神经多样性

| 系列條目 |
| 歧視 |
|---|
神经多样性(英語:Neurodiversity)典範是指人脑和認知功能的多樣性,例如社交、學習、注意力、情緒與心理功能等。[1]該理論主張感官處理、動作能力、社交距離感、社會行為、学习能力、注意力、心境和其他心理功能上的多樣性視爲人類神經學上的個體差異,並具有潛在的優劣勢,而非“疾病”或“異常”[2][3][4]。
神經多樣性典範(paradigm)包涵自閉症、注意力不足過動症(ADHD)、溝通障礙、讀寫障礙、書寫障礙、動作協調障礙、計算障礙、命名障礙、智能障礙、強迫症、思覺失調症、妥瑞症。神經多樣性主張這些狀況不應被視為應該治癒的對象。[5]
神經多樣性運動始於1980年代末與1990年代初,並與國際自閉症網絡(Autism Network International, ANI)的成立有關。許多促成該運動的交流都源自於自閉症相關會議,特別是由自閉症者主導的靜修(Autreat)、筆友通訊,以及Usenet。這框架源自身心障礙權利運動(Disability rights movement),並以社會模式身心障礙(Social model of disability)為基礎,主張身心障礙部分來自社會障礙(即社會制度帶來的偏見、歧視和不平等)與人與環境的不匹配,而不僅是歸因於先天缺陷。[6][7] 它透將人類的認知變異置於生物多樣性與少數群體的政治脈絡中。[8][9][10] 一些神經多樣性倡議者與研究者(包括朱迪·辛格(Judy Singer)與派崔克·德懷爾(Patrick Dwyer))認為,神經多樣性是介於醫療模式(Medical model)與社會模式身心障礙(Social model of disability) 的中間路線。[6][11][12]
神經多元人士(Neurodivergent individuals)在教育、社交生活與職場中面臨獨特挑戰。在職涯發展與高等教育中,無障礙措施與支援計畫的成效因人而異。另外,社群媒體的興起亦提供了一個推廣與支持神經多樣性的平台,進一步推動了神經多樣性運動。[13]
神經多樣性也在身心障礙倡議者之間引發爭議,特別是對於在醫療模式自閉症的支持者而言。反對者認為它有可能淡化部分身心障礙挑戰(例如需要較少支援的身心障礙人士的處境會被誤認為代表整體身心障礙人士所面對的挑戰,從而使他人更難尋求所需的治療),[14] 儘管神經多樣性呼籲接納身心障礙,一部分人群依然認為部分障礙仍需要被治癒。[15][16][17][18]
近年來,為回應這些關切,一些神經多樣性倡議者與研究者嘗試調和不同觀點,他們認為這些觀點看似矛盾但也可以部分相容。有些研究者[谁?]提倡混合或整合神經多樣性取徑以及基於生物醫學模式(Biomedical model,即當代西方醫學主流的醫學模型)的療法或科學進展。例如教授功能性溝通(無論是言語或非言語交際),處理自傷行為或神經多元人士伴隨的焦慮與憂鬱等共病狀況。[19][20][21][22]
歷史與發展
[编辑]「神經多樣性」(neurodiversity)一詞最早於1998年由美國記者哈維·布盧姆(Harvey Blume)在一篇文章中提出,[23]為「神經學的多樣性」(neurological diversity)的混成詞。這一概念早在1996年已於InLv等線上社群中出現,用來描述人類神經表達的自然多樣性。[7] 同年,該詞也出現在朱迪·辛格(Judy Singer)的社會學榮譽論文中,[24][25] 她的研究受到布盧姆等人參與的獨立生活(independent living,即倡議身心障礙自主生活)郵件群組討論啟發。[26] 辛格自稱自己「很可能屬於自閉症譜系」。[24]
布盧姆是運動的早期倡導者之一,他預測了網路在推動國際神經多樣性運動中所扮演的角色。[27] 他在1997年6月30日的《紐約時報》文章中,用「神經多元」(neurological pluralism)一詞來描述神經多樣性的基礎。[28] 一些作者[29] 也將自閉症倡導者吉姆·辛克萊(Jim Sinclair)的早期工作視為運動的基礎。他在1993年的演講《不要為我們哀悼》(Don't Mourn For Us)強調自閉症是一種存在方式(way of being),並指出「無法將人與自閉症分開」。[30]
神經多樣性運動主要源於網路互動。網路設計的特性恰好符合許多自閉者的需求。[31] 人們透電郵清單Listserv與IRC交流。在神經多樣性運動早期,一些組織網站如Autistics.Org[32][33] 和Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse(「反對鎮靜劑濫用的自閉症人士」)等開始出現。[34][35] 其核心原則包括:倡導所有腦部障礙者的權利與自主,尤其是自閉症人士。運動早期的主要爭論集中在誰才是自閉症的真正專家、自閉症的成因、哪些療法是合適的,以及誰有資格自稱為自閉症人士。[36] 2000年代,出現了如Mel Baggs(梅爾·巴格斯)的《Ballastexistenz》[37] 和凱文·利奇(Kevin Leitch)的《左腦右腦》(Left Brain Right Brain)[38]等部落格。自閉症自我倡導網絡(Autistic Self Advocacy Network, ASAN)由阿里·尼曼(Ari Ne'eman)與史考特·羅伯遜(Scott Robertson)創立,使神經多樣性運動與更廣泛的身心障礙權利運動(Disability rights movement),接軌。ASAN發起的「勒索字條廣告」行動(Ransom Notes Campaign)[39][40] 成功迫使紐約大學兒童研究中心撤下以勒索兒童字條比喻自閉症的污名化廣告,這被視為運動的重要轉折點。[41]
之後,運動進一步發展,2010年代初期成立了更多組織,如「自閉症女性與非二元網絡」(Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network)[42] 與「思考者的自閉症指南」(The Thinking Person's Guide to Autism)。[43] 更多自閉症人士也被任命至如跨機構自閉症協調委員會(Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee)與國家殘疾委員會(National Council on Disability)等美國聯邦諮詢機構。另有如針對羅滕伯格法官中心(Judge Rotenberg Center)使用厭惡性治療的#StopTheShock運動抗議,以及多次反對自閉症之聲(Autism Speaks)的行動。2010年代,亦出現了許多「快閃部落格」(flashblogs)[44][45] 以支持各種倡議。年度活動如「身心障礙哀悼日」(Disability Day of Mourning)[46] 和「自閉症人士發聲日」(Autistics Speaking Day)[47] 也逐漸形成。
達米安·米爾頓(Damian Milton)指出,尼克·沃克(Nick Walker)在2014年曾嘗試區分「神經多樣性」、「神經多樣性運動」與「神經多樣性典範」。沃克認為神經多樣性意指「每個人的大腦在某種程度上都是獨特的」。她將運動定義為一種權利運動,而典範則是更廣泛的多樣性、文化建構與社會動態討論。[48][49]
在神經多樣性的討論中常常會會提及一個重要的問題:哪些傳統上被視為疾病的神經差異應該去病理化並免於被消除?[49] 自閉症倡導者尼克·沃克建議保留「如自閉症般,屬於先天或大部分先天的神經差異」,而如癲癇或創傷性腦損傷等,則可以在不改變個人本質的情況下被移除,因為這些並非普遍地與個人的人格或世界觀相連。[49]
科學辯論、研究發現與以神經多樣性為基礎的改革
[编辑]近年來,有關神經多樣性的概念以及許多挑戰自閉症領域傳統知識與實踐的相關研究成果已逐漸在許多科學界和專業社群中獲得重視,[50][51] 他們認為自閉症研究者有時過於傾向將差異詮釋為缺陷。[51][52][53]
另有觀點認為,試圖減少或抑制某些自閉症特徵(例如不會傷害自己或他人的某些自我刺激行為(stimming),或特別興趣),或強加神經典型(neurotypical)的社交行為(如眼神接觸、肢體語言)於自閉症人士,在倫理與實際運作層面上皆存在風險。[54][55][56]研究者與倡議者對此表示擔憂,因為多項最新研究與系統性綜述指出,更高程度的自閉症偽裝(masking)、矇混(passing)成神經典型,或隱藏自閉症特徵,通常與較差的心理健康相關,包括憂鬱症、臨床焦慮與自殺傾向,這一現象在不同年齡層(兒童、青少年、成人)及不同地區或文化皆有。
| 障礙(Disordered) | 內在身心障礙(Intrinsic disability) | 內在損傷(Intrinsic impairment) | 社會決定論(Social determinism) | 超能力(Superpower) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 自閉症是一種障礙 | 身心障礙是個體內在的 | 損傷是個體內在的 | 身心障礙是因社會未能提供適應而產生 | 自閉症主要是正面特徵,幾乎沒有負面影響 | |
| 社會模型[57] | 不表態 | 不同意 | 同意 | 同意 | 不同意 |
| 神經多樣性運動[58][59] | 不同意 | 不同意 | 同意 | 同意 | 意見不一[60] |
| 醫學病理典範[61] | 同意 | 同意 | 同意 | 不同意 | 不同意 |
此外,研究人員發現,基於醫學模式(medical model)的心理教育與較高的污名化有關。[62] 另一項研究發現,支持神經多元人士「正常化」與「治癒」(某些醫學模式的核心目標)與更高程度的污名化相關。[63] 同樣地,一些研究人員與倡議者也認為醫療化取向(即視神經差異為病理障礙)可能助長社會污名與健全主義(ableism,即偏好健全人士),[64][65] 長久以來,缺陷醫學模式(即單憑身心缺陷以判斷人是否有身心障礙)所導向的自閉症生物學研究與自閉症社群本身的所著重的優先事項亦相互矛盾。[66][67][68][69]
神經多樣性典範在自閉症倡議中亦具有爭議性。 一種普遍的批評是,即便社會能完全包容與接納自閉症人士,自閉症人士中需要較高支援的人仍會面臨許多挑戰。部分神經多樣性典範的批評者(例如需要照護此類自閉症人士的家庭成員)認為該典範可能會忽視或淡化這些挑戰。[6] 作為回應,有人指出神經多樣性並不否認身心障礙與支援需求,[6] 而且缺乏某些能力或需要支援本身並非天生「壞事」,因為「正常功能」的定義在不同文化與經濟環境中會有所不同,[70] 且具有歷史偶然性(historically contingent,即某獨立、不能預估的事件是建基於先前歷史、環境、隨機性等的交集);在某些文化中,類似「我的孩子能否獨立生活?」或「我死後誰會照顧我的孩子?」的問題並不會出現,因為社區的其他成員會自然而然地提供支持。[71]
| 參與式療法(Participatory interventions) | 融合式療法(Integrationary interventions) | 環境調整(Environmental modifications) | 參與式研究(Participatory research) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 療法應優先考量自閉症人士本人認為重要的成果 | 療法應賦予自閉症人士使其更接近物種常態的技能 | 應調整自閉症人士的環境以更符合其需求 | 自閉症研究的每一階段都應納入自閉症人士的意見 | |
