Operating system Wi-Fi support

Operating system Wi-Fi support is defined as the facilities an operating system may include for Wi-Fi networking. It usually consists of two pieces of software: device drivers and applications for configuration and management.

Driver support is typically provided by manufacturers of the chipset hardware or end manufacturers. Also available are Unix clones such as Linux, sometimes through open-source projects.

Configuration and management support consists of software to enumerate, join, and check the status of available Wi-Fi networks. This also includes support for various encryption methods. These systems are often provided by the operating system backed by a standard driver model. In most cases, drivers emulate an Ethernet device and use the configuration and management utilities built into the operating system. In cases where built-in configuration and management support is non-existent or inadequate, hardware manufacturers may include software to handle those tasks.

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows has comprehensive driver-level support for Wi-Fi, the quality of which depends on the hardware manufacturer. Hardware manufacturers almost always ship Windows drivers with their products. Windows ships with very few Wi-Fi drivers and depends on the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and device manufacturers to make sure users get drivers. Configuration and management depend on the version of Windows.

• Earlier versions of Windows, such as 98, ME, and 2000 do not have built-in configuration and management support and must depend on software provided by the manufacturer
• Microsoft Windows XP has built-in configuration and management support. The original shipping version of Windows XP included rudimentary support which was dramatically improved in Service Pack 2. Support for WPA2 and some other security protocols require updates from Microsoft. Many hardware manufacturers include their software and require the user to disable Windows’ built-in Wi-Fi support.
• Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10 have improved Wi-Fi support over Windows XP with a better interface and a suggestion to connect to a public Wi-Fi when no other connection is available.

macOS and Classic Mac OS

Apple was an early adopter of Wi-Fi, introducing its AirPort product line, based on the 802.11b standard, in July 1999. Apple later introduced AirPort Extreme, an implementation of 802.11g. All Apple computers, starting with the original iBook in 1999, either included AirPort 802.11 networking or were designed specifically to provide 802.11 networking with only the addition of the internal AirPort Card (or, later, an AirPort Extreme Card), connecting to the computer's built-in antennae. All Intel-based Macs either come with built-in AirPort Extreme or a slot for an AirPort card, and all portable Macs (all MacBooks and the earlier iBooks and PowerBooks) have included Wi-Fi for several years. In late 2006, Apple began shipping Macs with Broadcom Wi-Fi chips that also supported the Draft 802.11n standard, but this capability was disabled and Apple did not claim or advertise the hardware's capability until some time later when the draft had progressed further. At the January 2007 Macworld Expo, Apple announced that their computers would begin shipping with Draft 802.11n support. Systems shipped with this hidden capability can easily be unlocked through software, but due to the accounting requirements of Sarbanes-Oxley, Apple cannot freely add features to already-sold hardware and so must nominally sell an upgrade. This "upgrade" is included in the price of an AirPort Extreme Base Station for all computers owned by the purchaser, and Apple sells the "upgrade" separately (as the "AirPort Extreme 802.11n Enabler for Mac") for about US$2 in the United States and at similar prices elsewhere.

Apple produces the operating system, the computer hardware, the accompanying drivers, AirPort Wi-Fi base stations, and configuration and management software, simplifying Wi-Fi integration, set-up, and maintenance (including security updates). The built-in configuration and management are integrated throughout many of the operating system's applications and utilities. Mac OS X has Wi-Fi support, including WPA2, and ships with drivers for all of Apple's current and past AirPort Extreme and AirPort cards. Many third-party manufacturers make compatible hardware along with the appropriate drivers that work with Mac OS X's built-in configuration and management software. Other manufacturers distribute their software.

Apple's older Mac OS 9 supported AirPort and AirPort Extreme as well, and drivers exist for other equipment from other manufacturers, providing Wi-Fi options for earlier systems not designed for AirPort cards. Versions of Mac OS before Mac OS 9 predate Wi-Fi and do not have any Wi-Fi support, although some third-party hardware manufacturers have made drivers and connection software that allow earlier OSes to use Wi-Fi.

Open-source Unix-like systems

Linux, FreeBSD and similar Unix-like clones have much coarser support for Wi-Fi. Due to the open source nature of these operating systems, many different standards have been developed for configuring and managing Wi-Fi devices. The open source nature also fosters open source drivers which have enabled many third party and proprietary devices to work under these operating systems. See Comparison of Open Source Wireless Drivers for more information on those drivers.

• Linux has patchy Wi-Fi support. This is especially true for older kernel versions, such as the 2.6 series, which is still widely used by enterprise distributions. Native drivers for many Wi-Fi chipsets are available either commercially or at no cost, although some manufacturers don't produce a Linux driver, only a Windows one. Consequently, many popular chipsets either don't have a native Linux driver at all, or only have a half-finished one. For these, the freely available NdisWrapper and its commercial competitor DriverLoader allow Windows x86 and 64 bit variants NDIS drivers to be used on x86-based Linux systems and 86_64 architectures as of January 6, 2005. As well as the lack of native drivers, some Linux distributions do not offer a convenient user interface and configuring Wi-Fi on them can be a clumsy and complicated operation compared to configuring wired Ethernet drivers. This is changing with the adoption of utilities such as NetworkManager and wicd that allow users to automatically switch between networks, without root access or command-line invocation of the traditional wireless tools. But some distributions include a large number of preinstalled drivers, like Ubuntu.
• FreeBSD has Wi-Fi support similar to Linux. FreeBSD 7.0 introduced full support for WPA and WPA2, although in some cases this is driver dependent. FreeBSD comes with drivers for many wireless cards and chipsets, including those made by Atheros, Intel Centrino, Ralink, Cisco, D-link, and Netgear, and provides support for others through the ports collection. FreeBSD also has "Project Evil", which provides the ability to use Windows x86 NDIS drivers on x86-based FreeBSD systems as NdisWrapper does on Linux, and Windows amd64 NDIS drivers on amd64-based systems.
• NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFly BSD have Wi-Fi support similar to FreeBSD. Code for some of the drivers, as well as the kernel framework to support them, is mostly shared among the 4 BSDs.
• Haiku has preliminary Wi-Fi support since September 2009.
• Solaris and OpenSolaris have the Wireless Networking Project to provide Wi-Fi drivers and support.
• Android has built in support for WiFi, with it being preferred over mobile telephony networks.
• Unison OS has built in support for embedded WiFi for a broad set of modules, with it being preferred over mobile telephony networks (which also have off the shelf support). Mixed WiFi and Bluetooth for embedded systems is also provided.

See also

• List of WLAN channels
• Wireless access point

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE THIS I WILL MYSELF REMOVE THIS WITHIN 30-40 MINUTEs (HAVE SOME MERCY) I PROMISE

Q1.List the features of linux os. Linux is an open-source and free operating system whose core component is the Linux kernel. Its design and characteristics are similar to the Unix operating system. For that reason, it is called a Unix-like operating system. It creates a connection between the hardware and the user and executes the applications.

Free Operating System, Open-source operating System, Flexibility ,Customizability ,Stability ,Lightweight , Portability, Graphical User Interface, Multiuser and Multitask support, Well Structure File System, Security , Accessible Update

Q2. What are the various linux distributions.

