc.) = puruṣa, [Ṛg-veda]; etc.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  396. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/purusha 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
    Purusha (Sanskrit: पुरुष, IAST: Puruṣa) is a complex concept[1] whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.[2][1][3]
    In early Vedas, Purusha was a cosmic being whose sacrifice by the gods created all life.[4] This was one of many creation myths discussed in the Vedas. In the Upanishads, the Purusha concept refers to the abstract essence of the Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form, and all-pervasive.[4]
    In Samkhya philosophy, Purusha is the plural immobile cosmic principle, pure consciousness, unattached and unrelated to anything, which is "nonactive, unchanging, eternal, and pure".[5] Purusha uniting with Prakṛti (matter) gives rise to life.
    In Kashmir Shaivism, Purusha is enveloped in five sheaths: time (kāla), desire (raga), restriction (niyati), knowledge (vidyā) and separatedness (kalā); it is the universal Self (paramātman) under limitations as many individual Selfs (jīvātman).[6]
    [1] Angelika Malinar, 'Hindu Cosmologies', in Jessica Frazier (ed.), A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0, p. 67
    [2] Purusha Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
    [3] Karl Potter, Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0, pp 105–109
    [4] Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7, pp 87
    [5] Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791430677., p. 250-251.
    [6] Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791430677., p. 251.
  397. ↑ https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/monierwilliams/mw0637.jpg . 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
  398. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0y73p2R6mVA Purusha Pronunciation Sanskrit पुरुष puruṣa. 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
  399. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/purusa Learn how to pronounce Purusa. 2025년 10월 7일에 확인.
  400. ↑ https://www.howtopronounce.com/purusha Learn how to pronounce Purusha. 2025년 10월 8일에 확인.
  401. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 머 楊惠南(2022), 『印度哲學史』(Traditional Chinese Edition), 臺北市:弘雅三民圖書股份有限公司. ISBN:978-626-307-817-8 (EPUB).
    第七章 數論派的歷史與哲學
    第二節 數論學派的宇宙論──「二十五諦」
    . . .
    其次，「大」是由「（自）性」(prakṛti)所生。（自）性，有時又稱為「（根）本（自）性」(Mūlaprakṛti)，這是因為它是宇宙中一切萬事萬物（包括大、我慢等）之根源的緣故。所以，《金七十論》卷上說：「從自性生大，從大生我慢，從我（慢）生五唯，從五唯生十六見。」[註30]由於大、我慢、五唯，以及五塵（五唯）、五（作）根、五知根、心（根）等「十六見」[註31]，全部都是由自性所「變異」而生起的緣故，因此，本節一開頭的引文說：「是七名變，自性所作故。」而自性也就成為「本因」了。因此，本節一開頭的引文又說：「自性者，無異本因。」事實上，《金七十論》卷上[註32]，又把自性稱為勝因(Pradhāna)、梵(Brahman)、眾持(Bahudhātmaka)。說它是勝因，無疑地，是因為自性乃一切萬物之「本因」。說它是梵，乃是因為婆羅門教往往以「梵」作為宇宙的最高原理。而眾持，乃眾多(bahu)之存在體(dhā-ātmaka)的意思。自性，做為一切萬物之因，在它裡面，內存著宇宙中的一切萬物（一切存在體）；因此自性稱為眾持。事實上自性是一種原始的物質[註33]，因此，由它所變異生起的一切事物，包括往往被其他學派視為心靈活動的覺（大）、我慢和心根（意根），全都是物質性的存在。這是特別值得注意的主張。
    [註30]：引見前書，頁1246，下。
    [註31]：十六見（十六諦），是指五大、五作根、五知根和心根（意根）等十六。
    [註32]：參見《大正藏》卷54，頁1250，中─下。
    [註33]：Ganganatha Jha曾英譯九世紀中葉，跋遮濕鉢底．彌續羅(Vācaspati Miśra)對《數論偈》的注釋──《真理月光註》(Tattva-kaunudī)。在Jha的英譯本中，曾把prakṛti（自性）譯為「根本物質」(root-matter)、「原初物質」(primordial matter)，或簡單譯為「物質」(matter)。另外，S. S. Suryanarayana Sastri, The Sāṅkhya Kārikā of Īsvara Kṛṣṇa, Madras: Univ. of Madras, 1935，則譯為「初性」(Primal Nature)。(Cf. S. Radhakrishnan and C. A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton Univ. Press, 1957, p. 427.)
  402. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/prakriti 2025년 10월 10일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Prakriti in Sanskrit glossary
    Prakṛti (प्रकृति).—f.
    1) The natural condition or state of anything, nature, natural form (opp. vikṛti which is a change or effect); तं तं नियममास्थाय प्रकृत्या नियताः स्वया (taṃ taṃ niyamamāsthāya prakṛtyā niyatāḥ svayā) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 7.2. प्रकृत्या यद्वक्रम् (prakṛtyā yadvakram) Ś1.9; उष्णत्वमग्न्यातपसंप्रयोगात् शैत्यं हि यत् सा प्रकृतिर्जलस्य (uṣṇatvamagnyātapasaṃprayogāt śaityaṃ hi yat sā prakṛtirjalasya) R.5.54; मरणं प्रकृतिः शरीरिणां विकृति- र्जीवितमुच्यते बुधैः (maraṇaṃ prakṛtiḥ śarīriṇāṃ vikṛti- rjīvitamucyate budhaiḥ) R.8.87; Uttararāmacarita 7.19; अपेहि रे अत्रभवान् प्रकृतिमापन्नः (apehi re atrabhavān prakṛtimāpannaḥ) Ś.2. 'has resumed his wonted nature'; प्रकृतिम् आपद् (prakṛtim āpad) or प्रतिपद् (pratipad) or प्रकृतौ स्था (prakṛtau sthā) 'to come to one's senses', 'regain one's consciousness.'