| 社會模式[57] | 同意 | 不同意 | 同意 | 同意 |
| 神經多樣性運動[58][59] | 同意 | 意見不一 | 同意 | 同意 |
| 醫學病理典範[61] | 不同意 | 同意 |
一些學者指出,神經多樣性運動與演化精神醫學和演化心理學之間存在交集。《自閉症研究》(Autism Research)於2024年發表的一篇觀點文章認為,演化精神醫學在某些情境下可以透過將特定神經認知特質視為人類變異的一部分,亦在臨床處理或基於權利的倡議上保持中立,從而支持神經多樣性的目標。[72] 相關的精神醫學期刊評論亦鼓勵在神經多樣性觀點的基礎上,謹慎評估自閉症的演化論解釋。[73]
自閉症倡導者兼研究者阿里·尼曼(Ari Ne'eman)則提出一種基於特質的取徑:醫學(或病理)模式可應用於治療本質上有害的特質、行為或共病(如自傷行為、癲癇或其他健康問題),而神經多樣性取徑則可應用於甚至在同一個人身上並行存在的非有害或有時具有適應性的自閉症特質(如不導致自傷的部分自我刺激行為、特別興趣(special interests))。[74][75]一些神經多樣性研究者,以及自閉症人士、倡導者和學者,主張在實務中結合神經多樣性取徑與生物醫學研究與方法。[76][77]
近年來,研究人員、各類支援服務提供者與神經多元人士,倡導更多以神經多樣性為基礎的介入方式。不僅有新型治療策略的發展,也包括現有策略(如社交技巧訓練、應用行為分析(ABA)介入、職能治療)的改進或改革。這些改進受到自閉症人士的經驗、優勢、興趣、偏好與回饋,以及神經多樣性觀點與研究結果啟發,並已有一些積極效果的證據。[78][79][80][81] 此外,一些研究人員與倡議者也呼籲推動更多以神經多樣性為核心的心理教育與去污名化方法。[82][83][84][85]
神經多元人士與神經典型/神經順應人士
[编辑]根據卡西亞內·阿薩蘇馬蘇(Kassiane Asasumasu)(於2000年創造此術語)的說法,神經多元(neurodivergent)人士指的是「其神經認知功能在多方面偏離主流社會規範的人」。[49] 她強調該術語不應用來排除人群,而是為了納入更多,[86] 因此她打算讓該術語適用於各類人群,[49][87][88] 而不僅僅是具有神經發展差異(如自閉症、注意力不足過動症、讀寫障礙)的人。它也常被用作一個總括性術語,用來描述具有非典型(atypical)心理與行為障礙的人,例如患有情緒、[89]人格、[90] 以及飲食失調障礙的人士。[91] 然而,具有非認知性神經疾病的人,例如腦性麻痺、巴金森氏症和多發性硬化症,通常被排除在外。[92]
在神經多樣性框架下,這些差異常被稱為「神經多元」(neurodivergences),以此遠基於離醫療模式(medical model)下的身心障礙定義(在神經多樣性社群中有時被稱為「病理學典範」(pathology paradigm)[93])。此術語為倡議者提供了一種方式以爭取具有非典型神經認知功能者(包括自閉者與非自閉者)的更多權利與可及性(accessibility)。[94]
神經典型(neurotypical,neurologically typical的縮寫,有時簡稱NT)是一個在神經多樣性運動中廣泛使用的新詞,,用來指稱其神經型態(neurotype)符合社會「常規」思維模式的人。換言之,神經典型指的是任何非自閉症,且沒有 ADHD、讀寫障礙、焦慮症或其他被視為神經多元的人士。[95][96][97] 此術語已被神經多樣性運動以及部分科學界所採納。[98][99]
神經科學作家莫·科斯坦迪(Mo Costandi)認為「神經典型」等術語在神經科學中並無實際用途,[100] 然而包括烏塔·弗里斯(Uta Frith)和弗朗西斯卡·哈佩(Francesca Happé)在內的學者則經常使用該詞彙。[101] 金妮·拉塞爾(Ginny Russell)指出,自閉與非自閉之間並不存在明確的雙峰分布,因為許多非自閉症人士也具有部分自閉特質。[102] 另一種批評認為「神經典型」本身是一個可疑的建構(construct),因為沒有人能被視為真正的神經典型。[102]尼克·沃克(Nick Walker)指出這種批評是對術語的誤解,因為「神經典型」僅用來描述那些能夠不費太多力氣就適應社會規範的人,而非暗示所有神經典型人士的大腦完全相同。[103]
早期的定義將神經典型人士描述為非自閉症人士。[104][105] 「NT」一詞的早期使用往往帶有諷刺意味,例如「神經典型研究院」(Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical),[33][23] 不過該詞後來也被神經多樣性運動採用,並逐漸被正式使用。[106]
由於「神經典型」等術語的一些缺陷(例如其潛在假設神經多元經驗是一種異常,即「非典型」),越來越多的神經多樣性倡議者更傾向於使用「神經順應」(neuroconforming)等術語。[107] 另一個常用詞彙是「非自閉」(allistic)。[108]
雙重同理論
[编辑]
「雙重同理困境」理論(Double empathy problem)認為,自閉症人士並非如病理學觀點常假設的那樣天生缺乏同理心,而是因為大多數自閉症人士在理解與同理非自閉症人士時存在困難;同樣地,大多數非自閉症人士也缺乏對自閉症人士的理解與同理。該理論最初由自閉症學者達米安·米爾頓(Damian Milton)於2012年提出。[110] 主張自閉症人士與非自閉症人士的特質與經驗差異過大,以致於難以理解彼此的思維並互相產生同理;例如,非自閉症人士可能無法理解自閉症人士在過度刺激下的困境。[111]
在2010年代與2020年代,越來越多研究支持「雙重同理困境」及相關的雙向社會互動概念。[112][113][114] 一項比較自閉症群體、非自閉症群體與混合群體之間對話與社交的研究發現,自閉症人士在與其他自閉症人士互動時更能建立融洽關係,其程度與純非自閉症群體相當,但在與非自閉症人士互動時則較困難。[115] 另一項於 2024年發表的系統性綜述則指出,大多數自閉症人士在與其他自閉症人士互動時具有良好的人際關係與社交溝通經驗,並且自閉症人士之間的互動也與多個領域的生活品質提升有關,包括心理健康與情緒福祉。[113]
「雙重同理困境」理論暗示並沒有一個簡單的解方能讓雙方更容易產生同理,但透過更平等的接觸,以及基於神經多樣性肯定的方式來增進大眾對自閉症人士的理解與同理仍然是值得努力的方向。[84] 該理論的優勢在於指出大多數人對不同神經型態(neurotype)者產生同理的困難,從而減少將自閉症人士病理化的傾向。它也能幫助神經典型人士更好地理解神經多元人士的思維與同理方式,並認識到自己在對自閉症人士同理上的侷限。[116]賈斯瓦爾(Jaswal)與阿赫塔爾(Akhtar)(2019)則指出,「缺乏社交興趣」與「看似缺乏社交興趣」之間存在差異,並挑戰了既往有關於社交動機不足的假設。例如,有自閉症人士表示避免眼神接觸能幫助他們在談話中更專注,因此不應被解讀為缺乏社交興趣。[117]
神經多樣性Lite
[编辑]神經多樣性Lite(neurodiversity lite)常用來描述一種隨著神經多樣性進入主流討論而出現的「削弱版」典範。[118][119] 該詞用來指以神經多樣性語言來強調差異是一種無害或潮流的人類多樣性,但批評者認為這些應用省略了神經多樣性的本質是建基於身心障礙權利及對健全主義(ableism)的結構性批判上。[60]
在這種框架下,像是自閉症和ADHD等情況,經常被賦予正面特質(或稱「超能力」),包括創造力、細節注意力、過度專注(hyperfocus)或非常規問題解決能力。[120] 這種觀點與去汙名、提升自我接納及促進職場上認可神經多樣性優勢的措施相關聯。[121]
評論者也指出該概念的侷限性。批評者認為,它可能過度強調特殊能力,同時淡化了需要高度支援、智力障礙或語言能力有限者所面臨的障礙。[60][122][123] 這種趨勢在企業及媒體話語中尤為明顯,神經多元常被描繪為「超能力」,與生產力和創新掛鈎,並經常將自閉症人士描繪為理工(STEM)領域的理想員工。[124] 批評者認為,這種描繪突出了那些在神經典型環境中幾乎不需支援就能成功的人,同時忽視了需要更多支援的神經多元人士。[125]
學者建議,神經多樣性Lite可能透過強調企業所重視的特質,例如技術能力或問題解決能力,促進形式上的包容,但卻未解決可及性(accessibility)或制度性障礙問題。[126] 一些評論者認為,這種用法將神經多樣性從以權利與正義為導向的典範,轉變為一種品牌策略。[60]
身心障礙權利運動中
[编辑]神經多樣性典範最初由自閉症群體發展並接受。[127][128] 但該概念也已被應用於其他情況,如注意力缺陷過動症(ADHD)、發展性語言障礙、閱讀障礙、書寫障礙、動作協調困難、[129] 計算障礙、命名困難、智力障礙、強迫症、妥瑞症、[130] 精神分裂症、[12][131] 雙相情感障礙、[132] 分裂情感性障礙,以及較具爭議性的個性障礙,如反社會人格障礙。[133]
神經多樣性倡議者及組織如自閉症自我倡導網絡(Autistic Self Advocacy Network, ASAN)不贊同使用醫療干預來消除那些與人格及世界感知密切相關的神經發展差異(如自閉症)。[134][135] 相反地,他們推廣包括包容性服務、支援措施、溝通及輔助技術、職業訓練以及獨立生活支持等系統。[136][134] 目的是讓個人獲得尊重人類多樣性的支援,並感受到能自由表達自我。其他形式的干預可能會使他們覺得被強迫適應社會規範,或符合行為或臨床標準。[137]
神經多樣性倡導者努力在社會中重新概念化自閉症及相關狀況,承認神經差異不需要被「治癒」,因為像自閉症這樣的差異無處不在,移除一個人的「自閉症部分」與以不同的人替代該自閉症人士無異。[12]另一個重要目標是將語言從「疾病、病症、障礙或失能」的稱謂轉變,拓展對健康或獨立生活的理解,承認新的自主類型,並賦予神經多元個體更多對治療介入的控制,包括介入類型、時間,以及是否需要干預。

倡議者如詹妮弗·懷特·約翰遜(Jennifer White-Johnson)正協助提升神經多樣性運動的能見度,創造包括「black power fist」與無限符號組合的抗議與識別符號。[138]
2009年的一項研究[139] 將27 具有自閉症、閱讀障礙、發展性協調障礙、注意力缺陷過動症,以及中風經歷的學生,分為兩種自我觀點類別:「差異觀點」——即將神經多元視為包含優勢與劣勢的差異;或「醫療/缺陷觀點」——即將神經多元視為不利的醫學狀況。研究發現,雖然所有學生皆回報在學校歷程中普遍面臨排斥、虐待與霸凌,但採取「差異觀點」的學生(佔研究群體的 41%)表現出更高的學術自尊與對自身能力的信心,且其中許多人(73%)展現出相當大的職涯抱負,並擁有積極而明確的目標。[139] 許多學生表示,他們是透過在網路支持團體中與神經多樣性倡導者接觸,而形成了這種自我觀點。[139]
2013年的一項旨在評估對自閉症與神經多樣性概念的線上調查顯示,將自閉症視為「差異」而非「缺陷」在發展上具有正面益處,並能「超越在『讚揚差異』與『改善缺陷』之間的偽二分法」。[140]
神經多樣性倡導者約翰·埃爾德·羅賓遜(John Elder Robison)主張神經多元所帶來的障礙與優勢可能是不可分割的。他指出:「當99個神經結構相同的人無法解決某個問題時,往往是那1%與眾不同的人握有關鍵。然而,那個人可能大多數時間都處於身心障礙或劣勢狀態。對神經多樣性支持者而言,人們之所以處於障礙狀態,是因為他們位於常態分布曲線(bell curve / normal distribution)的邊緣,而不是因為他們生病或有缺陷。」[141]