There are numerous Linux distributions, each with its own unique features, focus, and target audience. Some popular Linux distributions include:

Ubuntu ,Debian , CentOS ,Fedora ,Arch Linux ,openSUSE , Linux Mint ,Elementary OS

Q3.Explain the following llinux commands:

cat: This command is short for "concatenate" and is used to display the contents of one or more files to the standard output

rm: The "rm" command stands for "remove" and is used to delete files or directories from the file system.

mv: This command stands for "move" and is used to move files or directories from one location to another.

cp: The "cp" command stands for "copy" and is used to copy files or directories from one location to another.

mkdir: This command stands for "make directory" and is used to create new directories (folders) in the file system.

cd: The "cd" command stands for "change directory" and is used to change the current working directory in the terminal.

date: This command is used to display or set the system date and time.

time: The "time" command is used to measure the execution time of a command or program.

bc: This command stands for "basic calculator" and is a command-line calculator with support for mathematical expressions and functions.

history: The "history" command is used to display a list of previously executed commands in the terminal session.

Q5.How to create Users in linux.

In Linux, you can create users using the `useradd` command followed by the username. Here's a basic guide to create a user:

1. Open a terminal window.

. Use the `useradd` command followed by the username you want to create. For example, to create a user named "john", you would type:

  sudo useradd john

. Optionally, you can set a password for the new user using the `passwd` command:

  sudo passwd john

  You'll be prompted to enter and confirm the password for the user.

. Once the user is created, you can switch to that user using the `su` command followed by the username:

  su - john

  You'll be prompted to enter the password for the user.

. To switch back to your original user, simply type:

  Exit

Q6.How do you set file permission in linux. Explain with an example.

In Linux, file permissions can be set using the `chmod` command. The `chmod` command allows you to specify permissions for the owner of the file, the group associated with the file, and other users.

Here's how you can set file permissions using `chmod` with an example:

1.   Open a terminal window.

2.   . Use the `chmod` command followed by the permission mode and the filename. The permission mode consists of three digits, each representing the permissions for the owner, group, and others, respectively.

  - The first digit represents the owner's permissions.

  - The second digit represents the group's permissions.

  - The third digit represents the permissions for others.

  Each digit can be calculated by adding the numeric values of the permissions:

   Read (r) = 4 , Write (w) = 2 ,Execute (x) = 1

  For example:

  - `chmod 755 filename` gives the owner full permissions (read, write, execute), and read and execute permissions to the group and others.

  - `chmod 644 filename` gives the owner read and write permissions, and read-only permissions to the group and others.

. Here's a specific example:

  chmod 755 myfile.txt

  This command sets the permissions of the file "myfile.txt" so that the owner has read, write, and execute permissions (7), and the group and others have read and execute permissions (5).

. You can verify the permissions of the file using the `ls -l` command, which will display detailed information about the file, including its permissions.

Q7.What is a package and how to install it in linux.

In Linux, a package is a compressed archive file that contains software, along with metadata such as dependencies, version information, and installation scripts. Packages are used to distribute and install software on Linux systems efficiently.

There are several package management systems used in Linux distributions, such as:

Here's a general overview of how to install a package in Linux using the APT package manager (commonly used in Debian-based distributions like Ubuntu):

Update Package Lists: Before installing a new package, it's a good practice to update the local package lists to ensure you're installing the latest version of the software. You can do this by running:

  sudo apt updat

Search for the Package: If you're not sure about the exact name of the package you want to installE, you can search for it using:

  apt search package_name

Install the Package: Once you've found the package you want to install, you can install it using

  sudo apt install package_name

Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you want to install.

Provide Administrator Privileges: You'll likely need to provide your password to authorize the installation process since you're using the `sudo` command to run the installation with administrative privileges.

Follow On-Screen Instructions: Depending on the package and its dependencies, you may be prompted to confirm the installation or make choices during the installation process. Follow any on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Verify Installation: Once the installation is complete, you can verify that the package was installed successfully by running:

  dpkg -l | grep package_name

Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you installed. This command will list all installed packages matching the specified name.

Q8.Explain compress and uncompress files in linux os.

In Linux, you can compress and uncompress files using various compression utilities. Two commonly used utilities for this purpose are `gzip` and `gunzip`, which are used to compress and uncompress files respectively using the gzip compression algorithm.

Here's how you can compress and uncompress files using `gzip` and `gunzip`:

Compressing Files with gzip (`gzip`):

Compress a Single File:

  To compress a single file, you can use the `gzip` command followed by the name of the file you want to compress.

  This will compress `file.txt` and create a compressed file named `file.txt.gz`.

Compress Multiple Files:

  You can also compress multiple files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gzip` command.

Uncompressing Files with gunzip (`gunzip`):

Uncompress a Single File

  To uncompress a single compressed file, you can use the `gunzip` command followed by the name of the compressed file you want to uncompress.

Uncompress Multiple Files:

  Similar to compressing, you can uncompress multiple compressed files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gunzip` command.

Additionally, you can combine the `tar` command with `gzip` to create compressed archives of directories or multiple files.

  This command will create a compressed archive named `archive.tar.gz` containing the contents of the `directory` directory.

  This command will uncompress and extract the contents of the `archive.tar.gz` compressed archive.

Q9Explain file attributes in linux.

In Linux, file attributes determine various permissions and properties associated with files and directories. These attributes control who can access, modify, or execute a file, as well as other properties such as ownership and timestamps. The main file attributes in Linux are:

Permission Bits:

  Permission bits define who can read, write, or execute a file. There are three types of permission bits: **user**, **group**, and **others**. Each type has three permission settings: **read (r)**, **write (w)**, and **execute (x)**. These permissions are represented by characters in the file's permission string.

Ownership:

  Every file in Linux is associated with an owner and a group. The owner is usually the user who created the file, while the group determines which users belong to a specific group that has access to the file.

Timestamps:

  Every file has three timestamps associated with it:

Access Time (atime)**: The last time the file was accessed.

Modification Time (mtime)**: The last time the file's contents were modified.

Change Time (ctime)**: The last time the file's metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) was changed.

File Type:

  Linux recognizes different file types, such as regular files, directories, symbolic links, devices, sockets, and named pipes.

Extended Attributes:

  Extended attributes provide additional metadata beyond the standard file attributes.

ACLs (Access Control Lists):

  ACLs allow for more granular control over file permissions by defining access rules beyond the standard user, group, and others permissions.

Q10. Write the differences between linux ,mac and windows os.

key differences between Linux, macOS, and Windows operating systems:

Kernel and Core System:

Linux: Linux is built around the Linux kernel, which is open-source and free to use. It comes in many distributions (distros), each with its package management system and user interface.

  - macOS: macOS is based on the Unix-like Darwin kernel, developed by Apple. It is proprietary and only runs on Apple hardware.

  - Windows: Windows is developed by Microsoft and runs on the Windows NT kernel. It is also proprietary and is the most widely used desktop operating system.

User Interface:

  - Linux: Linux offers a variety of desktop environments (DEs) like GNOME, KDE, XFCE, etc., each with its look and feel. Some distributions offer a choice of DE during installation.

  - macOS: macOS has a unified user interface called Aqua, known for its sleek design and ease of use.

  - Windows: Windows provides a customizable desktop environment with a Start menu, taskbar, and window management features.

Software Ecosystem:

  - Linux: Linux offers a vast array of open-source software available through package managers like APT, YUM, or Pacman. It also supports running Windows software through compatibility layers like Wine.

  - macOS: macOS has a robust software ecosystem with access to the Mac App Store and third-party software. It also supports running Unix and Linux software through tools like Homebrew or MacPorts.

  - Windows: Windows has the largest software ecosystem, with compatibility for a wide range of applications and games. It has the Microsoft Store for apps and supports running Linux software through Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL).