    2) Natural disposition, temper, temperament, nature, constitution; प्रकृतिः खलु सा महीयसः सहते नान्यसमुन्नतिं यया (prakṛtiḥ khalu sā mahīyasaḥ sahate nānyasamunnatiṃ yayā) Kirātārjunīya 2.21; कथं गत एव आत्मनः प्रकृतिम् (kathaṃ gata eva ātmanaḥ prakṛtim) Ś.7. 'natural character'; अपश्यत् पाण्डवश्रेष्ठो हर्षेण प्रकृतिं गतः (apaśyat pāṇḍavaśreṣṭho harṣeṇa prakṛtiṃ gataḥ) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 39.66 (com. prakṛtiṃ svāsthyam); so प्रकृतिकृपण, प्रकृतिसिद्ध (prakṛtikṛpaṇa, prakṛtisiddha); see below.
    3) Make, form, figure; महानुभावप्रकृतिः (mahānubhāvaprakṛtiḥ) Mālatīmādhava (Bombay) 1.
    4) Extraction, descent; गोपालप्रकृतिरार्यकोऽस्मि (gopālaprakṛtirāryako'smi) Mṛcchakaṭika 7.
    5) Origin, source, original or material cause, the material of which anything is made; नार्थानां प्रकृतिं वेत्सि (nārthānāṃ prakṛtiṃ vetsi) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 4.49.1; प्रकृतिश्चोपादानकारणं च ब्रह्माभ्युपगन्तव्यम् (prakṛtiścopādānakāraṇaṃ ca brahmābhyupagantavyam) Ś. B. (see the full discussion on Br. Sūt.1.4.23); यामाहुः सर्वभूतप्रकृतिरिति (yāmāhuḥ sarvabhūtaprakṛtiriti) Ś.1.1; Bhāgavata 4.28.24.
    6) (In Sāṅ. phil.) Nature (as distinguished from puruṣa,) the original source of the material world, consisting of the three essential qualities सत्त्व, रजस् (sattva, rajas) and तमस् (tamas). It is also mentioned as one of the four contentments; प्रकृत्युपादानकालभागाख्याः (prakṛtyupādānakālabhāgākhyāḥ) Sāṃkhyakārikā 5.
    7) (In gram.) The radical or crude form of a word to which case-terminations and other affixes are applied; प्रकृतिप्रत्यययोरिवानुबन्धः (prakṛtipratyayayorivānubandhaḥ) Kirātārjunīya 13.19.
    8) A model, pattern, standard, (especially in ritualistic works); Bhāgavata 5.7.5.
    9) A woman.
    1) The personified will of the Supreme Spirit in the creation (identified with māyā or illusion); मयाध्यक्षेण प्रकृतिः सूयते सचराचरम् (mayādhyakṣeṇa prakṛtiḥ sūyate sacarācaram) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 9.1.
    11) The male or female organ of generation.
    12) A mother.
    13) (In arith.) A coefficient, or multiplier.
    14) (In anatomy) Temperament of the humours; प्रकृतिं यान्ति भूतानि निग्रहः किं करिष्यति (prakṛtiṃ yānti bhūtāni nigrahaḥ kiṃ kariṣyati) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 3.33.
    15) An animal.
    16) An artisan.
    17) The Supreme Being; न ह्यस्ति सर्वभूतेषु दुःख- मस्मिन् कुतः सुखम् । एवं प्रकृतिभूतानां सर्वसंसर्गयायिनाम् (na hyasti sarvabhūteṣu duḥkha- masmin kutaḥ sukham | evaṃ prakṛtibhūtānāṃ sarvasaṃsargayāyinām) || Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12. 152.16.
    18) Eight forms of the Supreme Being; भूमि- रापोऽनलो वायुः खं मनो बुद्धिरेव च । अहंकार इतीयं मे भिन्ना प्रकृति- रष्टधा (bhūmi- rāpo'nalo vāyuḥ khaṃ mano buddhireva ca | ahaṃkāra itīyaṃ me bhinnā prakṛti- raṣṭadhā) || Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 7.4.
    19) The way of life (jīvana); सतां वै ददतोऽन्नं च लोकेऽस्मिन् प्रकृतिर्ध्रुवा (satāṃ vai dadato'nnaṃ ca loke'smin prakṛtirdhruvā) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.18.27. (pl.)
    1) A king's ministers, the body of ministers or counsellors, ministry; अथानाथाः प्रकृतयो मातृबन्धुनिवासिनम् (athānāthāḥ prakṛtayo mātṛbandhunivāsinam) R.12.12; Pañcatantra (Bombay) 1.48; अशुद्धप्रकृतौ राज्ञि जनता नानुरज्यते (aśuddhaprakṛtau rājñi janatā nānurajyate) 31.
    2) The subjects (of a king); प्रवर्ततां प्रकृतिहिताय पार्थिवः (pravartatāṃ prakṛtihitāya pārthivaḥ) Ś.7.35; नृपतिः प्रकृतीरवेक्षितुम् (nṛpatiḥ prakṛtīravekṣitum) R.8.18,1.
    3) The constituent elements of the state (saptāṅgāni), i. e. 1 the king; -2 the minister; -3 the allies; -4 treasure; -5 army; -6 territory; -7 fortresses &c.; and the corporations of citizens (which is sometimes added to the 7); स्वाम्यमात्य- सुहृत्कोशराष्ट्रदुर्गबलानि च (svāmyamātya- suhṛtkośarāṣṭradurgabalāni ca) Ak.
    4) The various sovereigns to be considered in case of war; (for full explanation see Kull. on Manusmṛti 7.155 and 157).
    5) The eight primary elements out of which everything else is evolved according to the Sāṅkhyas; see Sāṃkhyakārikā 3.