高等教育
[编辑]有幾種模型被用來理解身心障礙。其中一種是醫學模式身心障礙(medical model of disability),該模式認為人需要被治療或治癒。[142] 另一種模型是社會模式身心障礙(social model of disability),該模式強調社會如何對待身心障礙人士。[142] 在社會模式而言,神經多元學生在高等教育中的經驗部分受到其他學生與學校本身態度的影響。[143]
神經多元學生的經驗
[编辑]神經多元學生在高等教育中的情感經驗取決於多種因素,包括身心障礙的類型、需求支援的程度,以及學生能否獲得資源和支援措施。[143] 一個常見的困難是維持社交關係,這可能導致孤獨、焦慮和憂鬱症。[143] 進入高等教育的過渡期,以及大學帶來的責任與工作需求,往往也增加了壓力與挑戰。[143] 許多神經多元學生發現自己需要額外的支持。[143] 在學術方面,他們可能在學習、管控功能、課堂或小組工作中的同儕互動,以及其他影響表現與成功的領域遇到挑戰。[143] 然而,部分學生也可能認為差異是一種優勢,並且是他們作為成年人新社會角色的重要組成部分。[143]
高等教育機構
[编辑]高等教育的典型課程與形式可能對神經多元學生構成挑戰,而教職員缺乏支持與彈性則會進一步使大學經驗更加困難。[143] 因此,披露身心障礙的學生可獲得合理調整。[143] 不過,這些調整往往著重於學業,而較少關注神經多元學生在大學生活中面臨的各種挑戰。[143] 例如,他們也需要非學術支持,例如社交導師計畫(social mentorships)與基於其優勢的介入措施,以幫助他們在校園的社交生活。[143] 同樣地,針對神經多元學生的職涯準備也相當缺乏。儘管有支持性就業(supported employment)等計畫幫助神經多元人士尋找與獲得工作,但許多學校不配備這些計畫,這讓他們更難找到切實可行的職涯方向。[142] 另一個需要考量的面向是透過普及學習設計(universal design for learning, UDL)在學習或公共空間中融入能夠照顧所有學生(包括神經多元人士)的設計。[144]
根據2023年的一篇文章,近年大學與高等教育機構對神經多元人士展現更多的包容性。包容性的環境能夠提升自主性,進而促進學生之間的善意與理解。[145] 高等教育機構提供諮商與支援服務給學生。然而,神經多元學生面臨特定挑戰,影響其持續獲得支援與照顧的能力。此外,諮商與支援服務也因資金、人員與專業不足而難以充分支持神經多元學生。整體而言,這些服務對某些學生有效,但對其他人則不然。[143]
納赫曼(Nachman)與同儕檢視了多篇由社區學院發表的文章,並發現它們在理解與分類「身心障礙」學生與「非身心障礙」學生時存在一些差異。他們發現這些文章普遍試圖使身心障礙正常化,並且大多數文章劃分了典型與非典型學習者及其潛在學術成就之間的明顯界線。納赫曼也發現許多文章顯示神經多元學生缺乏選擇權,他們在學術選擇與課堂管理上幾乎沒有發言權。[146]
職場環境
[编辑]神經多元人士在申請與面試工作職缺時常會面臨偏見。[147] 具體而言,神經多元人士的社交互動方式常被拿來與神經典型人士比較,這可能會影響他們獲得職位的機會。[147] 對神經多元的汙名化(尤其是針對自閉症人士)以及在社交情境中的認知挑戰,可能會妨礙其在傳統面試中的表現。[148] 像「專家」(Specialisterne)這樣的組織致力於發揮神經多元員工在職場上的特殊技能,例如圖形辨識、偏差檢測、細節注意、分析性思維和專注力─。同時也教育企業如何支持神經多元員工。[149][150][151]
在一份將發展性讀寫障礙視為「神經多樣性的表現」的系統性綜述中指出,神經多樣性在職場中尚未成為一個成熟的概念,因此社交支持與職場調整措施仍相當有限。[152] 此外,另一份針對注意力不足過動症成人的藥物治療與藥物與心理社會結合介入的系統性綜述發現,基於職場的介入研究非常有限,並建議需要更多研究以找出在職場中支持神經多元員工的最佳方式。[153]
兵役與徵兵
[编辑]全球多國的軍事政策將自閉症人士排除在服役之外,神經多樣性倡議者認為這是一種歧視。[154]
在美國,國防部正式禁止所有自閉症人士加入軍隊。然而,若一名士兵在現役期間被診斷為自閉症,仍可繼續服役。這使得許多人選擇隱瞞診斷,因為他們擔心會危及職涯。倡議者如科特妮·溫鮑姆(Cortney Weinbaum)主張軍隊應該擁抱神經多樣性以提升國家安全,並批評美國政府將神經多元人士歸類為身心障礙是錯誤的。他們建議進行系統改革,包括提供調整措施、更新職務說明、以及培訓人員。[155]
在瑞典,排除自閉症人士服役的政策引發了法律挑戰。雖然瑞典已修改規定,允許部分輕度ADHD 患者服役,但仍嚴格排除自閉症人士。這導致神經多樣性倡議者提出多起訴訟,認為該政策具歧視性。艾瑞克·芬恩(Erik Fenn)最初因自閉症診斷而被拒絕入伍,他成功起訴政府並被認定符合徵兵資格。截至2025年初,Fenn 已服役,而瑞典軍方現正面臨多起關於其排他性政策的訴訟。[156]
社群媒體
[编辑]隨著媒體平台本身技術的改變,神經多樣性運動在媒體上的代表性亦逐漸增加。[136] 各種社群媒體網站最近新增了文字選項,讓身心障礙使用者能以更便利的方式進行溝通、娛樂與分享。[136]社群媒體對神經多元社群具有雙重效益:一方面能推廣認知並引領神經多樣性運動,另一方面也能讓社群成員彼此建立連結。[157][158]
社群媒體作為平台
[编辑]媒體平台讓具有相似背景的個體能彼此連結,並在其中找到支持的社群。[157]線上網絡與互動使使用者能自行決定交往的舒適度,掌控與他人的關係。對神經多元社群而言,社群媒體已被證明是一項建立關係的重要工具,特別對那些在社交場合感到困難的人更是如此。[159] 透過連結神經多元使用者,媒體平台提供「安全空間」(safe spaces)以利建立人際關係。[159] 部分媒體開發者甚至推出了如「Blausm」這類專為神經多元使用者與家庭設計的平台。[160][161]
社群媒體作為推動力量
[编辑]社群媒體也讓使用者能推廣神經多樣性運動。[162]對心理狀況的認知提升已被證實能增加正確資訊的傳播量。[162] 社群媒體的資訊擴散能教育大眾關於神經多樣性運動,理解如自閉症等身心障礙,並過濾錯誤資訊。[158]透過分享神經多元人士、的第一手經驗,社群媒體能教育社會並減少污名化。然而,對神經多樣性的負面描繪仍可能對社群成員產生不利影響。[162][163]
透過社群媒體提升的認知與接納,能使更多人自我認同為神經多元人士。[164] 一般而言,精神醫學並不鼓勵自我診斷(self-diagnosis),因為其正確率通常低於專業評估,且可能被認為將困難淡化成一種「時尚標籤」。[164] 不過羅伯特·查普曼(Robert Chapman)指出,專業的自閉症評估往往忽視非白人、非順性別男性兒童的經驗,他認為自我認同並非出於「追隨潮流」,而是為了幫助個人理解自己的優勢與挑戰。[165] 蘇·弗萊徹·沃森(Sue Fletcher-Watson)則主張,自閉症不應被分類為「疾病」,且診斷後也不應有任何治療措施,因此自閉症人士應有自主權將自己認同為自閉症,藉此擺脫醫療專業對自閉症定義及決定誰屬於自閉症社群的權力。[166] 一組研究人員甚至開發了自閉症人士的初步自我報告問卷。[167]
媒體中的挑戰
[编辑]儘管神經多元社群的代表性因社群媒體平台而有所提升,但這些社群媒體使用者往往仍遭受批評與誤解。[168] 社群媒體並未完全消除限制神經多元人士參與的社會障礙。一些人表示,他們必須迎合大眾對身心障礙的主流看法,才能被視為「真實」(authentic)的使用者。[168] 這樣的情況間接讓神經多元使用者更難發展自己的平台。[168][169] 非身心障礙使用者透過刻板印象來判斷神經多元人士的「真實性」,顯示神經多樣性運動尚未真正實現其包容的目標。[168]
臨床環境
[编辑]醫學與醫療保健
[编辑]醫學與醫療保健專業人員已開始承認其員工中的神經多元。[170][171] 越來越多圍繞倡導和同儕支持的團體建立以針對那些認同自己屬於神經多元的醫療和保健專業人員,例如由瑪麗·多爾蒂醫師(Mary Doherty)創立的「國際自閉醫師組織」(Autistic Doctors International)。[170] 另一種方法是為有注意力不足過動症(ADHD)的醫學生和醫師實施「五分鐘影片摘要」(5MVS)。[171] 該方法由一位具吸引力的講者透過簡短的PowerPoint簡報,錄製五分鐘的影片摘要,將關於ADHD的科學文章重點透過視訊會議技術呈現。研究人員指出,這種教育工具能幫助患有ADHD的醫學生與醫師獲取科學文章的相關資訊,改善其在注意力不足、衝動或過度活躍上的挑戰,並提升他們在醫療工作中發展批判性評讀能力的表現。[171]
同樣地,醫療保健系統也可能因僱用神經多元個體而受益,藉由其獨特視角改善對病人的照護。[172] 一些醫療人員認為,邀請神經多元人士加入病人諮詢團體或聘用他們為員工,是邁向接納與融入職場的關鍵步驟。神經多元人士的獨特優勢,可能對於醫療體系的創新與改進至關重要。[172] 此方面的推動例子之一是「史丹佛神經多樣性計畫」(Stanford Neurodiversity Project),其目標之一便是發掘神經多元人士的長處,並善用他們的才能來提升社會創新與生產力,包括醫療與醫學領域。[173]
神經多樣性近來也被視為英國神經發展診所中新的工作模式。[174] 英國樸茨茅斯(Portsmouth)的研究團隊建立了一種協助神經多元人士的方法,稱為PANDA(Portsmouth Alliance Neurodiversity Approach,樸茨茅斯聯盟神經多樣性方法)。此方法可能有助於醫療與保健專業人員促進對於兒童的理解、溝通與早期支持,協助那些可能自我認同為神經多元的孩子。[174]
治療
[编辑]近年來,神經多樣性及其在治療環境中所扮演的角色已成為核心焦點。許多治療師與心理健康專業人士一直推動更具包容性的心理治療框架,以適合神經多元人士。[175][176] 其中一個例子是「神經多元知情治療」(neurodivergence-informed therapy),該方法將功能失調重新詮釋為社會間的互聯性,而非單純的個人問題,並主張在神經多元社群中推廣接納與自豪,同時推動治療師在面對神經多元個體的知識與教育時保持謙遜。[175] 類似地,「肯定神經多樣性治療」(neurodiversity-affirming therapy)則支持神經多元人士的差異,而非將其視為需要消除的問題,並提供方法協助其面對困難的領域,同時尊重並欣賞其需求與優勢。[176]
針對神經多元社群的治療計畫與介入措施也正受到研究。[177][178] 自決(Self-determination)計畫已被發現能協助神經多元人士達成人生目標,且參與者普遍認為此計畫「適切、可接受且可行」。[177] 此外,針對神經多元人士的知覺決策研究(例如眼動追蹤、縱向資料、運算模型等)亦正在進行,以探討其對治療環境的潛在影響。[178]
另一種針對神經多元人士的治療介入是「自然發展行為介入」(Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions,NDBIs)。[80] 研究顯示,NDBIs對語言與社交溝通具有正面影響,同時尊重個體的需求與自主性。此方法的核心目標之一是讓神經多元人士自身參與介入目標、程序與結果的制定,藉此提升其接受度、實用性與有效性。[80]
