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Vorlage:Short description Vorlage:Good article

a person in a military uniform wearing a United Nations blue helmet
Canadian peacekeeper in 1976 wearing the distinctive flag of Canada and UN blue helmet

Canada has served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every United Nations (UN) peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.[1] More than 125,000 Canadians have served in international peacekeeping operations, with approximately 130 Canadians having died during these operations.[2] Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.[3][4][5]

Canada's role in the development of and participation in peacekeeping during the 20th century led to its reputation as a positive middle power.[6][7] Canada's successful role in mediating the 1956 Suez Canal Crisis gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the common good of all nations.[8][9] The Canadian public came to identify the nation's peacekeeping role as one of the country's top contributions in international affairs.[10][11]

Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping efforts resulting in a military reassessment in the late 1990s.[12] By the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[13] This military reallocation resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[14]

Foreign relations context

Vorlage:Further

Canadian Delegation to the United Nations seated around conference table
The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945[15]

The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States.[16][11][17] Canada's foreign policy of peacekeeping has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions since the end of World War II.[18][19][20]

Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid 1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations.[21] Canada has since been engaged with the United Nations, NATO and the European Union (EU) in promoting its middle power status into an active role in world affairs.[22]

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,[23][24] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq.[23][24] Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, in Afghanistan and Libya.[23][24] The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti.[23][24]

History

Vorlage:See also

Inception of peacekeeping and national symbol

Vorlage:Further Vorlage:External media Lester B. Pearson, the Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs, had become a very prominent figure in the United Nations during its infancy and found himself in a peculiar position in 1956 during the Suez Crisis.[25] Pearson and Canada found themselves mediating a conflict involving their closest allies when the United States opposed the British, French, and Israeli invasion of Egypt.[26] During United Nations meetings, Pearson proposed to the security council that a United Nations police force be established to prevent further conflict in the region, allowing the countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution.[27] Pearson's proposal and offer to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.[26]

Pearson would be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 and be called "the father of modern peacekeeping" for his role during the Suez Crisis.[28][29][30] He would go on to serve as the 14th Prime Minister of Canada from 1963 to 1968 overseeing the creation of the distinctly Canadian flag that is worn by Canadian peacekeepers.[31] During the Suez Crisis, Pearson was disturbed when the Egyptian government originally objected to Canadian forces in view of the fact that Canada's Red Ensign contained the same symbol (the Union Flag) used by the United Kingdom, one of the belligerents.[32] Both peacekeeping and the Canadian flag would be regarded by Canadians as distinguishing internationally recognized features of Canada.[33][34]

Peacekeeping efforts

Canada participated in every UN peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.[1] Prior to the creation of the formal UN peacekeeping system, Canada had engaged in UN intervention operations, notably the 1948 mission in the second Kashmir conflict.[35] Since 1953 Canada has been involved in the first international unified command (UNCMAC) in support of the ongoing armistice between North and South Korea,[36] and played a central role in the International Control Commission (ICC), which tried to broker peace in Vietnam beginning in 1954.[37]

Vorlage:External media High-profile UN peacekeeping missions involving Canada include those in Congo (1961), Cyprus (1964), Lebanon (1978), Angola (1989), Somalia (1992), Rwanda (1993), East Timor (1999), Haiti (2004), Mali (2013), and observation missions in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights during the mid-1970s.[38] Canada also participatied in multiple missions in the Balkans with the UN, NATO and the EU in Croatia from 1991-1995; Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992-2010; Kosovo from 1998-1999; and the former Republic of Macedonia in 2001.[39]

Since 1989, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) have been involved in peacekeeping missions related to training law enforcement personnel,[40] notably the United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) from 1997 to 2000[41][42] and the NATO led missions in Afghanistan for over a decade.[42]

Personnel contributions

a person in a police uniform wearing a United Nations blue beret
Royal Canadian Mounted Police peacekeeper in 2011 wearing the distinctive UN blue beret