    6) The five primary elements of creations (pañcamahābhūtāni) i. e. पृथ्वी, अप्, तेजस्, वायु (pṛthvī, ap, tejas, vāyu) and आकाश (ākāśa); प्रकृतिं ते भजिष्यन्ति नष्टप्रकृतयो मयि (prakṛtiṃ te bhajiṣyanti naṣṭaprakṛtayo mayi) Mahābhārata (Bombay) 5.73.17.
    Derivable forms: prakṛtiḥ (प्रकृतिः).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Prākṛti (प्राकृति).—(?) (f.), sometimes in text of Divyāvadāna for prakṛti, nature, e.g. 310.26 °tiṃ ca jñātvā; elsewhere in the same phrase, e.g. 47.10, the regular prakṛtiṃ is printed. Not recorded in Index; perhaps only misprint.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Edgerton Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
    Prakṛti (प्रकृति).—f.
    (-tiḥ) 1. Nature; in philosophy the passive or material cause of the world, as opposed to the active or spiritual; and in mythology, a goddess, the personified will of the Supreme in the creation identified with Maya or illusion, and in an especial manner the prototype of the female sex; hence it is the same with the Sakti or personified energy or bride of a deity, as Lakshmi, Durga, &c. in some systems Prakriti is considered the same with the Supreme Being.
    2. The natural state or condition of any thing.
    3. A radical form or predicament of being, an illusion, intelligence, consciousness, and the five elements, or Akas, fire, air, earth, and water.
    4. The five elements collectively.
    5. Cause, origin.
    6. A woman or womankind.
    7. A mother.
    8. An animal.
    9. The male organ of generation.
    10. The female organ of generation.
    11. An uninflected word; the radical form of a word, before the affixes forming cases, &c. are subjoined.
    12. A requisite of regal administration, of which seven are enumerated; the king, the minister, an ally, treasure, territory, fortresses, and an army: the corporations or companies of citizens are sometimes added, making an eighth class.
    13. A form of metre, consisting of a stanza of four lines, each line containing twenty-one syllables.
    14. (In arithmetic,) A given coefficient. (In anatomy,) Temperament, the predominance of one of the humours at the time of generation. E. pra implying priority or precedence, kṛ to make aff. ktin or ktic; being the first step towards creation.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Prakṛti (प्रकृति).—[pra-kṛ + ti], f.
    1. The original or natural state of anything, [Pañcatantra] ii. [distich] 95 (by birth); [Vikramorvaśī, (ed. Bollensen.)] 8, 2; [Hitopadeśa] ii. [distich] 131; [Raghuvaṃśa, (ed. Stenzler.)] 5, 54.
    2. Nature, [Bhagavadgītā, (ed. Schlegel.)] 3, 33; prakṛtyā, properly, [Pañcatantra] 218, 11.
    3. With tṛtīyā, ‘the third nature,’ i. e. an eunuc’s nature.
    4. A radical form or predicament of being, as illusion, intelligence, etc.
    5. The eight elements, from which all is produced, [Bhagavadgītā, (ed. Schlegel.)] 7, 4.
    6. Cause, the original source, [Śākuntala, (ed. Böhtlingk.)] [distich] 1.
    7. The requisites of royal administration, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 9, 294.
    8. The chief objects of royal consideration, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 7, 156.
    9. Business, affairs, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 8, 161.
    10. The minister of a king, 9, 232.
    11. Subjects, people, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 7, 175.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Prakṛti (प्रकृति).—[feminine] the original or natural form or cause of anything; nature or the material world (ph.); the (5—8) constituent elements of the state, e.[grammar] the king, the ministers, subjects etc.; i.[grammar] nature, character, disposition, temper.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Prakṛti (प्रकृति) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—Sv. Oppert. 1163. 4220. 4597. 4598. 4662. 4663. 4840. 8092. Ii, 391. 2297.
    2) Prakṛti (प्रकृति):—Sv. add Ii, 5592.
    3) Prakṛti (प्रकृति):—Sv. Gov. Or. Libr. Madras 52.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Aufrecht Catalogus Catalogorum
    1) Prakṛti (प्रकृति):—[=pra-kṛti] [from pra-kāra > pra-kṛ] a f. See next p.
    2) [=pra-kṛti] [from pra-kṛ] b f. ‘making or placing before or at first’, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance (opp. to vi-kṛti q.v.), [Prātiśākhya; Nirukta, by Yāska; Jaimini; Mahābhārata]
    3) [v.s. ...] cause, original source, [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata; Śakuntalā] etc.
    4) [v.s. ...] origin, extraction, [Mṛcchakaṭikā]
    5) [v.s. ...] nature, character, constitution, temper, disposition, [Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature; Suśruta] etc. ([in the beginning of a compound] and tyā ind. by nature, naturally, unalterably, properly, [Prātiśākhya; ???; Manu-smṛti] etc.)
    6) [v.s. ...] fundamental form, pattern, standard, model, rule ([especially] in ritual), [???]
    7) [v.s. ...] (in the Sāṃkhya [philosophy]) the original producer of (or rather passive power of creating) the material world (consisting of 3 constituent essences or Guṇas called sattva, rajas and tamas), Nature (distinguished from puruṣa, Spirit as Māyā is d° from Brahman in the Vedāntas)
    8) [v.s. ...] [plural] the 8 producers or primary essences which evolve the whole visible world (viz. a-vyakta, buddhi or mahat, ahaṃ-kāra, and the 5 tan-mātras or subtle elements; rarely the 5 elements alone), [Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 80 etc.]