除了來自神經多樣性倡導者對肯定型治療的支持外,也有關於某些方法(如應用行為分析,ABA)的爭議。神經多元人士與倡議人士常強調,這些介入往往旨在強迫符合社會期望,而非真正回應接受者的需求。[179] 雖然大量研究支持ABA在認知與行為成果上的效益,但山斑(Sandbank)等人的一項綜合分析對此提出挑戰。[180] 此外,亦有人關注該療法對長期心理健康的影響,以及用於判斷社會效度的測量方式是否合適。除了神經多元社群內部的倡導者外,一些行為分析師也開始在神經多樣性框架下重新思考此類療法的角色。[181][179]
参见
[编辑]参考文献
[编辑]- ^ Armstrong, Thomas. The power of neurodiversity: unleashing the advantages of your differently wired brain.. 2011. ISBN 9780738215242.
- ^ Runswick-Cole, Katherine. 'Us' and 'them': the limits and possibilities of a 'politics of neurodiversity' in neoliberal times
. Disability & Society. 13 May 2014, 29 (7): 1117–1129. doi:10.1080/09687599.2014.910107 –通过tandfonline.
- ^ Autism as a Natural Human Variation: Reflections on the Claims of the Neurodiversity Movement (PDF). Linköping University. [November 5, 2014]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-02-27).
- ^ Armstrong, Thomas. The power of neurodiversity : unleashing the advantages of your differently wired brain 1st Da Capo Press paperback. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Lifelong. 2011. ISBN 9780738215242. OCLC 760085215.
- ^ (Arnold 2020,第211–220頁)(Mackenzie & Watts 2011,第30–37頁)(Chapman 2019,第371–387頁)(Morrice 2006)(Antonetta 2005)
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Dwyer P. The Neurodiversity Approach(es): What Are They and What Do They Mean for Researchers?. Human Development. May 2022, 66 (2): 73–92. PMC 9261839
. PMID 36158596. doi:10.1159/000523723.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Botha, Monique; Chapman, Robert; Giwa Onaiwu, Morénike; Kapp, Steven K; Stannard Ashley, Abs; Walker, Nick. The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory. Autism. 12 March 2024, 28 (6): 1591–1594. PMID 38470140. doi:10.1177/13623613241237871
.
- ^ Manalili MA, Pearson A, Sulik J, Creechan L, Elsherif M, Murkumbi I, Azevedo F, Bonnen KL, Kim JS, Kording K, Lee JJ, Obscura M, Kapp SK, Röer JP, Morstead T. From Puzzle to Progress: How Engaging With Neurodiversity Can Improve Cognitive Science. Cognitive Science. February 2023, 47 (2). PMC 7616419
. PMID 36807910. doi:10.1111/cogs.13255.
- ^ Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm: What is Neurodiversity?. Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm. [April 12, 2022]. (原始内容存档于April 1, 2023).
- ^ Singer J. NeuroDiversity: The Birth of an Idea 2nd. Kindle Ebook. July 3, 2016. ISBN 978-0-6481547-0-9 (English).[自述来源]
- ^ Oliver M, Sapey B. Social work with disabled people 3rd. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. 2006. ISBN 1-4039-1838-4. OCLC 62326930.
- ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Chapman R. Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability. Tekin S, Bluhm R (编). The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry. Bloomsbury. January 10, 2019: 371–387 [May 12, 2020]. ISBN 978-1-350-02406-9. (原始内容存档于July 19, 2023).
- ^ Akhmedova A, Sutcliffe J, Greenhow C, Fisher MH, Sung C. Social media use among neurodivergent college students: benefits, harms and implications for education. Information and Learning Sciences. 2024, 125 (10): 850–876. doi:10.1108/ILS-01-2024-0005.
- ^ Opar A. A medical condition or just a difference? The question roils autism community.. The Washington Post. May 6, 2019 [May 12, 2019]. (原始内容存档于December 9, 2019).
- ^ Robison JE. The Controversy Around Autism and Neurodiversity. Psychology Today. [May 14, 2019]. (原始内容存档于March 22, 2023) (美国英语).
- ^ Mcgee, Micki. Neurodiversity. Contexts. August 2012, 11 (3): 12–13. doi:10.1177/1536504212456175
.
- ^ Sarrett, Jennifer C. Biocertification and Neurodiversity: the Role and Implications of Self-Diagnosis in Autistic Communities. Neuroethics. April 2016, 9 (1): 23–36. doi:10.1007/s12152-016-9247-x.
- ^ Bailin A. Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Neurodiversity. Scientific American Blog Network. [April 12, 2022]. (原始内容存档于June 29, 2019) (英语).
- ^ Dwyer, Patrick; Gurba, Ava N; Kapp, Steven K; Kilgallon, Elizabeth; Hersh, Lynnette H; Chang, David S; Rivera, Susan M; Gillespie-Lynch, Kristen. Community views of neurodiversity, models of disability and autism intervention: Mixed methods reveal shared goals and key tensions. Autism. 18 September 2024, 29 (9): 2297–2314. PMC 12332218
请检查|pmc=值 (帮助). PMID 39291753. doi:10.1177/13623613241273029. - ^ Heraty, Síofra; Lautarescu, Alexandra; Belton, David; Boyle, Alison; Cirrincione, Pietro; Doherty, Mary; Douglas, Sarah; Plas, Jan Roderik Derk; Van Den Bosch, Katrien; Violland, Pierre; Tercon, Jerneja; Ruigrok, Amber; Murphy, Declan G.M.; Bourgeron, Thomas; Chatham, Christopher; Loth, Eva; Oakley, Bethany; McAlonan, Grainne M.; Charman, Tony; Puts, Nicolaas; Gallagher, Louise; Jones, Emily J.H. Bridge-building between communities: Imagining the future of biomedical autism research. Cell. August 2023, 186 (18): 3747–3752. PMID 37657415. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2023.08.004
.