QB3. Explain BASH and its functions.

The. Linux Bash is also known as 'Bourne-again Shell.' It is a command language

interpreter for the Linux based system. It is a replacement of Bourne shell (sh). It was developed

under the GNU Project and written by Brian Fox. Nowadays, Bash is the default user shell of

most of the Linux distributions.

The Bash is a command language interpreter as well as a programming language. It

supports variables, functions, and flow control, like other programming languages. It can also

read and execute the commands from a file, which is called a shell script.

o It provides command-line editing

o It contains unlimited size command history

o It provides Job Control

o It facilitates with Shell Functions and Aliases

o It provides the indexed arrays of unlimited size

o It contains integer arithmetic in any base from 2 to 64

4. Explain the following linux commands:

i. head: used to display the first part of the file

ii. tail: used to display the last ten lines of one or more files

iii. wc (with all options): counting the lines, words and characters in a file

options: 1. -l: prints the number of lines present in the file

2. -w: prints the number of words present in the file

3. -c: displays count of bytes present in the file

4. -m: displays count of characters from a file

5. -version: displays the version of wc which is currently running on your system

iv. cmp: used to compare the 2 files byte to byte and helps you to find out whether

the 2 files are identical or not

v. sudo: allows you to run programs with the security privileges of another user

vi. bc: used for command line calculator

vii. tar: compresses files in linux

viii. pwd: prints the working directory

ix. grep: used for searching and manipulating text patterns within files

x. cut: for cutting out the sections from each line of files

xi. ls –l: used to list information about files and directories within the file system

QB5. Differentiate between soft link and hard link.

Soft Link

Soft Link is an alias to the original file similar to the shortcut feature in the Windows OS.

It contains the location to the original file but not the contents.

Soft Links have different Inode values pointing to the original value.

Links can be established across filesystem.

The link becomes inaccessible when the original file is removed.

Soft links can link both to a file or a directory.

Hard Link

Hard Link is the exact replica of the original file it is pointing to.

It contains the actual contents of the file.

Hard Links share the same Inode value pointing to the same file location.

Links cannot be established outside the filesystem.

Changes in the hard linked file will reflect in the other files.

Hard links can only link to a file, not a directory.

QB6. Explain the backup and recovery tools available in linux.

• Tar: this unix like command creates and manipulates file archives

• Rsync: tool for file synchronization and backups

• Dd: data duplicator creates disc images and backups

• Cpio: tool creates and extracts archives

• Dump and restore: backup at the file system level

QB7. Explain setting file permissions in detail

To change file and directory permissions, use the command chmod (change mode). The owner of

a file can change the permissions for user (u), group (g), or others (o) by adding (+) or

subtracting (-) the read, write, and execute permissions.

Access class

u (user)

g (group)

o (other)

a (all: u, g, and o)

Operator

+ (add access)

- (remove access)

= (set exact access)

Access Type

r (read)

w (write)

x (execute)

QB8. List the tools for system monitoring.

• Top: top command displays the linux processes

• Vmstat: virtual memory statistics

• W: to find out who is logged on and what they are doing

• Uptime: tells the linux system has been running

• Ps: displays the linux processes

QB9. Explain different types of users.

In linux, there are three different user types:

• Root: the main user account in linux. It is automatically created during

installation. It has the highest privilege in the system. It can do any

administrative work and can access any service.

• Regular: normal user account. During installation one regular user is created

automatically. After installation, we can create as many regular user account

as required. It has moderate privilege. It is used for routine works

• Service: these accounts are created by installation packages whey they are

installed. These accounts are used by services to run processes and execute

the functions. These are neither intended nor should be used for routine work

ASSIGNMENT 1A[edit]

. **System Requirements for Installing Windows 10/11:**   The system requirements for installing Windows 10/11 typically include:

**Processor**: 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster processor or System on a Chip (SoC)

**RAM**: 1 gigabyte (GB) for 32-bit or 2 GB for 64-bit

**Hard disk space**: 16 GB for 32-bit OS or 20 GB for 64-bit OS

**Graphics card**: DirectX 9 or later with WDDM 1.0 driver

**Display**: 800x600 resolution

These are the minimum requirements. For optimal performance, especially with Windows 11, it's recommended to have higher specifications, especially in terms of processor speed, RAM, and available disk space. Additionally, Windows 11 has specific requirements for features like TPM (Trusted Platform Module) 2.0 and Secure Boot for some devices. It's advisable to check the official Microsoft documentation for the most up-to-date requirements.

2. **Differences Between Standard and Administrator User Accounts:**

  Standard User Account:

A standard user account in Windows is designed to provide basic access to the system while limiting the ability to make significant changes. Here are some key characteristics:

1. Limited Privileges: Standard user accounts have restricted access to system files, settings, and administrative tools. They can typically perform everyday tasks like browsing the web, using applications, and creating documents.

2. Cannot Install Software: Standard users cannot install or uninstall software that affects all users on the system. They may need to provide an administrator password to install certain applications.

3. No System-wide Changes: Standard users cannot make changes to system settings that affect all users on the computer. This includes settings related to security, networking, and system preferences.

4. Increased Security: By limiting the privileges of standard user accounts, Windows helps to prevent accidental or intentional changes that could harm the system or compromise security.

Administrator User Account:

An administrator user account, on the other hand, has full control over the system and is intended for users who need to manage the computer. Here are the main differences:

1. Elevated Privileges: Administrator accounts have unrestricted access to system files, settings, and administrative tools. They can make changes that affect all users on the computer.

2. Install Software: Administrators can install and uninstall software without needing permission from another user. They have the authority to make changes to the system configuration as needed.

3. Manage System Settings: Administrator accounts can modify system settings, configure security options, and perform maintenance tasks that affect the entire system.

4. Responsibility for System Maintenance: With great power comes great responsibility. Administrators are responsible for maintaining the system, ensuring it runs smoothly, and addressing any issues that arise.

In summary, the primary difference between standard and administrator user accounts lies in the level of access and control they provide over the system. Standard accounts offer limited access for everyday use, while administrator accounts provide full control for managing the system.

3. **Steps to Create a New User Account:**

   Standard User Account:

A standard user account in Windows is designed to provide basic access to the system while limiting the ability to make significant changes. Here are some key characteristics:

1. Limited Privileges: Standard user accounts have restricted access to system files, settings, and administrative tools. They can typically perform everyday tasks like browsing the web, using applications, and creating documents.

2. Cannot Install Software: Standard users cannot install or uninstall software that affects all users on the system. They may need to provide an administrator password to install certain applications.

3. No System-wide Changes: Standard users cannot make changes to system settings that affect all users on the computer. This includes settings related to security, networking, and system preferences.

4. Increased Security: By limiting the privileges of standard user accounts, Windows helps to prevent accidental or intentional changes that could harm the system or compromise security.

Administrator User Account:

An administrator user account, on the other hand, has full control over the system and is intended for users who need to manage the computer. Here are the main differences:

1. Elevated Privileges: Administrator accounts have unrestricted access to system files, settings, and administrative tools. They can make changes that affect all users on the computer.

2. Install Software: Administrators can install and uninstall software without needing permission from another user. They have the authority to make changes to the system configuration as needed.

3. Manage System Settings: Administrator accounts can modify system settings, configure security options, and perform maintenance tasks that affect the entire system.

4. Responsibility for System Maintenance: With great power comes great responsibility. Administrators are responsible for maintaining the system, ensuring it runs smoothly, and addressing any issues that arise.