Canada provided the most amount of UN peacekeepers during the Cold War with apromently 80,000 personnelVorlage:Sndequivalent to 10 percent of total UN forces.[43][44] In all, more than 125,000 Canadian men and women military personnel, civilians, diplomatsVorlage:Sndincluding over 4,000 Canadian police officersVorlage:Sndhave served in peacekeeping operations.[45] Approximately 130 Canadians have died in service of peacekeeping operations, with 123 of these deaths occurring during UN missions.[2] Seven Canadians have been UN force commanders and two Canadians have been commanders of UN observer missions.[46]

Canada's ongoing participation in United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (Operation Snowgoose) that began in 1964, has seen over 33,000 Canadians serve.[47] Canada's largest contribution of approximately 40,000 personnel and resulting in 23 deaths, took place from 1992 to 2010 in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars.[48] The death of nine Canadian Armed Forces personnel when their Buffalo 461 was shot down over Syria on August 9, 1974, remains the largest single death toll in Canadian peacekeeping history.[49][50] The United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti saw the death of two Canadian RCMP peacekeepers as a result of the 2010 earthquake.[51]

Canada's "high point" of participation took place in April 1993, when there was 3,336 Canadian UN peacekeepers,[46] with a record low number of 34 UN designated Canadian peacekeepers in August 2020.[46] In March 2024, there were 59 Canadians deployed in UN peacekeeper missions, resulting in Canada being the 69th-largest, out of 120, personnel contributor.[52] Canada's military in the same period had over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple non-UN operations related to combat roles, peacekeeping, emergency responses, military training, humanitarian, and law enforcement assistance.[53]

Peacekeeping assessment

Vorlage:Further-text Vorlage:External media Some argue that Canadian personnel may not consistently had the necessary training or resources to successfully navigate complex and volatile environments, leading to mixed results in their peacekeeping and peace enforcement efforts.[54] Other criticisms include the perceived lack of clear objectives,[11] and non fulfillment of personnel commitments in the 21st Century.[55][56][57]

Canadian troops have been accused of being complicit in human rights abuses,[58] notably in 1993 when the Canadian Armed Forces were deployed during the Somali Civil War to support UNOSOM I in a peace enforcement capacity.[59][60][61] Soldiers from the Canadian Airborne Regiment tortured and killed a 16-year-old youth that broke into the encampment.[62][63] Coined the Somalia Affair, the incident has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military" and led to the disbanding of Canada's elite airborne regiment.[62][64]

Canadian troops and the UN system have been accused of failing to adequately protect civilian populations in conflict zones,[65] notably in 1994 when Canadian troops were deployed to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda. The mission was criticized for the perceived failure to prevent or intervene in the genocide that occurred, dispite Canadian General Roméo Dallaire warning top UN officials of an impending humanitarian crisis.[66][67] On 11 January 1994, General Dallaire, commander of UNAMIR, sent his "now infamous genocide fax" to UN headquarters, stating [the informant] has been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali to prepare "for their extermination".[66]

Military reallocation in the 21st century

Vorlage:Further-text

A period of reassessment took place in late 1990s within the Canadian military and the United Nations after the Somalia and Rwanda missions.[68] This led to the UN Security Council reducing the number of new operations,[69] and thus a significant decline in Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts.[2] Canada began redeploying its military efforts to multilateral UN-sanctioned operations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN by the turn of the century.[13] Vorlage:External media The military reallocation in the 21st century resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, where Canadian troops were tasked with combat and security support roles rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[14] Most notably in several missions and campaigns in support of the global war on terror.[70][71] Canada's participation in the Afghanistan war saw 165 Canadian deaths, the largest for any single Canadian military mission since the Korean War.[72][73] Many within Canadian society expressed opposition to Canada's combative roles in Afghanistan on the grounds that it was inconsistent with Canada's historic role of peacekeeping.[74][75] The Canadian government rhetoric of peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding in support of the Afghanistan war despite Canada's combat roles remains a point of contention within Canadian society.[76]