- ^ Leblond CS, Rolland T, Barthome E, Mougin Z, Fleury M, Ecker C, Bonnot-Briey S, Cliquet F, Tabet A, Maruani A, Chaumette B, Green J, Delorme R, Bourgeron T. A Genetic Bridge Between Medicine and Neurodiversity for Autism. Annual Review of Genetics. 2024, 58 (1): 487–512. PMID 39585908. doi:10.1146/annurev-genet-111523-102614
.
- ^ In Defense of the Medical Model of Neurodiversity. Forbes. January 31, 2022.
- ^ 23.0 23.1 Blume, Harvey. Neurodiversity. The Atlantic. 1998年9月30日 [2024年3月12日]. (原始内容存档于2013年1月5日) (英语).
- ^ 24.0 24.1 Meet Judy Singer Neurodiversity Pioneer. My Spectrum Suite. [2019年5月14日]. (原始内容存档于2019年6月6日).
- ^ Singer J. 'Why can't you be normal for once in your life?' From a 'problem with no name' to the emergence of a new category of difference. Corker M, French S (编). Disability Discourse. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). 1999年2月1日: 59–67 [2020年5月12日]. ISBN 978-0-335-20222-5. (原始内容存档于2024年5月13日).
For me, the key significance of the 'autism spectrum' lies in its call for and anticipation of a politics of neurological diversity, or neurodiversity.
- ^ Dekker M. From Exclusion to Acceptance: Independent Living on the Autistic Spectrum. Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. 新加坡: Springer Singapore. 2019年11月8日: 41–49. ISBN 978-981-13-8436-3. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_3
.
- ^ Blume H. "Autism & The Internet" or "It's The Wiring, Stupid". Media In Transition. 麻省理工學院. 1997年7月1日 [2007年11月8日]. (原始内容存档于2018年4月27日).
A project called CyberSpace 2000 is devoted to getting as many people as possible in the autistic spectrum hooked up by the year 2000, the reason being that "the Internet is an essential means for autistic people to improve their lives because it is often the only way they can communicate effectively."
- ^ Blume H. Autistics, freed from face-to-face encounters, are communicating in cyberspace. The New York Times. 1997年6月30日 [2007年11月8日]. (原始内容存档于2008年1月26日).
Yet, in trying to come to terms with [a neurotypical-dominated] world, autistics are neither willing nor able to give up their own customs. Instead, they are proposing a new social compact, one emphasizing neurological pluralism. [...] The consensus emerging from the Internet forums and Web sites where autistics congregate [...] is that NT is only one of many neurological configurations – the dominant one certainly, but not necessarily the best.
- ^ Solomon A. The autism rights movement. New York. 2008年5月25日 [2008年5月27日]. (原始内容存档于2008年5月27日).
- ^ Sinclair, Jim. Don't Mourn For Us. 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2019年11月9日,. Autism Network International. 取自2013年5月7日。
- ^ Dekker, Martijn. On Our Own Terms: Emerging autistic culture (PDF). Autscape99. 1999. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2024-04-24).
- ^ Autistics.Org. 1998. (原始内容存档于2004年6月25日).
- ^ 33.0 33.1 Tisoncik LA. Autistics.Org and Finding Our Voices as an Activist Movement. Kapp SK (编). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. 新加坡: Springer. 2020: 65–76. ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_5
.
- ^ Andrews, David. Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse. 1998. (原始内容存档于2005年4月3日).
- ^ Murray, Dinah, Kapp, Steven K. , 编, Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse, Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline (新加坡: Springer), 2020: 51–63, ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_4
(英语)
- ^ Ira Eidle. Introduction to the Neurodiversity Movement. 2021-08-12 [2024-05-17] –通过YouTube.
- ^ Ballastexistenz. Ballastexistenz. 2018-03-09 [2024-05-17] (英语).
- ^ Leitch, Kevin. Left Brain Right Brain. 2003 [2024-05-16]. (原始内容存档于2024-05-12).
- ^ Victory! The End of the Ransom Notes Campaign - Autistic Self Advocacy Network. autisticadvocacy.org/. 2007-12-19 [2024-05-17] (美国英语).
- ^ Kaufman, Joanne. Ransom-Note Ads About Children's Health Are Canceled. The New York Times. 2007-12-20 [2024-05-17].
- ^ Kras, Joseph F. The 'Ransom Notes' Affair: When the Neurodiversity Movement Came of Age. Disability Studies Quarterly. 2009年12月14日, 30 (1). doi:10.18061/dsq.v30i1.1065
.
- ^ Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network (AWN). awnnetwork.org/. [2024-05-17] (美国英语).
- ^ THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM. THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM. 2024-05-12 [2024-05-17] (美国英语).
- ^ #IAmNOTKelliStapleton #WalkInIssysShoes Flash Blog. iamnotkellistapletonflashblog.blogspot.com. [2024-05-17] (英语).
- ^ Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks. Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks. 2015-07-18 [2024-05-17] (英语).
- ^ Disability Day of Mourning – Remembering the Disabled Murdered by Caregivers. [2024-05-17] (美国英语).
- ^ Autistics Speaking Day. autisticsspeakingday.blogspot.com. [2024-05-17] (英语).
- ^ Milton D. Neurodiversity past and present – an introduction to the neurodiversity reader.. Milton D, Ridout S, Martin N, Mills R, Murray D (编). The Neurodiversity Reader. Pavilion. 2020: 3–6. ISBN 978-1-912755-39-4.
- ^ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 Walker, Nick. Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions. Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. 沃斯堡: Autonomous Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-945955-27-3.
- ^ Happé F, Frith U. Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. March 2020, 61 (3): 218–232. PMID 31994188. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13176.
- ^ 51.0 51.1 Pellicano E, den Houting J. Annual Research Review: Shifting from 'normal science' to neurodiversity in autism science. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. April 2022, 63 (4): 381–396. PMC 9298391
. PMID 34730840. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13534.
- ^ Dinishak, Janette. The Deficit View and Its Critics. Disability Studies Quarterly. 2 December 2016, 36 (4). doi:10.18061/dsq.v36i4.5236
.
- ^ Mottron L. Changing perceptions: The power of autism. Nature. November 2011, 479 (7371): 33–35. Bibcode:2011Natur.479...33M. PMID 22051659. doi:10.1038/479033a
.
- ^ Ne'eman A. When Disability Is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote 'Passing'. AMA Journal of Ethics. July 2021, 23 (7): E569–E575. PMC 8957386
. PMID 34351268. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.569.
- ^ Ne'eman, Ari; Richman, Kenneth A.; McCarthy, Allison M.; Wilkenfeld, Daniel. A Passing Problem: Evaluating Harm and Benefit in Autism Research. Ethics & Human Research. November 2023, 45 (6): 2–18. PMID 37988276. doi:10.1002/eahr.500188.
- ^ What Is Stimming and Why Do Neurodivergent People Do It?. San Diego. 2025-05-16 [2025-06-13] (美国英语).
- ^ 57.0 57.1 Shakespeare, Tom. Disability Rights and Wrongs Revisited. Routledge. 2013-10-30. ISBN 978-1-134-57766-8.
- ^ 58.0 58.1 For Whose Benefit?: Evidence, Ethics, and Effectiveness of Autism Interventions. ASAN. December 6, 2021 [10 May 2025].
- ^ 59.0 59.1 Chapman, Robert; Tekin, Serife; Bluhm, Robyn. Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability. The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2019-01-10. ISBN 978-1-350-02406-9.
- ^ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Chapman, Robert. Empire of Normality: Neurodiversity and Capitalism. London: Pluto Press. 2023: 141–142. ISBN 978-0-7453-4867-4.
- ^ 61.0 61.1 Kapp, Steven. Models of helping and coping with autism. The Routledge International Handbook of Critical Autism Studies. Routledge. 2022-12-22: 255–269. ISBN 978-0-367-52107-3.
- ^ Bury, Simon M.; Haschek, Alex; Wenzel, Michael; Spoor, Jennifer R.; Hedley, Darren. Brief Report: Learning About Autism: Is the Source of Autism Knowledge Associated with Differences in Autism Knowledge, Autism Identity, and Experiences of Stigma. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. November 2024, 54 (11): 4346–4353. PMID 36443495. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05823-5.
- ^ Gillespie-Lynch K, Kapp SK, Brooks PJ, Pickens J, Schwartzman B. Whose Expertise is It? Evidence for Autistic Adults as Critical Autism Experts. Frontiers in Psychology. 2017, 8: 438. PMC 5368186
. PMID 28400742. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00438
.
- ^ Botha, Monique; Cage, Eilidh. 'Autism research is in crisis': A mixed method study of researcher's constructions of autistic people and autism research. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022, 13. PMC 9730396
. PMID 36506950. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1050897
.
- ^ Bottema-Beutel K, Kapp SK, Lester JN, Sasson NJ, Hand BN. Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers. Autism in Adulthood. March 2021, 3 (1): 18–29. PMC 8992888
. PMID 36601265. doi:10.1089/aut.2020.0014.
- ^ Pearson A, Surtees A, Crompton CJ, Goodall C, Pillai D, Sedgewick F, Au-Yeung SK. Editorial: Addressing community priorities in autism research. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022, 13. PMC 9552333
. PMID 36237673. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1040446
. hdl:20.500.11820/1f5ee35e-4a42-4e75-9d77-aa51644d7784
.
- ^ den Houting J, Pellicano E. A Portfolio Analysis of Autism Research Funding in Australia, 2008–2017. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. November 2019, 49 (11): 4400–4408. PMID 31375971. doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04155-1.
- ^ Frazier TW, Dawson G, Murray D, Shih A, Sachs JS, Geiger A. Brief Report: A Survey of Autism Research Priorities Across a Diverse Community of Stakeholders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. November 2018, 48 (11): 3965–3971. PMID 29948533. doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3642-6.