In summary, the primary difference between standard and administrator user accounts lies in the level of access and control they provide over the system. Standard accounts offer limited access for everyday use, while administrator accounts provide full control for managing the system.

4. **Ways to Access System Settings in Windows OS:**

  Accessing system settings in Windows OS can be done through various methods, providing users with flexibility and convenience. Here are some common ways to access system settings:

1. **Start Menu:**

   - Click on the Start button located at the bottom-left corner of the screen.

   - Select the Settings icon (usually represented by a gear or cogwheel).

   - This will open the Settings app, where you can access various system settings categories.

2. **Control Panel:**

   - Open the Control Panel by typing "Control Panel" in the search bar located next to the Start menu and pressing Enter.

   - Alternatively, you can access it by right-clicking on the Start button and selecting "Control Panel."

   - The Control Panel provides access to a wide range of system settings and administrative tools.

3. **Action Center:**

   - Click on the Action Center icon located in the system tray (usually represented by a speech bubble or notification icon) on the taskbar.

   - Select "All settings" from the quick actions panel.

   - This will open the Settings app where you can access system settings.

4. **Keyboard Shortcut:**

   - Press the Windows key + I shortcut on your keyboard.

   - This will directly open the Settings app, bypassing the Start menu.

5. **Windows Search:**

   - Click on the search bar located next to the Start menu or press the Windows key + S shortcut.

   - Type the name of the setting or category you want to access (e.g., "Display settings," "Network settings").

   - Windows will display relevant search results, including direct links to specific system settings.

6. **Run Command:**

   - Press the Windows key + R shortcut to open the Run dialog.

   - Type "control" and press Enter to open the Control Panel.

   - Alternatively, you can type the name of a specific setting (e.g., "control /name Microsoft.NetworkAndSharingCenter") to directly open that setting.

These methods provide users with multiple options to access system settings in Windows OS, allowing them to customize and manage their system according to their preferences and requirements.

5. **Steps to Enable Hyper-V (Virtual Machine Monitor) in Windows OS:**

   Enabling Hyper-V in Windows OS allows users to create and manage virtual machines. Here are the steps to enable Hyper-V:

1. **Check System Requirements:**

   Before enabling Hyper-V, ensure that your system meets the hardware and software requirements. Your CPU must support virtualization technology (Intel VT-x or AMD-V), and virtualization must be enabled in the BIOS. Also, ensure that you are running a compatible version of Windows (e.g., Windows 10 Pro, Enterprise, or Education for client Hyper-V).

2. **Enable Hyper-V Feature:**

   - Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Start menu or pressing Windows key + X and selecting "Control Panel."

   - Click on "Programs" or "Programs and Features," then select "Turn Windows features on or off."

   - In the Windows Features dialog box, scroll down and locate "Hyper-V."

   - Check the box next to "Hyper-V" to enable it. You may also need to check additional components like "Hyper-V Management Tools" if desired.

   - Click "OK" to apply the changes. Windows will install the Hyper-V feature and may prompt you to restart your computer.

3. **Restart Your Computer:**

   - After enabling Hyper-V, restart your computer to complete the installation process. Save any ongoing work and close all applications before restarting.

4. **Verify Hyper-V Installation:**

   - Once your computer has restarted, you can verify that Hyper-V is installed and enabled.

   - Open the Start menu and search for "Hyper-V Manager" or "Hyper-V Quick Create."

   - If Hyper-V Manager or Hyper-V Quick Create appears in the search results, it means that Hyper-V is successfully installed and enabled on your system.

5. **Configure Hyper-V Settings (Optional):**

   - After enabling Hyper-V, you can configure additional settings through the Hyper-V Manager.

   - Open Hyper-V Manager from the Start menu or by searching for it.

   - In Hyper-V Manager, you can configure virtual switches, virtual machine settings, and other Hyper-V options according to your requirements.

By following these steps, you can enable Hyper-V in Windows OS and start creating and managing virtual machines for various purposes such as software testing, development, or running multiple operating systems on a single physical machine.

6. **Creating and Configuring Virtual Machines:**

   Creating and configuring virtual machines (VMs) allows users to run multiple operating systems and software environments on a single physical machine. Here are the steps to create and configure virtual machines using Hyper-V in Windows OS:

1. **Open Hyper-V Manager:**

   - Open the Start menu and search for "Hyper-V Manager."

   - Click on "Hyper-V Manager" to launch the application.

2. **Create a New Virtual Machine:**

   - In Hyper-V Manager, select your Hyper-V host in the left pane.

   - Click on "Action" in the menu bar and choose "New" > "Virtual Machine" to open the New Virtual Machine Wizard.

3. **Specify Virtual Machine Name and Location:**

   - In the New Virtual Machine Wizard, click "Next" to begin.

   - Enter a name for your virtual machine and choose a location to store its files.

   - Click "Next" to proceed.

4. **Configure Generation:**

   - Choose the generation of the virtual machine. Generation 1 provides compatibility with a wide range of guest operating systems, while Generation 2 offers UEFI-based firmware and other advanced features.

   - Click "Next" to continue.

5. **Assign Memory (RAM):**

   - Specify the amount of memory (RAM) to allocate to the virtual machine.

   - Consider the requirements of the guest operating system and applications when allocating memory.

   - Click "Next" to proceed.

6. **Configure Networking:**

   - Choose a virtual switch to connect the virtual machine to the network.

   - You can create a new virtual switch or use an existing one.

   - Click "Next" to continue.

7. **Connect Virtual Hard Disk:**

   - Create a new virtual hard disk (VHDX) for the virtual machine or use an existing one.

   - Specify the size of the virtual hard disk and choose the location to store it.

   - Click "Next" to proceed.

8. **Install Operating System:**

   - Choose how to install the operating system on the virtual machine:

     - Install an operating system later: You can install the operating system manually later.

     - Install an operating system from a bootable image file: Use an ISO file to install the operating system.

   - Click "Next" to continue.

9. **Complete the Wizard:**

   - Review the virtual machine settings on the summary page.

   - Click "Finish" to create the virtual machine.

   - Hyper-V will create the virtual machine with the specified settings.

10. **Configure Additional Settings (Optional):**

    - After creating the virtual machine, you can configure additional settings such as processor, display, and integration services through the Hyper-V Manager interface.

11. **Start the Virtual Machine:**

    - Once the virtual machine is created and configured, select it in Hyper-V Manager.

    - Click on "Connect" to open the virtual machine console.

    - Click on "Start" to power on the virtual machine and begin using it.

By following these steps, you can create and configure virtual machines using Hyper-V in Windows OS, enabling you to run multiple operating systems and software environments on a single physical machine for various purposes.

7. **Brief Explanation of Task Manager:**

   Task Manager is a system utility tool in Windows operating systems that provides users with real-time information about the performance and resource usage of their computer. It offers a comprehensive view of running applications, processes, and services, allowing users to monitor and manage system performance efficiently. Here's a brief explanation of its key features:

1. **Processes Tab:** Displays a list of all currently running processes along with their CPU, memory, disk, and network usage. Users can identify resource-intensive processes, terminate unresponsive applications, and prioritize tasks.

2. **Performance Tab:** Provides graphical representations of CPU, memory, disk, and network usage over time. Users can monitor system performance in real-time and identify any bottlenecks or resource constraints.

3. **App History Tab:** Shows resource usage statistics for each application over time, allowing users to track resource consumption patterns and identify potential performance issues.

4. **Startup Tab:** Lists programs that automatically start with Windows. Users can enable or disable startup programs to improve system startup time and overall performance.