Financing

Vorlage:Further-text The unpredictability of peacekeeping operations makes forecasting costs a challenging task for policymakers and budget planners.[77] Nevertheless Canada has always prioritized its commitment to the UN by paying its dues "in full, on time and without conditions"..[77] In 2022-23, Canada was the eighth-largest UN peace operations financial contributor with approximately $198.8 million for ongoing missions worldwide.[78] Canada in total allocated $2.49 billion to multiple UN organizations including those related to peacekeeping, policing, research, training, climate change and humanitarian efforts such as medicine and food distribution.[79] Canada's total military expenditure in the same period was approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) — placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.[80]

Recognition

Vorlage:See also

a statue of a person in front of a flag and two other persons kneeling down
The Peacekeeping Monument in Ottawa, Canada.[81]

The Somalia Medal, a campaign medal created in 1992 to recognize Canadian military personnel who participated in the international military coalition invasion to stabilize Somalia, has been awarded to 1,422 individuals.[82] In 1992, Reconciliation: The Peacekeeping Monument was completed, commemorating Canada's role in international peacekeeping and the soldiers and police officers who have participated and are currently participating, both living and dead.[83] The 1995 Canadian one-dollar coin displays the Peacekeeping Monument.[84] This commemoration was followed by the 2001 $10 Canadian banknote named "remembrance and peacekeeping" that depicts a female peacekeeper.[85]

In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to United Nations peacekeepers, inspiring the creation of the Canadian Peacekeeping Service Medal in 1999 that has been awarded to over 75,000 Canadians.[86][87] Since 2008, after a campaign by the Canadian Association of Veterans in United Nations Peacekeeping, August 9 has officially been National Peacekeepers' Day in Canada,[88] with ceremonies taking place throughout the country at memorials and Peacekeeper Parks.[89]Vorlage:Clear

List of UN missions

Vorlage:See also Vorlage:Further Below is a list of high-profile UN peacekeeping missions undertaken by Canada from 1947 to present, with Canadian operational names listed when assigned.[90]

Date UN operation Location Conflict Canadian operation
1948–present United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) Middle East Israeli–Palestinian conflict (initially) Military observers[91]
1948–1950 United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNCOK) North Korea Korean conflict Several civilian and military personnel[92]
South Korea
1949–1979 United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) India Kashmir conflict Military observers and military personnel[93]
Pakistan
1956–1967 United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) Egypt Suez Crisis Truce Supervisory Organization (UNTSO)[94]
1960–1964 United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) Republic of the Congo Congo Crisis Long term mission MONUSCO[95]
1962–1963 United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) Netherlands New Guinea Transfer of sovereignty over Western New Guinea
following the West New Guinea dispute 		Security and law enforcement[96]
Indonesia
1964–present United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) Cyprus Cyprus dispute Operation SNOWGOOSE[97]
Northern Cyprus
1973–1979 United Nations Emergency Force, Middle East (UNEF II) Egypt Yom Kippur War logistics/ signals air and service units[98]
Israel
1974–present United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) Israel Maintains ceasefire following the Yom Kippur War. Operation DANACA[99]
Syria
1978 United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) Lebanon 1978 South Lebanon conflict Operation ANGORA[100]