- ^ Jose C, George-Zwicker P, Tardif L, Bouma A, Pugsley D, Pugsley L, Bélanger M, Gaudet J, Robichaud M. "We are the stakeholders with the most at stake": scientific and autism community co-researchers reflect on their collaborative experience in the CONNECT project. Research Involvement and Engagement. 2020, 6. PMC 7520966
. PMID 33005439. doi:10.1186/s40900-020-00233-2
.
- ^ Chapman, Robert. Empire of Normality: Neurodiversity and Capitalism 1st. London: Pluto Press. 2023. ISBN 978-0-7453-4866-7.
- ^ Grinker, Roy Richard. Nobody's normal: how culture created the stigma of mental illness 1st. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 2021. ISBN 978-0-393-53164-0.
- ^ Hunt, Adam D.; Procyshyn, Tanya L. Changing perspectives on autism: Overlapping contributions of evolutionary psychiatry and the neurodiversity movement. Autism Research. 2024, 17 (3): 459–466. PMID 38233966. doi:10.1002/aur.3078.
- ^ Procyshyn, Tanya L.; Tsompanidis, Alex; Baron-Cohen, Simon. Embracing evolutionary theories of autism: Implications for psychiatry. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2024, 149 (2): 85–87. PMID 38221858. doi:10.1111/acps.13653.
- ^ Ne'eman A, Pellicano E. Neurodiversity as Politics. Human Development. May 2022, 66 (2): 149–157. PMC 9881465
. PMID 36714278. doi:10.1159/000524277
.
- ^ Charlton RA, Entecott T, Belova E, Nwaordu G. 'It feels like holding back something you need to say': Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults accounts of sensory experiences and stimming (PDF). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2021, 89. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101864.
- ^ Bölte, Sven; Lawson, Wenn B.; Marschik, Peter B.; Girdler, Sonya. Reconciling the seemingly irreconcilable: The WHO's ICF system integrates biological and psychosocial environmental determinants of autism and ADHD: The International Classification of Functioning (ICF) allows to model opposed biomedical and neurodiverse views of autism and ADHD within one framework. BioEssays. September 2021, 43 (9): e2000254. PMID 33797095. doi:10.1002/bies.202000254
.
- ^ Kwok, Kim; Kwok, Diana K. More than comfort and discomfort: Emotion work of parenting children with autism in Hong Kong. Children and Youth Services Review. November 2020, 118. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105456.
- ^ Allen, Lauren Lestremau; Mellon, Leanna S.; Syed, Noor; Johnson, Joy F.; Bernal, Armando J. Neurodiversity-Affirming Applied Behavior Analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice. 25 March 2024. doi:10.1007/s40617-024-00918-0
.
- ^ Lee, Elinda Ai Lim; Scott, Melissa; Black, Melissa H.; D'Arcy, Emily; Tan, Tele; Sheehy, Louise; Bölte, Sven; Girdler, Sonya. 'He Sees his Autism as a Strength, Not a Deficit Now': A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study Investigating the Impact of Strengths-Based Programs on Autistic Adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. May 2024, 54 (5): 1656–1671. PMC 9900207
. PMID 36745275. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05881-9.
- ^ 80.0 80.1 80.2 Schuck RK, Tagavi DM, Baiden KM, Dwyer P, Williams ZJ, Osuna A, Ferguson EF, Jimenez Muñoz M, Poyser SK, Johnson JF, Vernon TW. Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. October 2022, 52 (10): 4625–4645. PMC 9508016
. PMID 34643863. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x.
- ^ Bernhardt, Jamie B.; Lam, Gary Yu Hin; Thomas, Toni; Cubells, Joseph F.; Bohlke, Kelsey; Reid, Morganne; Rice, Catherine E. Meaning in Measurement: Evaluating Young Autistic Adults' Active Engagement and Expressed Interest in Quality-of-Life Goals. Autism in Adulthood. 1 September 2020, 2 (3): 227–242. PMC 8992872
. PMID 36601444. doi:10.1089/aut.2019.0081.
- ^ Scheerer, Nichole E.; Ng, Catalina Sau Man; Gurba, Ava N.; McNair, Morgan L.; Lerner, Matthew D.; Hargreaves, April. Editorial: Break the stigma: autism. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 4 December 2024, 15. PMC 11653068
. PMID 39698208. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1513447
.
- ^ Van Den Plas, Lies; Vanaken, Gert-Jan; Steyaert, Jean; Hens, Kristien; Noens, Ilse. Towards a neurodiversity-affirmative conceptualisation of psycho-education in the context of autism
. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. June 2024, 114. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102391.
- ^ 84.0 84.1 Schuck, Rachel K.; Fung, Lawrence K. A dual design thinking – universal design approach to catalyze neurodiversity advocacy through collaboration among high-schoolers. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 10 January 2024, 14. PMC 10806093
. PMID 38268559. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1250895
.
- ^ Cheng, Yulin; Dwyer, Patrick; Keating, Connor Tom. Factors underlying differences in knowledge, explicit stigma and implicit biases towards autism across Hong Kong, the United Kingdom and the United States. Autism. 2 November 2024, 29 (4): 868–883. PMC 11967188
. PMID 39487729. doi:10.1177/13623613241290565
.
- ^ Chapman, Robert. Negotiating the Neurodiversity Concept. Psychology Today. August 18, 2021 [March 4, 2024]. (原始内容存档于March 8, 2024) (美国英语).
- ^ Neurodivergence. University of Massachusetts(麻薩諸塞大學) Office of the President. [March 4, 2024]. (原始内容存档于March 4, 2024).
- ^ Coates, Shannon. Neurodiversity in the Voice Studio, Clinic, and Performance Space: Using a Neurodiversity Affirming Lens to Build More Inclusive Spaces for Singers. Part 1, Current Understanding of Neurodiversity. Journal of Singing. 25 October 2022, 79 (2): 213–219. doi:10.53830/VHSX6387. Project MUSE 867856.
- ^ Adams, Danya; Kaliss, Nicholas; Missner, Alexander; Valentine, Mary Meg. The Interplay of Nicotine and Social Stress Mediate Dopaminergic Neuron Firing in the Ventral Tegmental Area - Nucleus Accumbens Pathway, Contributing to Stress and Depressive Mood Disorder. Georgetown Scientific Research Journal. 2021: 70–83. doi:10.48091/SUVN5250
.
- ^ Homan P, Reddan MC, Brosch T, Koenigsberg HW, Schiller D. Aberrant link between empathy and social attribution style in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research. November 2017, 94: 163–171. PMID 28735169. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.012
.
- ^ Corsi E, Cardi V, Sowden S, Coll MP, Cascino G, Ricca V, Treasure J, Bird G, Monteleone AM. Socio-cognitive processing in people with eating disorders: Computerized tests of mentalizing, empathy and imitation skills. The International Journal of Eating Disorders. August 2021, 54 (8): 1509–1518. PMC 8453969
. PMID 34056730. doi:10.1002/eat.23556.
- ^ Chown, Nick. Neurodiversity. Volkmar, Fred R. (编). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders 2nd. Cham: Springer International Publishing AG. 2021. ISBN 978-3-319-91280-6.
- ^ Simpson, Ellen; Dalal, Samantha; Semaan, Bryan. 'Hey, Can You Add Captions?': The Critical Infrastructuring Practices of Neurodiverse People on TikTok. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction. 14 April 2023, 7 (CSCW1): 1–27. arXiv:2212.06204
. doi:10.1145/3579490
.
- ^ Liebowitz, Cara. Here's What Neurodiversity Is – And What It Means For Feminism. Everyday Feminism. March 4, 2016 [March 8, 2024]. (原始内容存档于March 4, 2024) (美国英语).
- ^ Advice | He's been diagnosed with autism. Is it too late to keep his job?. Washington Post. [March 30, 2023]. (原始内容存档于March 14, 2023) (美国英语).
- ^ Neurotypical. Cambridge English Dictionary. [May 23, 2022]. (原始内容存档于February 21, 2023).
- ^ Walker N. Neuroqueer Heresies. Autonomous Press. 2021: 40. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6.
- ^ Hare DJ, Jones S, Evershed K. A comparative study of circadian rhythm functioning and sleep in people with Asperger syndrome. Autism. November 2006, 10 (6): 565–575. PMID 17088273. doi:10.1177/1362361306068509.
- ^ O'Connor K, Hamm JP, Kirk IJ. The neurophysiological correlates of face processing in adults and children with Asperger's syndrome. Brain and Cognition. October 2005, 59 (1): 82–95. PMID 16009478. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.004.
- ^ Timberlake, Howard. Why there is no such thing as a 'normal' brain. BBC. 2019-10-10.
- ^ Happé, Francesca; Frith, Uta. Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2020-03, 61 (3): 218–232. PMID 31994188. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13176.
- ^ 102.0 102.1 Russell G. Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement. Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. 2020: 287–303. ISBN 978-981-13-8436-3. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_21.
- ^ Walker, Nick. Defining Neurotypicality & Neurodivergence. Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Fort Worth: Autonomous Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-945955-27-3.
- ^ Language and abbreviations. 2008-06-06 [2022-04-19]. (原始内容存档于2008-06-06).[自述来源]
- ^ Arnold L. A brief history of "Neurodiversity" as a concept and perhaps a movement. Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies. 2017-10-07, 1 (5) [2022-12-30]. (原始内容存档于2022-12-01) (英语).
- ^ Walker N. Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Autonomous Press. 2021: 33–46 [2022-12-30]. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6. OCLC 1287945422. (原始内容存档于2022-12-30).
- ^ Legault, Mylène; Bourdon, Jean-Nicolas; Poirier, Pierre. From neurodiversity to neurodivergence: the role of epistemic and cognitive marginalization. Synthese. 2021-12, 199 (5–6): 12843–12868. doi:10.1007/s11229-021-03356-5.
- ^ Allistic. Cambridge English Dictionary. [2022-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2022-11-30).
- ^ Crompton CJ, DeBrabander K, Heasman B, Milton D, Sasson NJ. Double Empathy: Why Autistic People Are Often Misunderstood. Frontiers for Young Minds. 2021-05-11, 9. hdl:20.500.11820/94ee032a-6103-470a-bc06-08337dd6b512
.