5. **Users Tab:** Displays information about currently logged-in users and their resource usage. Administrators can monitor user activity, manage user sessions, and log off users if necessary.

6. **Details Tab:** Provides detailed information about each running process, including its PID (Process ID), CPU and memory usage, and executable path. Users can manage processes, set process priorities, and end tasks if needed.

7. **Services Tab:** Lists system services along with their status (running, stopped, or paused). Users can start, stop, or restart services, modify service startup settings, and troubleshoot service-related issues.

8. **Performance Graphs:** Displays graphical representations of CPU, memory, disk, and network usage in real-time. Users can quickly assess system performance and identify any abnormal behavior or spikes in resource usage.

Overall, Task Manager is an essential tool for monitoring system performance, troubleshooting issues, and optimizing resource usage in Windows operating systems. It empowers users to manage running processes, identify performance bottlenecks, and ensure the smooth operation of their computers.

ASSIGNMENT-1B:[edit]

1.   Explain process control block with a neat block diagram.

While creating a process, the operating system performs several operations. To identify the processes, it assigns a process identification number (PID) to each process. As the operating system supports multi-programming, it needs to keep track of all the processes. For this task, the process control block (PCB) is used to track the process’s execution status.

1.      Pointer: It is a stack pointer that is required to be saved when the process is switched from one state to another to retain the current position of the process.[edit]

2.     Process state: It stores the respective state of the process.

3.      Process number: Every process is assigned a unique id known as process ID or PID which stores the process identifier.[edit]

4.     Program counter: It stores the counter,: which contains the address of the next instruction that is to be executed for the process.

5.      Register: Registers in the PCB, it is a data structure. When a processes is running and it’s time slice expires, the current value of process specific registers would be stored in the PCB and the process would be swapped out. When the process is scheduled to be run, the register values is read from the PCB and written to the CPU registers. This is the main purpose of the registers in the PCB.[edit]

6.     Memory limits: This field contains the information about memory management system used by the operating system. This may include page tables, segment tables, etc.

7.     Open files list : This information includes the list of files opened for a process.

2.     Explain different types of schedulers.

Process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU and the selection of another process based on a particular strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating system. Such operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

Types of Process Schedulers[edit]

There are three types of process schedulers:

1.  Long Term or Job Scheduler[edit]

It brings the new process to the ‘Ready State’. It controls the Degree of Multi- programming, i.e., the number of processes present in a ready state at any point in time. It is important that the long-term scheduler make a careful selection of both I/O and CPU-bound processes. I/O-bound tasks are which use much of their time in input and output operations while CPU-bound processes are which spend their time on the CPU. The job scheduler increases efficiency by maintaining a balance between the two. They operate at a high level and are typically used in batch- processing systems.

2.    Short-Term or CPU Scheduler[edit]

It is responsible for selecting one process from the ready state for scheduling it on the running state. Note: Short-term scheduler only selects the process to schedule it doesn’t load the process on running. Here is when all the scheduling algorithms are used. The CPU scheduler is responsible for ensuring no starvation due to high burst time processes.

3.    Medium-Term Scheduler[edit]

It is responsible for suspending and resuming the process. It mainly does swapping (moving processes from main memory to disk and vice versa). Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix or because a change in memory requirements has overcommitted available memory, requiring memory to be freed

up. It is helpful in maintaining a perfect balance between the I/O bound and the CPU bound. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming.

3.  List the criteria for scheduling.

CPU scheduling has several criteria’s:

·       CPU utilization: keeping the CPU as busy as possible

·       Throughput: measure of word done by the CPU is the num of processes being executed and completed per unit of time

·       Turnaround time: turnaround time=completion time-arrival time

·       Waiting time: waiting time=turnaround time-burst time

·       Response time: CPU allocation time-arrival time

·       Completion time: the time when the process stops executing

·       Priority: OS assigns priorities to processes

·       Predictability: given process always should run in the same amount of time under a system load

4.  Explain necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur

The necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur are often referred to as the "Four Coffman Conditions," named after computer scientist Edward G. Coffman Jr. These conditions are as follows:

·       Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable mode, meaning only one process can use it at a time.

·       Hold and Wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire additional resources held by other processes.

·       No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process; they must be released voluntarily by the process holding them.

·       Circular Wait: There must be a circular chain of two or more processes, each of which is waiting for a resource held by the next process in the chain.

5.  Explain swapping with neat diagram

To increase CPU utilization in multiprogramming, a memory management scheme known as swapping can be used. Swapping is the process of bringing a process into memory and then temporarily copying it to the disc after it has run for a while.[edit]

Swapping has been subdivided into two concepts: swap-in and swap-out.

·       Swap-out is a technique for moving a process from RAM to the hard disc.

·       Swap-in is a method of transferring a program from a hard disc to main memory, or RAM

ADVANTAGES:

1.  it utilizes the main memory

2.  it utilizes the virtual memory in an effective way

3. can be used in priority-based scheduling to optimize the swapping process

DIS:

1. chances of number of page faults occur

6.  What are the goals of protection

2. low processing performance

·       Therefore, protection is a method of safeguarding data and processes against malicious and intentional intrusion. For that purpose, we have protection policies that are either designed by the system itself or specified by the management itself or are imposed by the programmers individually to protect their programs with extra safety. ·       It also gives a multiprogramming OS the sense of safety that is required by its users to share common space like files or directories. ·       The policies bind how the processes are to access the resources present in the computer system, resources like CPU, memory, software and even the OS. Both the OS designer and the application programmer are responsible for this. However, these policies always change from time to time.

·     To ensure data safety, process and program safety against illegal user access, or even program access, we need protection. ·     It is to ensure that programs, resources and data are accessed only according to the systems’ policies. ·       It is  also  to  ensure  that  there  are  no  access  rights’  breach,  no unauthorized access to the existing data, no virus or worms. ·     There can be security threats such as unauthorized reading, writing, modification or preventing the system to work properly for the authorized users themselves.

Need of protection OS :                                                                                                                  7.  Explain the various protection principles

Protection is an essential aspect of an operating system, which ensures the safety and security of system resources and data. It provides a way to control access to resources and ensure that unauthorized access is prevented.

There are three main components of protection in an operating system: domain of protection, association, and authentication.[edit]

·       Domain of protection: it is set of resources that are controlled by a particular protection mechanism. In OS, a domain can be defined as a set of objects that are accessed by a set of subjects

·       Association: is the mapping of a sub to a domain of protection. It is the relationship between a sub and the set of resources that it is authorized to access

·       In summary, protection in an OS is achieved through the combination of domain of protection, association and authentication

8.  Explain Threads.

A thread is a single sequence stream within a process. Threads are also called lightweight processes as they possess some of the properties of processes.[edit]

Each thread belongs to exactly one process. In an operating system that supports multithreading, the process can consist of many threads. But threads can be effective only if the CPU is more than 1 otherwise two threads have to context switch for that single CPU.

Components of Threads These are the basic components of the Operating System. ·       Stack Space ·       Register Set ·       Program Counter

Why do we need thread?

Þ Run in parallel improving the application performance.

Þ They can share common data so they do not need to use inter-process communication

Þ  Priority can be assigned to the threads just like process

Þ  Each thread has its own THREAD CONTROL BLOCK (TCB)

9.  Explain single level and hierarchical directory structure wrt file system

The single-level directory is the simplest directory structure. In it, all files are contained in the same directory which makes it easy to support and understand.