1981–present Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) Sinai Peninsula Enforce the Egypt–Israel peace treaty Operation CALUMET[101]
1989–1990 United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) Namibia Namibian War of Independence Operation MATADOR[102]
1991–1994 United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) Western Sahara Western Sahara conflict Operation PYTHON[103]
1992–1993 United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) Cambodia Conflict in Cambodia Operation MARQUIS 1 and MARQUIS 2[104]
1992–1995 United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) Bosnia and Herzegovina Yugoslav Wars Operation Harmony [105]
Croatia
Republic of Macedonia
FR Yugoslavia
April 1992 – December 1992 United Nations Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I) Somalia Somali Civil War Operation CORDON[106]
December 1992 – May 1993 Unified Task Force (UNITAF) Somalia Somali Civil War Somalia Affair[107]
May 1993 – March 1995 United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) Somalia Somali Civil War Operation DELIVERANCE[108]
1993–1996 United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) Haiti 1991 Haitian coup d'état Operation CAULDRON - October 1993
Operation PIVOT - March 1995 to April 1996
Operation STANDARD - April 1996 to Sept 1996
soldiers and civilian police[109]
1993–1996 United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) Rwanda Rwandan Civil War Operation LANCE[110]
1994–1996 United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation (UNCRO) Croatia Croatian War of Independence Canadian Battle Group through Operation MEDUSA
Operation WALLEYE for support[111]
1995–1999 United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) Macedonia Aftermath of the Yugoslav wars Observer[112]
1995–2000 United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian War Canadian Forces personnel and RCMP and civilian police[113]
1996–1997 United Nations Support Mission in Haiti (UNSMIH) Haiti Stabilizing Haiti's democracy Operation STANDARD and Operation STABLE[114]
1997–2004 United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti (UNTMIH) Haiti Training of the Haitian National Police Operation CONSTABLE[115]
1997–2000 United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) Haiti Training of the Haitian National Police Operation COMPLIMENT[116]
1998–2000 United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic (MINURCA) Central African Republic Mutinies in the Central African Republic armed forces Operation PRUDENCE[117]
1999–2000 The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) East Timor 1999 East Timorese crisis Operation TOUCAN[118]
Indonesia
1999–2002 United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) Serbia Kosovo War Operation Kinetic[119] and Operation QUADRANT[120]
Kosovo
1999–2005 United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) Sierra Leone Sierra Leone Civil War Operation REPTILE[121]
1999–2010 United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) Democratic Republic of the Congo Second Congo War Operation CROCODILE[122]
2000–2002 The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) East Timor 1999 East Timorese crisis Operation TOUCAN[118]
Indonesia
2000-2003 United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) Eritrea Eritrean–Ethiopian War Operation Addition[123]
Ethiopia
2004 United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) Haiti Aftermath of the 2004 Haitian coup d'état Operation HALO[124]
2005–2009 United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS) Sudan Second Sudanese Civil War Operation SAFARI[125]
2008 United Nations/African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) Sudan War in Darfur Operation SATURN[126][127]
2018–2023 Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) Mali Mali War Operation PRESENCE[128]