    9) [v.s. ...] (in mythol.) a goddess, the personified will of the Supreme in the creation (hence the same with the Śakti or personified energy or wife of a deity, as Lakṣmī, Durgā etc.; also considered as identical with the Supreme Being), [Horace H. Wilson; Indian Wisdom, by Sir M. Monier-Williams 140; Religious Thought and Life in India 223]
    10) [v.s. ...] ([plural]) Name of a class of deities under Manu Raibhya, [Harivaṃśa]
    11) [v.s. ...] (in polit.) [plural] a king’s ministers, the body of ministers or counsellors, ministry, [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
    12) [v.s. ...] the subjects of a king, citizens, artisans etc., [ib.]
    13) [v.s. ...] the constituent elements or powers of the state (of which are usually enumerated, viz. king minister, allies, treasure, army, territory, fortresses, [Manu-smṛti ix, 294; 295])
    14) [v.s. ...] the various sovereigns to be considered in case of war (viz. the madhyama, vijigīṣu, udāsīna and śatru; to which should be added 8 remoter princes, viz. the mitra, arimitra, mitra-mitra, arimitra-mitra, pārṣṇi-graha, ākranda, pārṣṇigrāhāsāra, ākrandāsāsa; each of these 12 kings has 5 Prakṛtis in the form of minister, territory, fortresses, treasure and army, so that the total number of Prakṛtis may be 72), [Manu-smṛti vii, 155; 157; Manvarthamuktāvalī, kullūka bhaṭṭa’s Commentary on manu-smṛti]
    15) [v.s. ...] (in gram.) the crude or elementary form of a word, base, root, an uninflected word, [Sāhitya-darpaṇa; Pāṇini [Scholiast or Commentator]; Vopadeva]
    16) [v.s. ...] Name of 2 classes of metres, [Colebrooke]
    17) [v.s. ...] (in [arithmetic]) a co-efficient multiplier, [ib.]
    18) [v.s. ...] (in [anatomy]) temperament, the predominance of one of the humours at the time of generation, [Horace H. Wilson]
    19) [v.s. ...] (with tritīyā) the third nature, a eunuch, [Mahābhārata]
    20) [v.s. ...] matter, affair, [Lalita-vistara]
    21) [v.s. ...] the male or female organ of generation, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    22) [v.s. ...] a woman or womankind, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    23) [v.s. ...] a mother, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    24) [v.s. ...] an animal, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
    25) [v.s. ...] Name of a woman, [Buddhist literature]
    26) [v.s. ...] Name of [work]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Prakṛti (प्रकृति):—[pra-kṛti] (tiḥ) 2. f. Nature; matter; Māyā; origin; uninflected word; elements of royalty; temperament; a given co-efficient.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  403. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=根本物質&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 根本物質 Gēnběn wùzhí 근번우지
    Chinese (Simplified): 根本物质 Gēnběn wùzhí 근번우지
    English: fundamental substance
    Korean: 기본 물질
  404. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=根本物質&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    根 뿌리 근
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 10획
    1. 뿌리 2. 근본(根本) 3. 밑동(나무줄기에서 뿌리에 가까운 부분)
    𣏄(동자), 𣒨(동자)
    本 근본 본, 달릴 분
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 5획
    1. (근본 본) 2. 근본(根本) 3. (초목의)뿌리
    𡴩(고자), 楍(고자), 㮺(고자), 𠂔(속자), 夲(속자)
    物 물건 물
    부수 牜(소우3) 총 획수 8획
    1. 물건(物件) 2. 만물(萬物) 3. 사물(事物)
    㘬(동자)
    質 바탕 질, 폐백 지
    부수 貝(조개패) 총 획수 15획
    1. (바탕 질) 2. 바탕 3. 본질(本質)
    质(간체자), 貭(약자), 劕(동자), 质(동자)
  405. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=根本物质 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    根本 物质
    gēnběn wùzhì
  406. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=根本自性&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    根 뿌리 근
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 10획
    1. 뿌리 2. 근본(根本) 3. 밑동(나무줄기에서 뿌리에 가까운 부분)
    𣏄(동자), 𣒨(동자)
    本 근본 본, 달릴 분
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 5획
    1. (근본 본) 2. 근본(根本) 3. (초목의)뿌리
    𡴩(고자), 楍(고자), 㮺(고자), 𠂔(속자), 夲(속자)
    自 스스로 자
    부수 自(스스로자) 총 획수 6획
    1. 스스로, 몸소, 자기(自己) 2. 저절로, 자연히(自然-) 3. ~서부터
    𦣹(고자), 𦣼(고자), 𨈻(동자), 𩐍(동자)
    性 성품 성
    부수 忄(심방변) 총 획수 8획
    1. 성품(性品), 타고난 사람의 천성(天性) 2. 바탕 3. 성질(性質), 사물(事物)의 본질(本質)
    𢘡(동자)
  407. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=根本自性&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 根本自性 Gēnběn zì xìng 근번쯔싱
    Chinese (Traditional): 根本自性 Gēnběn zì xìng 근번쯔싱
    English: Fundamental Self-Nature
    Korean: 근본적인 자기 본성
  408. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=根本自性 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    根本 自性
    gēnběn zìxìng
  409. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=物質&range=letter 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    物 물건 물
    부수 牜(소우3) 총 획수 8획
    1. 물건(物件) 2. 만물(萬物) 3. 사물(事物)
    㘬(동자)
    質 바탕 질, 폐백 지
    부수 貝(조개패) 총 획수 15획
    1. (바탕 질) 2. 바탕 3. 본질(本質)
    质(간체자), 貭(약자), 劕(동자), 质(동자)
  410. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=物質&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 物質 Wùzhí 우지
    Chinese (Simplified): 物质 Wùzhí 우지
    English: substance
    Korean: 물질
  411. ↑ 가 나 다 라 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=物质 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    物质
    명사 물질.