A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the number of files increases or when the system has more than one user. Since all the files are in the same directory, they must have a unique name. If two users call their dataset test, then the unique name rule violated.

Advantages:[edit]

Logical organization Increased efficiency Improved security

OS IMP QUESTIONS

ASSIGNMENT-1B:[edit]

1.   Explain process control block with a neat block diagram.

While creating a process, the operating system performs several operations. To identify the processes, it assigns a process identification number (PID) to each process. As the operating system supports multi-programming, it needs to keep track of all the processes. For this task, the process control block (PCB) is used to track the process’s execution status.

1.      Pointer: It is a stack pointer that is required to be saved when the process is switched from one state to another to retain the current position of the process.[edit]

2.     Process state: It stores the respective state of the process.

3.      Process number: Every process is assigned a unique id known as process ID or PID which stores the process identifier.[edit]

4.     Program counter: It stores the counter,: which contains the address of the next instruction that is to be executed for the process.

5.      Register: Registers in the PCB, it is a data structure. When a processes is running and it’s time slice expires, the current value of process specific registers would be stored in the PCB and the process would be swapped out. When the process is scheduled to be run, the register values is read from the PCB and written to the CPU registers. This is the main purpose of the registers in the PCB.[edit]

6.     Memory limits: This field contains the information about memory management system used by the operating system. This may include page tables, segment tables, etc.

7.     Open files list : This information includes the list of files opened for a process.

2.     Explain different types of schedulers.

Process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU and the selection of another process based on a particular strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating system. Such operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

Types of Process Schedulers[edit]

There are three types of process schedulers:

1.  Long Term or Job Scheduler[edit]

It brings the new process to the ‘Ready State’. It controls the Degree of Multi- programming, i.e., the number of processes present in a ready state at any point in time. It is important that the long-term scheduler make a careful selection of both I/O and CPU-bound processes. I/O-bound tasks are which use much of their time in input and output operations while CPU-bound processes are which spend their time on the CPU. The job scheduler increases efficiency by maintaining a balance between the two. They operate at a high level and are typically used in batch- processing systems.

2.    Short-Term or CPU Scheduler[edit]

It is responsible for selecting one process from the ready state for scheduling it on the running state. Note: Short-term scheduler only selects the process to schedule it doesn’t load the process on running. Here is when all the scheduling algorithms are used. The CPU scheduler is responsible for ensuring no starvation due to high burst time processes.

3.    Medium-Term Scheduler[edit]

It is responsible for suspending and resuming the process. It mainly does swapping (moving processes from main memory to disk and vice versa). Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix or because a change in memory requirements has overcommitted available memory, requiring memory to be freed

up. It is helpful in maintaining a perfect balance between the I/O bound and the CPU bound. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming.

3.  List the criteria for scheduling.

CPU scheduling has several criteria’s:

·       CPU utilization: keeping the CPU as busy as possible

·       Throughput: measure of word done by the CPU is the num of processes being executed and completed per unit of time

·       Turnaround time: turnaround time=completion time-arrival time

·       Waiting time: waiting time=turnaround time-burst time

·       Response time: CPU allocation time-arrival time

·       Completion time: the time when the process stops executing

·       Priority: OS assigns priorities to processes

·       Predictability: given process always should run in the same amount of time under a system load

4.  Explain necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur

The necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur are often referred to as the "Four Coffman Conditions," named after computer scientist Edward G. Coffman Jr. These conditions are as follows:

·       Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable mode, meaning only one process can use it at a time.

·       Hold and Wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire additional resources held by other processes.

·       No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process; they must be released voluntarily by the process holding them.

·       Circular Wait: There must be a circular chain of two or more processes, each of which is waiting for a resource held by the next process in the chain.

5.  Explain swapping with neat diagram

To increase CPU utilization in multiprogramming, a memory management scheme known as swapping can be used. Swapping is the process of bringing a process into memory and then temporarily copying it to the disc after it has run for a while.[edit]

Swapping has been subdivided into two concepts: swap-in and swap-out.

·       Swap-out is a technique for moving a process from RAM to the hard disc.

·       Swap-in is a method of transferring a program from a hard disc to main memory, or RAM

ADVANTAGES:

1.  it utilizes the main memory

2.  it utilizes the virtual memory in an effective way

3. can be used in priority-based scheduling to optimize the swapping process

DIS:

1. chances of number of page faults occur

6.  What are the goals of protection

2. low processing performance

·       Therefore, protection is a method of safeguarding data and processes against malicious and intentional intrusion. For that purpose, we have protection policies that are either designed by the system itself or specified by the management itself or are imposed by the programmers individually to protect their programs with extra safety. ·       It also gives a multiprogramming OS the sense of safety that is required by its users to share common space like files or directories. ·       The policies bind how the processes are to access the resources present in the computer system, resources like CPU, memory, software and even the OS. Both the OS designer and the application programmer are responsible for this. However, these policies always change from time to time.

·     To ensure data safety, process and program safety against illegal user access, or even program access, we need protection. ·     It is to ensure that programs, resources and data are accessed only according to the systems’ policies. ·       It is  also  to  ensure  that  there  are  no  access  rights’  breach,  no unauthorized access to the existing data, no virus or worms. ·     There can be security threats such as unauthorized reading, writing, modification or preventing the system to work properly for the authorized users themselves.

Need of protection OS :                                                                                                                  7.  Explain the various protection principles

Protection is an essential aspect of an operating system, which ensures the safety and security of system resources and data. It provides a way to control access to resources and ensure that unauthorized access is prevented.

There are three main components of protection in an operating system: domain of protection, association, and authentication.[edit]

·       Domain of protection: it is set of resources that are controlled by a particular protection mechanism. In OS, a domain can be defined as a set of objects that are accessed by a set of subjects

·       Association: is the mapping of a sub to a domain of protection. It is the relationship between a sub and the set of resources that it is authorized to access

·       In summary, protection in an OS is achieved through the combination of domain of protection, association and authentication

8.  Explain Threads.

A thread is a single sequence stream within a process. Threads are also called lightweight processes as they possess some of the properties of processes.[edit]

Each thread belongs to exactly one process. In an operating system that supports multithreading, the process can consist of many threads. But threads can be effective only if the CPU is more than 1 otherwise two threads have to context switch for that single CPU.

Components of Threads These are the basic components of the Operating System. ·       Stack Space ·       Register Set ·       Program Counter

Why do we need thread?

Þ Run in parallel improving the application performance.

Þ They can share common data so they do not need to use inter-process communication

Þ  Priority can be assigned to the threads just like process

Þ  Each thread has its own THREAD CONTROL BLOCK (TCB)

9.  Explain single level and hierarchical directory structure wrt file system

The single-level directory is the simplest directory structure. In it, all files are contained in the same directory which makes it easy to support and understand.

A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the number of files increases or when the system has more than one user. Since all the files are in the same directory, they must have a unique name. If two users call their dataset test, then the unique name rule violated.

Advantages:[edit]

Logical organization Increased efficiency Improved security

Facilitates backup and recovery Scalability[edit]

Hierarchical directory structure of operating system is most commonly used in our personal computers. User can create files and subdirectories too, which was a disadvantage in the previous directory structures.

Advantages:[edit]

Allows subdirectory inside a directory The searching is easier

File sorting of imp and unimp becomes easier More scalable[edit]

10. Explain security goals and threats

Protection refers to a mechanism that controls the access of programs, processes or users to the resources defined by a computer system.