See also

Portal: Canada – Politics

References

Vorlage:Reflist

Further reading

Vorlage:Refbegin

Vorlage:Refend

Vorlage:Commons category

Archives

Vorlage:CanadaPeacekeeping Vorlage:UN Peacekeeping Operations Vorlage:Canadian military history Vorlage:Foreign relations of Canada

  1. ↑ a b M. A. Rudderham: Canada and United Nations Peace Operations: Challenges, Opportunities, and Canada's Response. In: International Journal. 63. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. [Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council], 2008, ISSN 0020-7020, S. 359–384, doi:10.1177/002070200806300210, JSTOR:40204368 (jstor.org).
  2. ↑ a b c Canada and Peacekeeping. In: The Canadian Encyclopedia. 30. Juni 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024.
  3. ↑ Allen Sens, Peter Stoett: Global Politics. 5th Auflage. Nelson Education, 2013, ISBN 978-0-17-648249-7, S. 6 (google.com [abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024]).
  4. ↑ Plans at a glance and operating context. Global Affairs Canada, archiviert vom Original am 25. September 2020; abgerufen am 4. August 2020.
  5. ↑ Don Munton, Tom Keating: Internationalism and the Canadian Public. In: Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique. 34. Jahrgang, Nr. 3. Canadian Political Science Association, 2001, ISSN 0008-4239, S. 517–549, doi:10.1017/S0008423901777992, JSTOR:3233002 (jstor.org [abgerufen am 5. März 2024]).
  6. ↑ Adam Chapnick: The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations. UBC Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-7748-4049-1, S. 2–5 (google.com [abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024]).
  7. ↑ M. Gabryś, T. Soroka: Canada as a selective power: Canada's Role and International Position after 1989 (= Societas). Neriton, Wydawnictwo, 2017, ISBN 978-83-7638-792-5, S. 39 (google.com [abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024]).
  8. ↑ Greg Donaghy: The politics of accommodation: Canada, the Middle East, and the Suez Crisis, 1950–1956. In: International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis. 71. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, 2016, ISSN 0020-7020, S. 313–327, doi:10.1177/0020702016643261.
  9. ↑ Fred Gaffen: In The Eye of The Storm: A History of Canadian Peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne Publishers LTD., Toronto 1987, S. 43.
  10. ↑ Lane Anker: Peacekeeping and Public Opinion. Government of Canada, National Defence, Canadian Defence Academy, 20. Juni 2005, abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024.
  11. ↑ a b c Michael K Carroll: Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? In: International Journal. 71. Jahrgang, Nr. 1. [Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council], 2016, ISSN 0020-7020, S. 167–176, doi:10.1177/0020702015619857, JSTOR:44631172 (jstor.org [abgerufen am 28. Februar 2024]).
  12. ↑ Honouring 60 Years of United Nations Peacekeeping. United Nations, 29. Mai 2008, abgerufen am 25. März 2024.
  13. ↑ a b Linda McQuaig: Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire. Random House Digital, 2010, ISBN 978-0-385-67297-9, S. 50 (google.com).
  14. ↑ a b P. James, N. Michaud, M. O'Reilly: Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy. Lexington Books, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7391-5580-6, S. 177 (google.com).
  15. ↑ Canada and the United Nations: A Half Century Partnership. In: GAC. 25. April 2019;.
  16. ↑ Maria Teresa Gutiérrez-Haces: Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy (= Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes | International Canadian Studies Series). University of Ottawa Press, 2018, ISBN 978-0-7766-2722-9, S. 231–250 (openedition.org [abgerufen am 4. März 2024]).
  17. ↑ Canada's Current Role in World. Environics Institute for Survey Research, abgerufen am 4. März 2024.
  18. ↑ T.F. Keating: Canada and World Order: The Multilateralist Tradition in Canadian Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-19-541529-2, S. 108, 112.
  19. ↑ S. Whitworth: Men, Militarism, and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis (= Critical security studies). Lynne Rienner Pub., 2004, ISBN 978-1-58826-296-7, S. 91 (google.com [abgerufen am 5. März 2024]).
  20. ↑ M. Gabryś, T. Soroka: Canada as a selective power: Canada's Role and International Position after 1989 (= Societas). Neriton, Wydawnictwo, 2017, ISBN 978-83-7638-792-5, S. 40 (google.com).
  21. ↑ Fred Gaffen: In The Eye of The Storm: A History of Canadian Peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne Publishers, 1987, ISBN 978-0-88879-160-3, 43 (archive.org).
  22. ↑ T. Juneau, B. Momani: Middle Power in the Middle East: Canada's Foreign and Defence Policies in a Changing Region. University of Toronto Press, 2022, ISBN 978-1-4875-2847-8, S. 131 (google.com).
  23. ↑ a b c d Justin Massie: Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions. In: Canadian Journal of Political Science. 52. Jahrgang, Nr. 3. Cambridge University Press (CUP), 30. April 2019, ISSN 0008-4239, S. 575–594, doi:10.1017/s0008423919000040.