    [ wùzhì ]
    고려대 중한사전
    物质
    1. 명사 matter
    2. 명사 material things plural
    [ wùzhì ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    物质 웹수집
    1. material
    2. substance
    [ wùzhí ]
    웹수집
  412. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=本性&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    本 근본 본, 달릴 분
    부수 木(나무목) 총 획수 5획
    1. (근본 본) 2. 근본(根本) 3. (초목의)뿌리
    𡴩(고자), 楍(고자), 㮺(고자), 𠂔(속자), 夲(속자)
    性 성품 성
    부수 忄(심방변) 총 획수 8획
    1. 성품(性品), 타고난 사람의 천성(天性) 2. 바탕 3. 성질(性質), 사물(事物)의 본질(本質)
    𢘡(동자)
  413. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=本性&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 本性 Běnxìng 번싱
    Chinese (Traditional): 本性 Běnxìng 번싱
    English: nature
    Korean: 자연
  414. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=本性 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 12일에 확인.
    本性
    명사 본성. 천성. (→天性, 禀性)
    [ běnxìng ]
    고려대 중한사전
    本性
    명사 nature
    [ běnxìng ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    본성 本性 [본성]
    1. 명사 本质 ，本性 ，本色 ，天性 。 (≒체성, 본색(本色), 본질(本質), 성진(性眞), 실성(實性), 천성(天性)), (↔가면(假面))
    2. 명사 本性 ，本质 。 (≒성진(性眞), 실성(實性), 체성(體性), 솔성(率性), 성래(性來))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  415. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=性&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    性 성품 성
    부수 忄(심방변) 총 획수 8획
    1. 성품(性品), 타고난 사람의 천성(天性) 2. 바탕 3. 성질(性質), 사물(事物)의 본질(本質)
    𢘡(동자)
  416. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-CN&tl=zh-TW&text=性&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    Chinese (Simplified): 性 Xìng 싱
    Chinese (Traditional): 性 Xìng 싱
    English: sex (性别 性 性交 性欲), nature (​性质 自然 性 本质 大自然 自然界), character (字符 字 人物 性格 性质 性), gender, (​性别 性) quality (​质量 品质 素质 质 性质 性)
    Korean: 섹스
  417. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=性 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    性
    1. 명사 성격. 본성. 기질. 성질.
    2. 동사 화내다.
    3. 명사 (물질의) 성질. 성분. 성능. 특성.
    [ xìng ]
    고려대 중한사전
    性
    1. 명사 character
    2. 명사 function
    3. 명사 gender
    [ xìng ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    성 5 性 [성:]
    1. 명사 本性 ，天性 ，本质 。 (≒바탕, 본바탕, 본성(本性), 본질(本質))
    2. 명사 性 ，性别 。 (≒자웅(雌雄), 섹스(sex))
    3. 명사 性 ，性生活 。 (≒섹스(sex))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  418. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=原初物質&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 原初物質 Yuánchū wùzhí 옌추 우지
    Chinese (Simplified): 原初物质 Yuánchū wùzhí 옌추 우지
    English: Primordial matter
    Korean: 원시 물질
  419. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=原初物質&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    原 언덕 원/근원 원
    부수 厂(민엄호ㆍ민엄호밑) 총 획수 10획
    1. 언덕 2. 근원(根源), 근본(根本) 3. 저승
    厡(본자), 𠪥(고자), 𠪰(고자), 𠩤(속자), 𠩠(동자), 𠫐(동자), 𨙅(동자)
    初 처음 초
    부수 刀(칼도) 총 획수 7획
    1. 처음, 시초(始初) 2. 시작(始作) 3. 시종(始終: 처음과 끝)
    𠫎(고자), 䥚(고자), 𡔈(동자), 𢀯(동자), 𣦂(동자)
    物 물건 물
    부수 牜(소우3) 총 획수 8획
    1. 물건(物件) 2. 만물(萬物) 3. 사물(事物)
    㘬(동자)
    質 바탕 질, 폐백 지
    부수 貝(조개패) 총 획수 15획
    1. (바탕 질) 2. 바탕 3. 본질(本質)
    质(간체자), 貭(약자), 劕(동자), 质(동자)
  420. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=原初物质 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    중국어 문장 분석 결과 총 2개 단어
    原初 物质
    yuánchū wùzhì
  421. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=原初 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    原初
    부사 최초. 원래. 이전.
    [ yuánchū ]
    고려대 중한사전
    원초 原初
    명사 原始 ，本初 。
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  422. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=自性&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    自 스스로 자
    부수 自(스스로자) 총 획수 6획
    1. 스스로, 몸소, 자기(自己) 2. 저절로, 자연히(自然-) 3. ~서부터
    𦣹(고자), 𦣼(고자), 𨈻(동자), 𩐍(동자)
    性 성품 성
    부수 忄(심방변) 총 획수 8획
    1. 성품(性品), 타고난 사람의 천성(天性) 2. 바탕 3. 성질(性質), 사물(事物)의 본질(本質)
    𢘡(동자)
  423. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=自性&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 自性 Zì xìng 쯔싱
    Chinese (Simplified): 自性 Zì xìng 쯔싱
    English: Self-nature
    Korean: 자기 본성
  424. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=自性 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 13일에 확인.
    自性 (佛教)
    종교 자성.
    [ zìxìng (fójiào) ]
    위키백과
  425. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=自然&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 14일에 확인.
    自 스스로 자
    부수 自(스스로자) 총 획수 6획
    1. 스스로, 몸소, 자기(自己) 2. 저절로, 자연히(自然-) 3. ~서부터
    𦣹(고자), 𦣼(고자), 𨈻(동자), 𩐍(동자)
    然 불탈 연/그럴 연
    부수 灬(연화발) 총 획수 12획
    1. 불타다, 불태우다 2. 밝다 3. 명백하다(明白--), 분명하다(分明--)
    𤓉(고자), 㸐(고자), 燃(속자), 𤟙(동자), 肰(동자), 𧆋(동자), 䖄(동자)
  426. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/entry/ccko/73fd036cdfb64638bdff4630876dda5c 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 14일에 확인.