- ^ Milton, Damian E.M. On the ontological status of autism: the 'double empathy problem' (PDF). Disability & Society. 2012-10, 27 (6): 883–887. doi:10.1080/09687599.2012.710008.
- ^ DeThorne, Laura S. Revealing the Double Empathy Problem: It's not that autistic* people lack empathy. Rather, their different neurotypes and experiences may make it harder for nonautisic people to understand them—and vice versa. The ASHA Leader. 2020-04, 25 (3): 58–65. doi:10.1044/leader.FTR2.25042020.58
.
- ^ Milton DE, Waldock KE, Keates N. Autism and the 'double empathy problem'. Conversations on Empathy. 2023: 78–97. ISBN 978-1-003-18997-8. doi:10.4324/9781003189978-6.
- ^ 113.0 113.1 Watts, Georgina; Crompton, Catherine; Grainger, Catherine; Long, Joseph; Botha, Monique; Somerville, Mark; Cage, Eilidh. 'A certain magic' – autistic adults' experiences of interacting with other autistic people and its relation to Quality of Life: A systematic review and thematic meta-synthesis. Autism. 2024-06-03, 29 (9): 2239–2253. PMC 12332227
请检查|pmc=值 (帮助). PMID 38829019. doi:10.1177/13623613241255811. hdl:1893/36127
.
- ^ Mitchell, Peter; Sheppard, Elizabeth; Cassidy, Sarah. Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2021-03, 39 (1): 1–18. PMID 33393101. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12350.
- ^ Rifai OM, Fletcher-Watson S, Jiménez-Sánchez L, Crompton CJ. Investigating Markers of Rapport in Autistic and Nonautistic Interactions. Autism in Adulthood. 2022-03, 4 (1): 3–11. PMC 8992924
. PMID 36600904. doi:10.1089/aut.2021.0017.
- ^ The double empathy problem. www.autism.org.uk. [2023-06-03]. (原始内容存档于2023-03-30) (英语).
- ^ Jaswal VK, Akhtar N. Being versus appearing socially uninterested: Challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2018-06, 42. PMID 29914590. doi:10.1017/s0140525x18001826.
- ^ Walker, Nick. Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Fort Worth: Autonomous Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6.
- ^ Chapman R. Neurodiversity, disability, wellbeing. Neurodiversity Studies. Taylor & Francis. 2020-06-02: 57–72 [May 28, 2025]. ISBN 978-0-429-32229-7. doi:10.4324/9780429322297-7. (原始内容存档于March 25, 2022) (英语).
- ^ Dwyer, Patrick; Gurba, Ava N; Kapp, Steven K; Kilgallon, Elizabeth; Hersh, Lynnette H; Chang, David S; Rivera, Susan M; Gillespie-Lynch, Kristen. Community views of neurodiversity, models of disability and autism intervention: Mixed methods reveal shared goals and key tensions
. Autism. 2024-09-18, 29 (9): 2297–2314. ISSN 1362-3613. PMC 12332218
请检查|pmc=值 (帮助). PMID 39291753. doi:10.1177/13623613241273029 (英语). - ^ Armstrong, Thomas. The power of neurodiversity: unleashing the advantages of your differently wired brain. Lifelong books. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Lifelong. 2011. ISBN 978-0-7382-1354-5.
- ^ Yergeau, Melanie. Authoring autism: on rhetoric and neurological queerness. Thought in the act. Durham London: Duke University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-0-8223-7020-8.
- ^ Riddell, Sheila; Watson, Nick (编). Disability, Culture and Identity. London: Routledge. 2014. ISBN 978-1-138-14474-3.
- ^ What neurodivergent employees need to succeed | McKinsey. www.mckinsey.com. [2025-05-28].
- ^ Lutz, Amy. I'm tired of disability activists pretending my son doesn't exist. The Washington Post. November 8, 2023 [August 16, 2025].
- ^ den Houting, Jacquiline. Neurodiversity: An Insider's Perspective
. Autism (Sage Journals). December 17, 2018, 23 (2): 271–273 [July 24, 2025]. PMID 30556743. doi:10.1177/1362361318820762.
- ^ Jaarsma P, Welin S. Autism as a natural human variation: reflections on the claims of the neurodiversity movement. Health Care Analysis. March 2012, 20 (1): 20–30. PMID 21311979. doi:10.1007/s10728-011-0169-9.
- ^ Woodford G. 'We Don't Need to be Cured' Autistics Say. National Review of Medicine. 2006, 3 (8). (原始内容存档于March 3, 2016).
- ^ Arnold L. Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies. Kapp SK (编). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline. Singapore: Springer. 2020: 211–220. ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_15.
- ^ Mackenzie R, Watts J. Is our legal, health care and social support infrastructure neurodiverse enough? How far are the aims of the neurodiversity movement fulfilled for those diagnosed with cognitive disability and learning disability?. Tizard Learning Disability Review. January 31, 2011, 16 (1): 30–37. doi:10.5042/tldr.2011.0005.
We recommend, therefore, that the term neurodiverse include the conditions ASD, ADHD, OCD, language disorders, developmental coordination disorder, dyslexia and Tourette's syndrome.
- ^ Morrice P. Otherwise Minded. The New York Times. January 29, 2006 [February 11, 2017]. (原始内容存档于November 21, 2015).
- ^ Antonetta S. A mind apart: travels in a neurodiverse world. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. 2005. ISBN 1-58542-382-3. OCLC 60671914.[页码请求]
- ^ Anton, Audrey L. The Virtue of Sociopaths: how to appreciate the neurodiversity of sociopathy without becoming a victim. Perry, Alexandra; Yankowski, Anthony (编). Ethics and Neurodiversity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2014: 111–130. ISBN 978-1-4438-6759-7.
- ^ 134.0 134.1 What We Believe - Autistic Self Advocacy Network. 2021 [2023-09-30]. (原始内容存档于February 12, 2022) (美国英语).
- ^ Walker, Nick. Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions. Neuroqueer Heresies: Notes on the Neurodiversity Paradigm, Autistic Empowerment, and Postnormal Possibilities. Autonomous Press. 2021: 33–45. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6.
- ^ 136.0 136.1 136.2 Leadbitter K, Buckle KL, Ellis C, Dekker M. Autistic Self-Advocacy and the Neurodiversity Movement: Implications for Autism Early Intervention Research and Practice. Frontiers in Psychology. 2021-04-12, 12. PMC 8075160
. PMID 33912110. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635690
.
- ^ Subramanyam AA, Mukherjee A, Dave M, Chavda K. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. January 2019, 61 (Suppl 2): 254–269. PMC 6345133
. PMID 30745701. doi:10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_542_18
.
- ^ Lupton E, Kafei F, Tobias J, Halstead JA, Sales K, Xia L, Vergara V. Extra bold: a feminist inclusive anti-racist nonbinary field guide for graphic designers 1st. Hudson, NY: Princeton Architectural Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-61689-918-9.[页码请求]
- ^ 139.0 139.1 139.2 Griffin E, Pollak D. Student experiences of neurodiversity in higher education: insights from the BRAINHE project. Dyslexia. February 2009, 15 (1): 23–41. PMID 19140120. doi:10.1002/dys.383.
- ^ Kapp SK, Gillespie-Lynch K, Sherman LE, Hutman T. Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology. January 2013, 49 (1): 59–71. PMID 22545843. doi:10.1037/a0028353.
- ^ Robison, John Elder. What Is Neurodiversity?. Psychology Today. 7 October 2013. (原始内容存档于May 13, 2024).
- ^ 142.0 142.1 142.2 Kwon, Chang-kyu; Guadalupe, Sarah S.; Archer, Matthew; Groomes, Darlene A. Understanding career development pathways of college students with disabilities using crip theory and the theory of whole self. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education. August 2023, 16 (4): 520–525. doi:10.1037/dhe0000464.
- ^ 143.00 143.01 143.02 143.03 143.04 143.05 143.06 143.07 143.08 143.09 143.10 143.11 Clouder, Lynn; Karakus, Mehmet; Cinotti, Alessia; Ferreyra, María Virginia; Fierros, Genoveva Amador; Rojo, Patricia. Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis (PDF). Higher Education. October 2020, 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6.
- ^ Densberger, Kathryn. Book Review: Supporting Neurodiverse College Student Success: A Guide for Librarians, Student Support Services, and Academic Learning Environments. The Learning Assistance Review. 2021, 26 (2). Gale A679898761.
- ^ Hamilton, Lorna G.; Petty, Stephanie. Compassionate pedagogy for neurodiversity in higher education: A conceptual analysis. Frontiers in Psychology. 2023-02-16, 14. PMC 9978378
. PMID 36874864. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093290
(English).
- ^ Nachman, Brett Ranon; Brown, Kirsten R. Crip places: Dismantling disability discourse in the 2-year college literature. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education. August 2024, 17 (4): 634–647. doi:10.1037/dhe0000443.
- ^ 147.0 147.1 Whelpley CE, May CP. Seeing is Disliking: Evidence of Bias Against Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Traditional Job Interviews. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. April 2023, 53 (4): 1363–1374. PMID 35294714. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05432-2.
- ^ Willis C, Powell-Rudy T, Colley K, Prasad J. Examining the Use of Game-Based Assessments for Hiring Autistic Job Seekers. Journal of Intelligence. November 2021, 9 (4): 53. PMC 8628896
. PMID 34842751. doi:10.3390/jintelligence9040053
.
- ^ Specialisterne & SAP: A partnership for access to markets, multiple countries/ Denmark. Boosting Social Enterprise Development. Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED). 2017: 215–223. ISBN 978-92-64-26849-4. doi:10.1787/9789264268500-22-en.
- ^ Moran, Gwen. Companies Like Microsoft and Goldman Sachs Are Hiring More Neurodiverse Talent. Fortune. 2019-12-07 [2024-07-07].
- ^ Neurodiversity inclusion projects. Specialisterne Brasil. [7 July 2024].
- ^ de Beer J, Heerkens Y, Engels J, van der Klink J. Factors relevant to work participation from the perspective of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review of qualitative studies. BMC Public Health. May 2022, 22 (1). PMC 9158268
. PMID 35642026. doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13436-x
.