  24. ↑ a b c d K. Mingst, M.P. Karns: The United Nations In The Post-cold War Era, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis, 2019, ISBN 978-1-00-030674-3, S. 63 (google.com).
  25. ↑ Alan Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh: The United Nations Security Council and war: the evolution of thought and practice since 1945. Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-953343-5, S. 280 (google.com).
  26. ↑ a b Andrew Cohen: Lester B. Pearson. Penguin Canada, 2008, ISBN 978-0-14-317269-7, 116–125 (archive.org).
  27. ↑ Fred Gaffen: In the eye of the storm: a history of Canadian peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne, 1987, ISBN 978-0-88879-160-3, 40–41 (archive.org).
  28. ↑ Steven Kendall Holloway: Canadian Foreign Policy: Defining the National Interest. University of Toronto Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-55111-816-1, S. 102–103 (google.com).
  29. ↑ Terry M. Mays: Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping. Scarecrow Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8108-7516-6, S. 218– (google.com).
  30. ↑ W.J. Durch: Twenty-first-century Peace Operations. United States Institute of Peace and the Henry L. Stimson Center, 2006, ISBN 978-1-929223-91-6, S. 12 (google.com [abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024]).
  31. ↑ Canadian Heritage: The history of the National Flag of Canada. In: Canada.ca. 28. August 2017, abgerufen am 26. März 2024.
  32. ↑ A country nourished on self-doubt : documents in post-confederation Canadian history : Thorner, Thomas : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. In: Internet Archive. 25. März 2023, S. 48, abgerufen am 1. April 2024.
  33. ↑ A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009. Government of Canada, 2011, abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2015.
  34. ↑ Focus Canada (Final Report). Queen's University, 2010, S. 4 (PDF page 8), archiviert vom Original am 4. Februar 2016; abgerufen am 12. Dezember 2015.
  35. ↑ Andrew Cohen: While Canada Slept: How We Lost Our Place in the World. Random House Digital, 2011, ISBN 978-1-55199-587-8, S. 82 (google.com).
  36. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Command Military Armistice Commission (UNCMAC). In: Canada.ca. 14. März 2019, abgerufen am 24. März 2024.
  37. ↑ Andrew Preston: Balancing War and Peace: Canadian Foreign Policy and the Vietnam War, 1961–1965. In: Diplomatic History. 27. Jahrgang, Nr. 1. Oxford University Press, 2003, ISSN 0145-2096, S. 73–111, doi:10.1111/1467-7709.00340, JSTOR:24914431 (jstor.org [abgerufen am 29. Februar 2024]).
  38. ↑ Frederick H. Fleitz: Peacekeeping fiascoes of the 1990s: causes, solutions, and U.S. interests. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, ISBN 978-0-275-97367-4, S. 54–55 (google.com).
  39. ↑ Balkans. In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 23. März 2024.
  40. ↑ The International Police Peacekeeping and Peace Operations Program. In: Public Safety Canada / Sécurité publique Canada. 11. Januar 2019, abgerufen am 5. März 2024.
  41. ↑ Blanca Antonini: United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH). Hrsg.: Joachim A. Koops, Thierry Tardy, Norrie MacQueen. Oxford University Press, 9. Juli 2015, S. 12, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.53.
  42. ↑ a b The RCMP and overseas service. In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 14. März 2024.
  43. ↑ A. Walter Dorn, Joshua Libben: Preparing for peace: Myths and realities of Canadian peacekeeping training. In: International Journal. 73. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. [Sage Publications, Inc., Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council], 2018, ISSN 0020-7020, S. 257–281, doi:10.1177/0020702018788552, JSTOR:26499686 (jstor.org [abgerufen am 29. Februar 2024]).
  44. ↑ The Fall of Canadian Peacekeeping: Should It Be Revived? In: NAOC. 31. Juli 2019, abgerufen am 14. März 2024: „This event began the era of Canadian domination of peacekeeping. Canada ranks first in the amount of peacekeepers provided during the Cold War. During this time, Canada was also the only country to be a part of every UN peacekeeping operation. Canada provided 80,000 peacekeepers (10 percent of the UN total) before UN peacekeepers won the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize. All these accomplishments show that Canada used to be a world leader in peacekeeping.“
  45. ↑ The benefits of policing beyond Canadian borders. In: Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 15. Januar 2024, abgerufen am 29. Februar 2024.
  46. ↑ a b c Dr. Walter Dorn: Tracking the Promises -- Canada's Current Contributions to UN Peacekeeping. Canadian Forces College, 30. September 2023, abgerufen am 28. Februar 2024.
  47. ↑ Canadian Peacekeepers in Cyprus. In: The Canadian Encyclopedia. 5. Dezember 2023, abgerufen am 13. März 2024.
  48. ↑ National Defence: Canadian Armed Forces operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In: Canada.ca. 25. Juli 2016, abgerufen am 23. März 2024.
  49. ↑ 9 Killed in U.N. Plane Downed in Syria In: The New York Times, 10 August 1974. Abgerufen im 9 February 2021 