    自然
    자연
    自 스스로 자 然 불탈 연
    디지털 한자사전 e-한자
    1. 사람의 힘이 더해지지 아니하고 세상(世上)에 스스로 존재(存在)하거나 우주(宇宙)에 저절로 이루어지는 모든 존재(存在)나 상태(狀態).
    2. 사람의 힘이 더해지지 아니하고 저절로 생겨난 산, 강(江), 바다, 식물(植物), 동물(動物) 따위의 존재(存在). 또는 그것들이 이루는 지리적(地理的)ㆍ지질적(地質的) 환경(環境).
    3. 사람의 힘이 더해지지 아니하고 스스로 존재(存在)하거나 저절로 이루어진다는 뜻을 나타내는 말.
    4. 사람과 사물(事物)의 본성(本性)이나 본질(本質).
    5. 의식(意識)이나 경험(經驗)의 대상(對象)인 현상(現象)의 전체(全體).
    6. 초등학교(初等學校) 교과(敎科)의 하나. 일상생활(日常生活) 속에 나타나는 자연(自然) 사물(事物)과 현상(現象)에 대하여 과학적(科學的)으로 관찰(觀察)하고 사고(思考)하는 능력(能力)을 기르는 것이 그 목적(目的)이다.
    7. 사람의 의도적(意圖的)인 행위(行爲) 없이 저절로.
    연관 단어
    유의어
    自然科(자연과)
  427. ↑ 가 나 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=自然&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 14일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 自然 Zìrán 쯔란
    Chinese (Simplified): 自然 Zìrán 쯔란
    English: nature (​本性 本質 大自然 脾性 天 自然)
    Korean:
  428. ↑ 가 나 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=自然 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 14일에 확인.
    自然
    1. 명사 자연. 천연. (→天然(1))
    2. 부사 저절로. 자연히.
    3. 부사 물론. 응당. 당연.
    [ zìrán ]
    고려대 중한사전
    自然
    형용사 (어색하지 않고) 자연스럽다. 꾸밈이 없다. 무리가 없다.
    [ zì‧ran ]
    고려대 중한사전
    自然
    1. 명사 nature
    2. 형용사 natural
    3. 부사 naturally
    [ zìrán ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
    자연 自然 [자연] 듣기
    1. 명사 自然 。 (≒만물(萬物), 우주(宇宙), 조물(造物), 천지(天地)), (↔인공(人工))
    2. 명사 自然环境 。 (↔인조(人造)), (≒목석초화(木石草花), 산림천택(山林川澤), 산수(山水), 산천(山川), 산택(山澤), 자연물(自然物))
    3. 명사 自然 。 (≒본연(本然), 진(眞), 천연(天然))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  429. ↑ 가 나 다 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakriti 2025년 10월 9일에 확인.
    Prakriti (Sanskrit: प्रकृति IAST: Prakṛti) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance".[1] It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by the Samkhya school, where it does not refer merely to matter or nature, but includes all cognitive, moral, psychological, emotional, sensorial and physical aspects of reality.[2] Prakriti has three different innate qualities (guṇas), whose equilibrium is the basis of all empirical reality, which is in the form of the pancha bhutas (five basic elements) – Akasha, Vayu, Agni, Jala, and Prithvi.[3][4] Prakriti contrasts with Puruṣa, which is pure awareness and metaphysical consciousness.[3] The term is also found in the texts of other Indian religions such as Jainism[5] and Buddhism.[6]
    Etymology and meaning
    Prakriti (Sanskrit: प्रकृति) is an early Indic concept meaning "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance".[7] The term is discussed by Yāska (~600 BCE) in Nirukta, and is found in numerous Hindu texts.[7] It connotes "nature, body, matter, phenomenal universe" in Hindu texts.[8][9]
    According to Dan Lusthaus,
    In Sāṃkhya puruṣa signifies the observer, the 'witness'. Prakṛti includes all the cognitive, moral, psychological, emotional, sensorial and physical aspects of reality. It is often mistranslated as 'matter' or 'nature' – in non-Sāṃkhyan usage it does mean 'essential nature' – but that distracts from the heavy Sāṃkhyan stress on prakṛti's cognitive, mental, psychological and sensorial activities. Moreover, subtle and gross matter are its most derivative byproducts, not its core. Only prakṛti acts.[2]
    Pancha Prakriti
    In Indian languages derived from Sanskrit roots, Prakriti refers to the feminine aspect of all life forms. A woman can be seen as a symbol of Prakriti.[8]
    According to Sanskrit scriptures, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, five Hindu goddesses are considered as the complete feminine personification of Prakriti – Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati, Gayatri and Radha. Together these five goddesses are worshiped as Pancha Prakriti.[10][11][12]
    [1] Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English dictionary: with special reference to cognate Indo-European languages. Ocford, England: Oxford. OCLC 704040338.
    [2] Dan Lusthaus, Samkhya
    [3] James G. Lochtefeld (2001), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, Pages 224, 265, 520
    [4] Prakriti: Indian philosophy, Encyclopædia Britannica
    [5] J Jaini (1940). Outlines Of Jainism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33. GGKEY:B0FNE81JRLY.
    [6] Paul Williams (2005). Buddhism: Yogācāra, the epistemological tradition and Tathāgatagarbha. Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-415-33231-6.
    [7] Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Monier William's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 2nd Ed., Oxford University Press, Prakriti प्रकृति, page 654
    [8] Knut A. Jacobsen (2008). Bron Taylor (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1299–1300. ISBN 978-1-4411-2278-0.
    [9] Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. pp. 332–333. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
    [10] Smith, John D. (1988). "Ludo Rocher: The Purā as. (A History of Indian Literature. Vol. ii, fasc. 3.) [vii, 282 pp. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986. DM 120"]. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 51 (2): 355. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00114958. ISSN 0041-977X. S2CID 161845090.