·       Integrity: Users with insufficient privileges should not alter the system’s vital files and resources, and unauthorized users should not be permitted to access the system’s objects. ·       Secrecy: Only authorized users must be able to access the objects of the system. Not everyone should have access to the system files. ·       Availability: No single user or process should be able to eat up all of the system resources; instead, all authorized users must have access to them. A situation like this could lead to service denial. Malware in this instance may limit system resources and prohibit authorized processes from using them.

Goal of Security System Below are some goal of security system.

Threats to OS:

Þ Malware

Þ Network intrusion

Þ Buffer overflow technique Types of threats:

Þ Virus

Þ Trojan horse

Þ Worm

Þ Denial of service

ASSIGNEMENT-2B[edit]

1.  How do you configure the following in Windows OS.

a. Folder Options b. User Profiles

a.  1. Press Win+E to open the file explorer.

2.     click file in the top-left corner

3.     select change folder and search options to open the folder options window

b. 1. Log on to windows by using the built-in local administrator account

2.  open the user accounts from the control panel, and remove all added user accounts expect for the main administrator-level user account

3.  configure the settings that you want to copy to the default user profile.

2.  What are the tabs you get when you right click a folder in Windows OS

When we right click on a file or a folder we get options such as “rename”, cut, copy, paste, delete etc.

3.  Explain RUN dialog window

the run dialog box is a small window where you can enter commands in the run line to launch apps and services.

It is helpful for admins and power users who want to launch items directly without hunting for the shortcut

How to open?

1.  press windows+R

2.  press enter and search for run

4.  Explain windows power shell

PowerShell is an object-oriented automation engine and scripting language with an interactive command-line shell

It is built on the NET framework; power shell works with objects.

Microsoft designed PowerShell to automate system tasks, such as batch processing, and to create system management tools for commonly implemented processes.

Admins can use PowerShell to handle a wide range of activities. It can extract information on OSes, such as the specific version and service pack levels. "PowerShell providers" are programs that make data contained in specialized data stores accessible at the command line. Those data stores include file system drives and Windows registries.

5.  Explain how to share a folder for a specific user

1.     Open Windows Explorer and go to your C: Drive. 2.     Create a new folder and give it a name, in this example we've used MQC_Data. 3.     Right click and select Properties. 4.     Click on the Security tab. 5.     Click Edit. 6.     Click Add. 7.     In the object names field type Everyone and then click OK.

6.  Explain how do you create a library in Windows OS.

1.  press Win+R

2.    type “shell:libraries” and press enter key

3.    right-click on the empty space and click on new>library

4.      give name to newly created library

5.     double-click on the newly created library then, click on “include a folder” to include folders to the newly created library

7.   Explain how to use OneDrive to manage files and folders

OneDrive lets us store, share and access your files anytime and anywhere. How to use:

1.          Click start

2.          Search for OneDrive

3.          Select Microsoft OneDrive

4.          Sign in to OneDrive using your Microsoft account credentials

5.          Set the location

6.          Click next

8.   Explain how to enable and disable a startup program in windows

Disable startup programs:

1.          Press Win+I, to open settings, select apps from left menu and then click startup

2.          Toggle off any apps or programs that you don’t want turning on automatically on startup

Enable startup programs:

1.          Press Win+I, to open settings, select apps from left menu and then click startup

2.          Toggle on any apps or programs that you don’t want turning on automatically on startup

9.   Explain the following:

a. eSATA b.USB c.IEEE 1394 (FireWire) d. iSCSI

Serial ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment or SATA) is a command and transport protocol that defines how data is transferred between a computer's motherboard and mass storage devices, such as hard disk drives (HDDs), optical drives and solid-state drives (SSDs)

USB, or universal serial bus, is a mechanism used to connect peripheral devices to computers. Before the advent of USB technology, a PC typically included one or two serial connections, a parallel port, keyboard and mouse connectors, and in some instances, a joystick port.

information is transferred one bit at a time. Parallel buses utilize a number of different physical

IEEE 1394 is a serial bus architecture for high-speed data transfer, serial meaning that connections, and as such are usually more costly and typically heavier.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI, /ˈskʌzi/ SKUZ-ee) is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices, best known for its use with storage devices such as hard disk drives.

10.  What are the differences between FAT32 and NTFS file system

Most commercially available memory cards use the FAT32 file system by default. NTFS and FAT32 file systems differ in the following ways:[edit]

·       The FAT32 file system cannot store individual files larger than 4 GB, while the NTFS file system can.

·       Compared to FAT32, the NTFS file system has higher disk utilization and can manage disk space more effectively.[edit]

·       The read and write speeds of NTFS are also faster than that of FAT32.

·       The FAT32 file system is suitable for smaller capacity flash memory devices (such as memory cards, USB drives, and other storage devices), while the NTFS[edit]

file system is suitable for large capacity disks.

11.Explain ReFS file system

The Resilient File System (ReFS) is Microsoft's newest file system, designed to maximize data availability, scale efficiently to large data sets across diverse workloads, and provide data

integrity with resiliency to corruption.

12.  Demonstrate how to update a device driver

In the search box on the taskbar, enter device manager, then select Device Manager. Select a category to see names of devices, then right-click (or press and hold) the one you'd like to update. Select Search automatically for updated driver software. Select Update Driver.

13.  Explain Disk defragmentation in Windows OS

Fragmentation of disk means allocating data in non-sequence form. Usually, data is stored in hard drive in sequence form and the data header keeps following incoming data so that it is easy to read data efficiently but when we delete some older data from this sequence. The sequence of data management is disturbed and data is looking like a scattered form also when we update older data with a bigger size the Operating System splits the entire data into small packets and stores data in different locations of the storage area.

Types of fragmentation:

Þ Internal fragmentation: happens when memory is split into mounted-sized blocks

Þ External fragmentation: happens when there’s a sufficient quantity of area within the memory

Þ Data fragmentation: data is stored in a whethernon-sequential form

ASSIGNMENT-3B[edit]

1.  List the various linux distributions. Already done

2.     Explain the Linux file system and directory structure with a suitable diagram. done

3.     Explain BASH and its functions.

The Linux Bash is also known as 'Bourne-again Shell.' It is a command language

interpreter for the Linux based system. It is a replacement of Bourne shell (sh). It was developed under the GNU Project and written by Brian Fox. Nowadays, Bash is the default user shell of most of the Linux distributions.

The Bash is a command language interpreter as well as a programming language. It supports variables, functions, and flow control, like other programming languages. It can also read and execute the commands from a file, which is called a shell script.

o    It provides command-line editing[edit]

o   It contains unlimited size command history

o    It provides Job Control[edit]

o   It facilitates with Shell Functions and Aliases

o    It provides the indexed arrays of unlimited size[edit]

o   It contains integer arithmetic in any base from 2 to 64

4.     Explain the following linux commands:

i.   head: used to display the first part of the file

ii.    tail: used to display the last ten lines of one or more files

iii.    wc (with all options): counting the lines, words and characters in a file options: 1. -l: prints the number of lines present in the file

2.  -w: prints the number of words present in the file

3.  -c: displays count of bytes present in the file

4.  -m: displays count of characters from a file

5.  -version: displays the version of wc which is currently running on your system

iv.     cmp: used to compare the 2 files byte to byte and helps you to find out whether the 2 files are identical or not

v.     sudo: allows you to run programs with the security privileges of another user

vi.     bc: used for command line calculator

vii.      tar: compresses files in linux

viii.      pwd: prints the working directory

ix.    grep: used for searching and manipulating text patterns within files

x.   cut: for cutting out the sections from each line of files

xi.    ls –l: used to list information about files and directories within the file system

5.  Differentiate between soft link and hard link.

6.  Explain the backup and recovery tools available in linux.

·       Tar: this unix like command creates and manipulates file archives

·       Rsync: tool for file synchronization and backups

·       Dd: data duplicator creates disc images and backups

·       Cpio: tool creates and extracts archives

·       Dump and restore: backup at the file system level

7. Explain setting file permissions in detail

To change file and directory permissions, use the command chmod (change mode). The owner of a file can change the permissions for user (u), group (g), or others (o) by adding (+) or subtracting (-) the read, write, and execute permissions.