  50. ↑ Canadian Remember Lost Peacekeepers. In: Golan: The UNDOF Journal. Nr. 100, S. 11 (unmissions.org [PDF; abgerufen am 27. Februar 2024]).
  51. ↑ Haiti. In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 5. März 2024.
  52. ↑ Canada. In: United Nations Peacekeeping. Abgerufen am 15. März 2024: „Today (2024-03-15), Canada provides 59 uniformed personnel, including 18 women, to six UN peace operations making it the 69th-largest contributor. Its largest contribution of personnel is to the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), where 23 of its women and men now serve. Canada also contributes to the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA); the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS); UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO); the UN Integrated Office in Haiti (BINUH); and the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)“
  53. ↑ National Defence: Current Operations and Combined Military Exercises list. In: Canada.ca. 2024, abgerufen am 15. März 2024.
  54. ↑ Walter Dorn: Canadian Peacekeeping No Myth. In: Royal Canadian Military Institute. 17. März 2013, abgerufen am 28. Februar 2024.
  55. ↑ Lee Berthiaume: 'Promises were made and not kept,' former Liberals slam failure on peacekeeping. In: CP24. 13. Dezember 2020, abgerufen am 19. März 2024.
  56. ↑ Julie Vanderperre: Canada Is Still Wavering in Its Pledge to UN Peacekeeping. In: PassBlue. 20. April 2017, abgerufen am 19. März 2024.
  57. ↑ The Canadian Press, Lee Berthiaume: Canada slow to deliver UN 200 peacekeeping soldiers. In: CTVNews. 13. April 2023, abgerufen am 19. März 2024.
  58. ↑ Sherene Razack: From the. In: Cultural Anthropology. 15. Jahrgang, Nr. 1. [Wiley, American Anthropological Association], 2000, ISSN 0886-7356, S. 127–163, doi:10.1525/can.2000.15.1.127, JSTOR:656642 (jstor.org).
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  63. ↑ Sherene Razack: Dark threats and white knights: the Somalia Affair, peacekeeping, and the new imperialism. University of Toronto Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-8020-8663-1, S. 4 (google.com).
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  66. ↑ a b Smin Adams: The UN, Rwanda and the "Genocide Fax" – 20 Years Later. In: Huffington Post. 21. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 14. April 2015.
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  68. ↑ Peter MacKay: Peacekeeping is not suited to today's conflicts. In: Policy Options. 3. März 2021, abgerufen am 18. März 2024.
  69. ↑ Our history. In: United Nations Peacekeeping. 20. Oktober 2016, abgerufen am 15. März 2024.
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  72. ↑ Canada and the War in Afghanistan. In: The Canadian Encyclopedia. 11. September 2001, abgerufen am 25. März 2024: „In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.“
  73. ↑ National Defence: Canada in Afghanistan (2001-2014). In: Canada.ca. 30. August 2016, abgerufen am 25. März 2024.
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  75. ↑ Lane Anker: Peacekeeping and Public Opinion. Government of Canada, National Defence, Canadian Defence Academy, 20. Juni 2005, abgerufen am 4. April 2024.
  76. ↑ George Melnyk: Canada and Afghanistan: Peacemaking as Counter-Insurgency Warfare; A Study in Political Rhetoric. In: Peace Research. 43. Jahrgang, Nr. 1. Canadian Mennonite University, 2011, ISSN 0008-4697, S. 5–29, JSTOR:23607861 (jstor.org).
  77. ↑ a b Canada. Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade: Performance Report for the Period Ending ... 1999, ISBN 0-660-61432-4, S. 54.
  78. ↑ Global Affairs Canada: Statement to mark International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers. In: Canada.ca. 29. Mai 2023, abgerufen am 25. März 2024.
  79. ↑ Prime Minister advances progress toward a peaceful, healthy future at United Nations General Assembly. In: Prime Minister of Canada. 21. September 2023, abgerufen am 25. März 2024.
  80. ↑ Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, April 2023, abgerufen am 29. April 2023.
  81. ↑ National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials (NICMM). In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024.
  82. ↑ Somalia Medal. In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 4. März 2024.
  83. ↑ P. Gough: ' Invicta Pax ' Monuments, Memorials and Peace: an analysis of the Canadian Peacekeeping Monument, Ottawa. In: International Journal of Heritage Studies. 8. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, 2002, ISSN 1352-7258, S. 201–223, doi:10.1080/1352725022000018903.
  84. ↑ 1 DOLLAR. The Royal Canadian Mint, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  85. ↑ Canadian Journey Series $10 Note. In: Bank of Canada Museum. 20. Juli 2014, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  86. ↑ Canadian Peacekeeping Service Medal (CPSM). In: Veterans Affairs Canada. 25. März 2009, abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024.
  87. ↑ Christopher McCreery: The Canadian honours system. Dundurn Press, 2005, ISBN 978-1-55002-554-5, S. 181 (google.com).