    [11] Chaturvedi, B. K. (1900). "Prakriti Khanda". Brahmavaivarta Purana. Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-93-5296-763-6. 인용 틀이 비었음 (도움말) : ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
    [12] Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  430. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVEq3lLDuyU Prakriti Pronunciation Sanskrit प्रकृति prakṛti. 2025년 10월 11일에 확인.
  431. ↑ 가 나 https://www.howtopronounce.com/hindi/prakrti Learn how to pronounce Prakrti. 2025년 10월 11일에 확인.
  432. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8kYSWgXx-Y Mula Prakriti Pronunciation Sanskrit मूलप्रकृति mūlaprakṛti. 2025년 10월 11일에 확인.
  433. ↑ 가 나 다 길희성(2014), 《인도 철학사》2판 8쇄, 민음사. p. 96.
    상키야의 세계관에 의하면, 세계는 解體 pralaya와 進化 sarga의 과정을 끊임없이 반복한다고 한다. 해체의 상태에는 만물이 프라크르티 속에 잠재적으로 존재하고 있으며 발전되어 나타나지 않는 상태를 말하며, 진화란 프라크르티로부터 모든 현상이 순차적으로 발전되어 나오는 과정을 말한다. 그러면 무엇이 이 해체와 진화를 되풀이하게끔 하는가? 어찌하여 未顯現인 프라크리티는 그 자체로서 해체의 상태에 머물러 있지 않고 진화의 과정으로 넘어가는가? 이 문체에 대한 상키야哲學의 說明을 이해하기 위해서는 프라크르티 자체의 성격을 고찰할 필요가 있다.
  434. ↑ 가 나 다 https://translate.google.com/?sl=zh-TW&tl=zh-CN&text=解體&op=translate 구글 번역 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    Chinese (Traditional): 解體 Jiětǐ 지에티
    Chinese (Simplified): 解体 Jiětǐ 지에티
    English: disintegration
    Korean: 분해
  435. ↑ https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=all&query=解體 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    解体
    1. 동사 해체하다. 붕괴하다. 와해하다. 무너지다.
    2. 동사 (동물을) 분해하다. 해체하다.
    [ jiětǐ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    해체 解體 [해:체]
    1. 명사 解体 ，解散 。 (≒해산(解散))
    2. 명사 解体 ，解散 。
    3. 명사 解体 ，拆卸 ，分解 。 (≒분해(分解))
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
    해체하다 解體-- [해ː체하다] 듣기
    1. 타동사 解体 ，解散 。
    2. 타동사 解体 。
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
    해체되다 解體-- [해:체뒈다] 듣기
    1. 자동사 解体 ，解散 。
    2. 자동사 解体 。
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
    해체시키다 解體---
    1. 사동사 使解体 ，解散 。
    2. 사동사 使解体 。
    에듀월드 표준한한중사전​
  436. ↑ 가 나 다 https://zh.dict.naver.com/#/search?range=word&query=解体 네이버 중국어사전. 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    解体
    1. 동사 해체하다. 붕괴하다. 와해하다. 무너지다.
    2. 동사 (동물을) 분해하다. 해체하다.
    [ jiětǐ ]
    고려대 중한사전
    解体
    동사 disintegrate
    [ jiětǐ ]
    Collins Chinese Dictionary
  437. ↑ https://hanja.dict.naver.com/#/search?query=解體&range=all 네이버 한자사전. 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    解體 해체
    1. 단체(團體) 따위가 흩어짐. 또는 그것을 흩어지게 함.
    2. 체제(體制)나 조직(組織) 따위가 붕괴(崩壞)함. 또는 그것을 붕괴(崩壞)하게 함.
    3. 여러 가지 부속(附屬)으로 맞추어진 기계(機械) 따위가 풀어져 흩어짐. 또는 그것을 뜯어서 헤침.
    家族解體 가족해체
    어떤 원인(原因)으로 가족(家族)의 공동생활(共同生活)이 무너져서 유지(維持)할 수 없게 되는 일. 부부(夫婦) 사이의 불화(不和), 별거(別居), 이혼(離婚), 가출(家出) 따위의 여러 가지 형태(形態)와 단계(段階)가 있다.
    解 풀 해
    부수 角(뿔각) 총 획수 13획
    1. 풀다, 벗다, 깨닫다, 설명하다(說明--) 2. 풀이하다 3. 깨닫다
    𦴘(고자), 觧(속자)
    體 몸 체
    부수 骨(뼈골) 총 획수 23획
    1. 몸, 신체(身體) 2. 몸소, 친히(親-) 3. 형상(形狀)
    体(간체자), 体(일본자), 𩪆(고자), 体(약자), 躰(속자), 軆(속자), 骵(속자), 𦡊(동자), 𨉦(동자)
  438. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/印度宗教与哲学词汇列表#P 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    prakṛti 原質，自性
    pralaya 劫滅
    prāṇāyāma 調息，調整呼吸
  439. ↑ https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/印度宗教与哲学词汇列表#P 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    prakṛti 原质，自性 pralaya 劫灭 prāṇāyāma 调息，调整呼吸
  440. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pralaya 2025년 10월 31일에 확인.
    Sanskrit dictionary
    Pralaya in Sanskrit glossary
    Pralaya (प्रलय).—
    1) Destruction, annihilation, dissolution; स्थानानि किं हिमवतः प्रलयं गतानि (sthānāni kiṃ himavataḥ pralayaṃ gatāni) Bhartṛhari 3.7,69; प्रलयं नीत्वा (pralayaṃ nītvā) Si.11.66. 'causing to disappear'.