- ^ Lauder K, McDowall A, Tenenbaum HR. A systematic review of interventions to support adults with ADHD at work – Implications from the paucity of context-specific research for theory and practice. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022, 13. PMC 9443814
. PMID 36072032. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.893469
.
- ^ Nelken-Zitser, Joshua. Most armies ignore autistic people. Israel is calling them up.. businessinsider. Jan 12, 2023 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于February 22, 2023).; Donvan, John; McAfee, Marjorie; Sheward, Katy; Green, Justin; Young, Aria. People with autism navigate roadblocks to serving in the military. abc news. May 2, 2024 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于February 14, 2025).
- ^ (Donvan et al. 2024); Weinbaum, Cortney. In national security, autism is in the closet. Here's why.. military times. July 17, 2023 [August 12, 2025]. (原始内容存档于July 20, 2025).; Advanced Therapy Clinic. Can You Join The Military With Autism?. March 22, 2025 [August 12, 2025]. (原始内容存档于April 20, 2025).; Weinbaum, Cortney; Khan, Omair; Thomas, Teresa D.; Stein, Bradley D. Neurodiversity and National Security, How to Tackle National Security Challenges with a Wider Range of Cognitive Talents. Rand Health Quarterly. March 27, 2023, 10 (4): 9 [August 12, 2025]. PMC 10501819
. PMID 37720075. (原始内容存档于April 15, 2025).
- ^ DO. Automatisk uteslutning av personer med autism och ADHD är diskriminering. DO. June 29, 2021 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于January 19, 2025).; Autism Sverige. Försvarsmakten bröt mot diskrimineringslagen mot sökande med autism. Autism Sverige. November 21, 2024 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于March 25, 2025).; Olsson, Jonas. Nya regler: Försvarsmakten tillåter "lindrig adhd" för värnpliktiga. SVT NYHETER. April 7, 2022 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于September 11, 2024).; DO. Man med autism fick inte mönstra för värnplikt. DO. April 25, 2024 [August 11, 2025]. (原始内容存档于April 20, 2025).; Lundbäck, Maja. Diagnosen Erik Fenn fick som tioåring satte stopp för att få mönstra – 28 gånger. Försvarsmakten anklagas för att diskriminera unga med autism i sju pågående rättsfall.. Svenska Dagbladet. March 18, 2025 [August 12, 2025]. (原始内容存档于April 2, 2025).;
- ^ 157.0 157.1 Wang T, Garfield M, Wisniewski P, Page X. Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing. Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing. New York: Association for Computing Machinery: 419–424. October 17, 2020. ISBN 978-1-4503-8059-1. doi:10.1145/3406865.3418322.
|chapter=被忽略 (帮助) - ^ 158.0 158.1 Gabarron E, Dechsling A, Skafle I, Nordahl-Hansen A. Discussions of Asperger Syndrome on Social Media: Content and Sentiment Analysis on Twitter. JMIR Formative Research. March 2022, 6 (3). PMC 8938830
. PMID 35254265. doi:10.2196/32752
.
- ^ 159.0 159.1 Brownlow C, Bertilsdotter Rosqvist H, O'Dell L. Exploring the potential for social networking among people with autism: challenging dominant ideas of 'friendship'. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research. November 2, 2015, 17 (2): 188–193. doi:10.1080/15017419.2013.859174
.
- ^ Blossom: An App for the Neurodiverse Community. The Lakshmi Mittal and Family South Asia Institute. January 26, 2022 [April 11, 2022]. (原始内容存档于May 29, 2022).
- ^ Blausm. Blausm. Blausm. [2025-10-01].
- ^ 162.0 162.1 162.2 Calhoun AJ, Gold JA. 'I Feel Like I Know Them': the Positive Effect of Celebrity Self-disclosure of Mental Illness. Academic Psychiatry. April 2020, 44 (2): 237–241. PMID 32100256. doi:10.1007/s40596-020-01200-5
.
- ^ Stuart H. Media portrayal of mental illness and its treatments: what effect does it have on people with mental illness?. CNS Drugs. February 1, 2006, 20 (2): 99–106. PMID 16478286. doi:10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002.
- ^ 164.0 164.1 David, Anthony S.; Deeley, Quinton. Dangers of self-diagnosis in neuropsychiatry. Psychological Medicine. April 2024, 54 (6): 1057–1060. PMID 38379196. doi:10.1017/S0033291724000308.
- ^ Is Psychiatric Self-Diagnosis Valid? | Psychology Today. www.psychologytoday.com. [2025-02-02] (英语).
- ^ Fletcher-Watson, Sue. What's in a name? The costs and benefits of a formal autism diagnosis. Autism. February 2024, 28 (2): 257–262. PMID 37997793. doi:10.1177/13623613231213300. hdl:20.500.11820/8b02c4c7-ebcc-4fb3-848e-c172d1b816fd
.
- ^ Ratto, Allison B.; Bascom, Julia; daVanport, Sharon; Strang, John F.; Anthony, Laura G.; Verbalis, Alyssa; Pugliese, Cara; Nadwodny, Nicole; Brown, Lydia X.Z.; Cruz, Mallory; Hector, Becca Lory; Kapp, Steven K.; Giwa Onaiwu, Morénike; Raymaker, Dora M.; Robison, John Elder; Stewart, Catriona; Stone, Ren; Whetsell, Emma; Pelphrey, Kevin; Kenworthy, Lauren. Centering the Inner Experience of Autism: Development of the Self-Assessment of Autistic Traits. Autism in Adulthood. March 2023, 5 (1): 93–105. PMC 10024271
. PMID 36941856. doi:10.1089/aut.2021.0099.
- ^ 168.0 168.1 168.2 168.3 Bitman, Nomy. 'Authentic' digital inclusion? Dis/ability performances on social media by users with concealable communicative disabilities. New Media & Society. February 2022, 24 (2): 401–419. doi:10.1177/14614448211063183.
- ^ Salisbury M, Pooley J. The #nofilter Self: The Contest for Authenticity among Social Networking Sites, 2002–2016. Social Sciences. January 20, 2017, 6 (1): 10. doi:10.3390/socsci6010010
(英语).
- ^ 170.0 170.1 Duong D, Vogel L. Untapped potential: embracing neurodiversity in medicine. CMAJ. July 2022, 194 (27): E951–E952. PMC 9299741
. PMID 35851534. doi:10.1503/cmaj.1096006.
- ^ 171.0 171.1 171.2 Im DS, Tamarelli CM. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Medical Learners and Physicians and a Potentially Helpful Educational Tool. Advances in Medical Education and Practice. 2023, 14: 435–442. PMC 10149068
. PMID 37131931. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S398196
.
- ^ 172.0 172.1 Embracing Neurodiversity in Our Health Systems. www.aap.org. [2023-10-26] (英语).
- ^ Stanford Neurodiversity Project. Stanford Neurodiversity Project. [2023-10-26] (萨摩亚语).
- ^ 174.0 174.1 Dunn ZD, Gowda A, Horsfall Turner IC. The viability of a proposed psychoeducational neurodiversity approach in children services: The PANDA (the Portsmouth alliance's neuro-diversity approach). Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. January 2024, 29 (1): 198–212. PMID 37311174. doi:10.1177/13591045231184121.
- ^ 175.0 175.1 Chapman R, Botha M. Neurodivergence-informed therapy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. March 2023, 65 (3): 310–317. PMID 36082483. doi:10.1111/dmcn.15384.
- ^ 176.0 176.1 Healey G. What is neurodiversity affirming therapy?. Lawson Clinical Psychology. 2023 [2023-10-22]. (原始内容存档于November 28, 2023) (英国英语).
- ^ 177.0 177.1 McDonald, T. A. Meridian; Lalani, Salima; Chen, Ivy; Cotton, Claire M.; MacDonald, Lydia; Boursoulian, Lana J.; Wang, Jiahao; Malow, Beth A. Appropriateness, Acceptability, and Feasibility of a Neurodiversity-Based Self-determination Program for Autistic Adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. August 2023, 53 (8): 2933–2953. PMC 9934918
. PMID 35618972. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05598-9.
- ^ 178.0 178.1 Manning C, Scerif G. Understanding perceptual decisions by studying development and neurodiversity. Current Directions in Psychological Science. August 2023, 32 (4): 300–306. PMC 7614885
. PMID 37547284. doi:10.1177/09637214231162369.
- ^ 179.0 179.1 Leaf JB, Cihon JH, Leaf R, McEachin J, Liu N, Russell N, Unumb L, Shapiro S, Khosrowshahi D. Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. June 2022, 52 (6): 2838–2853. PMC 9114057
. PMID 34132968. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y.
- ^ Sandbank, Micheal; Bottema-Beutel, Kristen; Crowley, Shannon; Cassidy, Margaret; Dunham, Kacie; Feldman, Jacob I.; Crank, Jenna; Albarran, Susanne A.; Raj, Sweeya; Mahbub, Prachy; Woynaroski, Tiffany G. Project AIM: Autism intervention meta-analysis for studies of young children. Psychological Bulletin. January 2020, 146 (1): 1–29. PMC 8783568
. PMID 31763860. doi:10.1037/bul0000215.
- ^ Shkedy, Gary; Shkedy, Dalia; Sandoval-Norton, Aileen H. Long-term ABA Therapy Is Abusive: A Response to Gorycki, Ruppel, and Zane. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. June 2021, 5 (2): 126–134. doi:10.1007/s41252-021-00201-1
.
扩展阅读
[编辑]- Armstrong, Thomas. Neurodiversity: Discovering the Extraordinary Gifts of Autism, ADHD, Dyslexia, and Other Brain Differences. Boston: Da Capo Lifelong. 2010: 288. ISBN 978-0738213545.
- Armstrong, Thomas. Neurodiversity in the Classroom: Strength-Based Strategies to Help Students with Special Needs Succeed in School and Life. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. 2012: 188. ISBN 978-1416614838.
- Silberman, Steve. Neurodiversity Rewires Conventional Thinking About Brains. Wired. [7 May 2013]. (原始内容存档于2013-05-03).
- Reitman, Harold. Aspertools: The Practical Guide for Understanding and Embracing Asperger's, Autism Spectrum Disorders, and Neurodiversity. Deerfield Beach, FL: HCI Books. 2015: 240. ISBN 9780757318542.