  88. ↑ National Peacekeepers' Day Act. In: Site Web de la législation (Justice). 18. Juni 2008, abgerufen am 26. Februar 2024.
  89. ↑ Mishall Rehman: Peacekeepers' Day Marks 15th Anniversary. In: Canadian Military Family Magazine. 10. August 2023, abgerufen am 29. Februar 2024.
  90. ↑ National Defence: Military operations. In: Canada.ca. 2023, abgerufen am 20. März 2024.
  91. ↑ UN Truce Supervision Organization (Palestine)-Middle East: 1948. In: Home. 4. April 1949, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  92. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Commission on Korea (UNCOK). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  93. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP). In: Canada.ca. 14. März 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  94. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Emergency Force I (UNEF I). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  95. ↑ National Defence: Opération des Nations unies au Congo (ONUC). In: Canada.ca. 26. März 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  96. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea (UNSF). In: Canada.ca. 3. Juni 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  97. ↑ National Defence: Operation SNOWGOOSE. In: Canada.ca. 20. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  98. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Emergency Force II (UNEF II). In: Canada.ca. 15. Juli 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  99. ↑ National Defence: Operation DANACA. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  100. ↑ National Defence: Operation Angora. In: Canada.ca. 10. Juli 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  101. ↑ National Defence: Operation Calumet. In: Canada.ca. 20. August 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  102. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Transition Assistance Group Namibia. In: Canada.ca. 18. Juli 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  103. ↑ National Defence: Misión de las Naciones Unidas para el referéndum del Sàhara Occidental. In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  104. ↑ National Defence: MARQUIS (UNTAC). In: Canada.ca. 25. Oktober 2020, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  105. ↑ National Defence: Operation HARMONY. In: Canada.ca. 17. Dezember 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  106. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Operation in Somalia I. In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  107. ↑ Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia. In: The Canadian Encyclopedia. 25. Juli 2019, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  108. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Operations in Somalia II (UNOSOM II). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  109. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  110. ↑ National Defence: LANCE (UNAMIR). In: Canada.ca. 26. Oktober 2020, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  111. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Confidence Restoration Organization (UNCRO). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  112. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  113. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovenia (UNMIBH). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  114. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Support Mission in Haiti (UNSMIH). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  115. ↑ National Defence: Operation CONSTABLE. In: Canada.ca. 30. Juli 1997, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  116. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  117. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic (MINURCA). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  118. ↑ a b National Defence: Operation TOUCAN. In: Canada.ca. 5. November 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  119. ↑ National Defence: Operation Kinetic. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  120. ↑ National Defence: Operation QUADRANT. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  121. ↑ National Defence: Operation REPTILE. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  122. ↑ National Defence: Operation CROCODILE. In: Canada.ca. 20. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  123. ↑ National Defence: Operation ADDITION. In: Canada.ca. 21. November 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  124. ↑ National Defence: Operation HALO. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  125. ↑ National Defence: Operation SAFARI. In: Canada.ca. 22. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  126. ↑ National Defence: Operation SATURN. In: Canada.ca. 20. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  127. ↑ National Defence: United Nations Assistance Mission in Darfur (UNAMID). In: Canada.ca. 11. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
  128. ↑ National Defence: Operation PRESENCE. In: Canada.ca. 5. Juli 2018, abgerufen am 12. März 2024.
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