    2) The destruction of the whole universe (at the end of a kalpa), universal destruction; Kumārasambhava 2.8; अहं कृत्स्नस्य जगतः प्रभवः प्रलय- स्तथा (ahaṃ kṛtsnasya jagataḥ prabhavaḥ pralaya- stathā) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 7.6.
    3) Any extensive destruction or devastation.
    4) Death, dying, destruction; प्रारब्धाः प्रलयाय मांसवदहो विक्रेतुमेते वयम् (prārabdhāḥ pralayāya māṃsavadaho vikretumete vayam) Mu.5.21;1.14; यदा सत्त्वे प्रवृद्धे तु प्रलयं याति देहभृत् (yadā sattve pravṛddhe tu pralayaṃ yāti dehabhṛt) Bhagavadgītā (Bombay) 14.14.
    5) Swoon, fainting, loss of consciousness, syncope; प्रलयान्तोन्मिषिते विलोचने (pralayāntonmiṣite vilocane) Kumārasambhava 4.2.
    6) (In Rhet.) Loss of consciousness, considered as one of the 33 subordinate feelings; प्रलयः सुखदुःखाद्यै- र्गाढमिन्द्रियमूर्छनम् (pralayaḥ sukhaduḥkhādyai- rgāḍhamindriyamūrchanam) Pratāparudra.
    7) The mystic syllable om.
    8) Spiritual unification (laya); बुद्धिः कर्मगुणैर्हीना यदा मनसि वर्तते । तदा संपद्यते ब्रह्म तत्रैव प्रलयं गतम् (buddhiḥ karmaguṇairhīnā yadā manasi vartate | tadā saṃpadyate brahma tatraiva pralayaṃ gatam) || Mahābhārata (Bombay) 12.24. 17.
    9) Sleepiness.
    Derivable forms: pralayaḥ (प्रलयः).
    Source: DDSA: The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary
    Pralaya (प्रलय).—m.
    (-yaḥ) The end of a Kalpa, or destruction of the world. 2. Death, dying, loss, destruction, dissolution, annihilation. 3. Fainting, syncope, loss of sense or consciousness, considered as one of the thirty-three subordinate feelings, (in Rhetoric.) 4. The mystic Syllable “Om.” E. pra before, lī to destroy, aff. ac .
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Shabda-Sagara Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pralaya (प्रलय).—i. e. pra-lī + a, m. 1. Dissolution, 2. Destruction, [Uttara Rāmacarita, 2. ed. Calc., 1862.] 83, 10; [Hitopadeśa] ii. [distich] 175. 3. End, [Pañcatantra] 265, 11. 4. Death. 5. The destruction of the world, [Hitopadeśa] 47, 18.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pralaya (प्रलय).—[masculine] dissolution, destruction, [especially] of the universe; ghana [masculine] & dahana [masculine] the cloud and the fire causing the end of the world.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    1) Pralaya (प्रलय):—[=pra-laya] a etc. See under pra-√lī.
    2) [=pra-laya] [from pra-lī] b m. dissolution, reabsorption, destruction, annihilation
    3) [v.s. ...] death
    4) [v.s. ...] ([especially]) the destruction of the whole world, at the end of a Kalpa (sub voce), [ṢaḍvBr.; Chāndogya-upaniṣad; Śaṃkarācārya; Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature] etc.
    5) [v.s. ...] setting (of the stars), [Subhāṣitāvali]
    6) [v.s. ...] end (saṃjāta-nidrā-pra-laya mfn. having done sleeping, [Pañcatantra])
    7) [v.s. ...] cause of dissolution, [Bhagavad-gītā; Bṛhad-devatā]
    8) [v.s. ...] fainting, loss of sense or consciousness, [Pratāparudrīya; Sāhitya-darpaṇa; Suśruta]
    9) [v.s. ...] sleepiness, [Demetrius Galanos’s Lexiko: sanskritikes, anglikes, hellenikes]
    10) [v.s. ...] Name of the syllable om, [Atharvaśikhā-Upaniṣad]
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
    Pralaya (प्रलय):—[pra-laya] (yaḥ) 1. m. The end of a Kalpa, destruction of the world; death; annihilation; fainting.
    Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Yates Sanskrit-English Dictionary
  441. ↑ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/mokshadharmaparva 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    In Hinduism
    Purana and Itihasa (epic history)
    [«previous (M) next»] — Mokshadharmaparva in Purana glossary
    Mokṣadharmaparva (मोक्षधर्मपर्व).—A sub-divisional Parva of Śānti Parva. It contains the chapters 174 to 365 of Śānti Parva.
    Source: archive.org: Puranic Encyclopedia
  442. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4oI8Vxx73Z8 Moksha Pronunciation Sanskrit मोक्ष mokṣa. 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-y1nW1vvOro Dharma धर्म dharma Sanskrit Pronunciation. 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    https://forvo.com/word/anushasana_parva/ Anushasana Parva pronunciation in Sanskrit - Pronunciation by ArvindAruna (Male from Canada). 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
  443. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanti_Parva 2025년 8월 13일에 확인.
    The Shanti Parva (Sanskrit: शान्ति पर्व; IAST: Śānti parva) ("Book of Peace") is the twelfth of the eighteen parvas (books) of the Indian epic Mahabharata. It traditionally has three parts and 365 chapters. The critical edition has three parts and 353 chapters. It is the longest book among the eighteen books of the epic.
    . . .
    The Shanti Parva traditionally has 3 upa-parvas (parts, little books) and 365 adhyayas (chapters). The following are the sub-parvas:
    1. Rajadharma-anusasana Parva (chapters: 1–130)[ – describes the duties of kings and leaders, among other things
    2. Apaddharma-anusasana Parva (chapters: 131–173) – describes the rules of conduct when one faces adversity
    3. Moksha-dharma Parva (chapters: 174–365) – describes behavior and rules to achieve moksha (emancipation, release, freedom)

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