8.  List the tools for system monitoring.

·       Top: top command displays the linux processes

·       Vmstat: virtual memory statistics

·       W: to find out who is logged on and what they are doing

·       Uptime: tells the linux system has been running

·       Ps: displays the linux processes

9.  Explain different types of users.

In linux, there are three different user types:

·       Root: the main user account in linux. It is automatically created during installation. It has the highest privilege in the system. It can do any administrative work and can access any service.

·       Regular: normal user account. During installation one regular user is created automatically. After installation, we can create as many regular user account as required. It has moderate privilege. It is used for routine works

·       Service: these accounts are created by installation packages whey they are installed. These accounts are used by services to run processes and execute the functions. These are neither intended nor should be used for routine work

10.Explain how to create a new user Already done in 3a

ASSIGNMENT-4B[edit]

1.  Explain the various elements/sections available in the following main tabs of MS Word

i.   Home:

ii.   Insert

iii.    Page Layout

iv.     Mailings

2.     Create a mail merge document to send invitations to all the students in the class to participate in the Parents Teachers Meeting.

3.     Create a word document and explain how do you format the text and also perform word search and replace with alternative word.

·       To format text: Select the text, then use options in the Home tab like font style, size, alignment, etc. ·       To perform a search and replace: Go to Home > Replace, enter the word you want to replace and its alternative, then click Replace All.

4.     How do you apply transitions and animations in power point? Explain with clear

steps.

·       Transitions: Go to the Transitions tab, choose a transition effect, set duration and other options. ·       Animations: Go to the Animations tab, select an object, choose an animation effect, set start options, timing, etc.

5.     List all the main tabs present in MS Powerpoint

	1.
	·       Home ·       Insert ·       Design ·       Transitions ·       Animations ·       Slide Show ·       Review ·       View

6.     How to use SmartArt and Add charts in Powerpoint.

·       To use SmartArt: Go to the Insert tab, click on SmartArt, choose a SmartArt graphic, enter text, and customize it. ·       To add charts: Go to Insert > Chart, select the type of chart (e.g., bar chart, pie chart), enter data, and customize it.

7.    List all the slide layouts available in Powerpoint.

The slide layouts available in PowerPoint include Title Slide, Title and Content, Section Header, Two Content, Comparison, Content with Caption, Picture with Caption, Blank, etc.

8.     Explain slide show in powerpoint

·       Slide Show allows you to present your slides in a full-screen mode. ·       You can start the Slide Show from the beginning, from the current slide, or customize the Slide Show settings.

9.     What are various presentation views in MS Powerpoint.

The main presentation views in PowerPoint are:
	·       Normal View ·       Slide Sorter View ·       Reading View ·       Slide Show View ·       Notes Page View ·       Master Views (Slide Master, Handout Master, Notes Master)

10.     Explain Page Setup and slide orientation in MS Powerpoint

·       To set up the page: Go to Design > Slide Size, choose Standard (4:3) or Widescreen (16:9), set custom size, etc. ·       To change slide orientation: Go to Design > Slide Size > Orientation, choose Portrait or Landscape.

ASSIGNMENT-5[edit]

1.  What is MS Excel? List the components of MS Excel window.

MS Excel is a spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft. It is used for calculations, data analysis, graphing tools, and more. The components of the MS Excel window include:
	·       Ribbon: Contains tabs like Home, Insert, Formulas, etc., with various commands and tools. ·       Formula Bar: Displays the content of the active cell and allows you to enter/edit formulas. ·       Name Box: Displays the name or cell reference of the active cell.

·       Cell Grid: Grid of cells organized in rows and columns where you enter data. ·       Worksheet Tabs: Allow you to switch between different worksheets in the same workbook. ·       Scroll Bars: Horizontal and vertical scroll bars for navigating through large worksheets. ·       Status Bar: Displays information like cell mode, current cell count, etc.

2.     Which MS Excel function/formula is used to perform the following operations

explain with an example.

a.  Total: Use the SUM function. Example: =SUM(A1:A5) adds the values in cells A1 to A5.

b. Average: Use the AVERAGE function. Example: =AVERAGE(B1:B10) calculates the average of values in cells B1 to B10.

c. Maximum and Minimum: Use the MAX and MIN functions. Example: =MAX(C1:C20) finds the maximum value in cells C1 to C20.

d. Count: Use the COUNT function. Example: =COUNT(D1:D30) counts the number of non-empty cells in range D1 to D30.

e. Binary to Decimal: Use the BIN2DEC function. Example: =BIN2DEC("1010") converts binary number 1010 to decimal.

f. Convert to Lowercase/Uppercase: Use the LOWER and UPPER functions. Example:

=LOWER("HELLO") converts "HELLO" to lowercase.

3.     List five functions/formulae used in the following category

a.  Text: CONCATENATE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, LEN.

b. Logical: IF, AND, OR, NOT.

c. Engineering: ROUND, FLOOR, CEILING, POWER, SQRT.

d. Date & Time: DATE, TODAY, NOW, DATEDIF, EDATE.

4.     List the different charts available in MS Excel

Excel offers various chart types including Column, Bar, Line, Pie, Scatter, Area, Radar, and more.

5.     How to perform conditional formatting in MS Excel. Write the steps clearly.

To perform conditional formatting:
	·       Select the range of cells you want to format. ·       Go to Home > Conditional Formatting.

·       Choose the desired formatting rule (e.g., highlight cells rules, data bars, color scales). ·       Set the conditions and formatting options. ·       Click OK to apply the conditional formatting.

6.     How to perform data validation in MS Excel. Explain with an example.

For example, if you want to validate entries in a cell to be within a certain range (e.g., between 1 and 100):
	·       Select the cell or range. ·       Go to Data > Data Validation. ·       Choose 'Whole Number' or 'Decimal' as the data type. ·       Set the minimum and maximum values. ·       Optionally, add input message and error alert. ·       Click OK to apply data validation.

7.    Explain the key features of MS Outlook

·       Email management. ·       Calendar and scheduling. ·       Contacts and address book. ·       Task management. ·       Notes and journaling. ·       Integration with other Microsoft Office apps.

8.     Explain calendar feature in MS outlook

Outlook's calendar feature allows you to schedule and manage appointments, meetings, and events. You can set reminders, view daily, weekly, or monthly schedules, share calendars with others, and more.

9.     List the components of an email in outlook

Components of an email in Outlook include:
	·       To, Cc, Bcc fields for recipients. ·       Subject line. ·       Email body. ·       Attachments. ·       Send button.

10.     Write the steps to automate outlook

Automation in Outlook can be done using VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) macros. Here are general steps:
	·       Open Outlook and press Alt + F11 to open the VBA editor. ·       Insert a new module and write your VBA code to automate tasks (e.g., sending emails, scheduling appointments). ·       Save the macro-enabled workbook. ·       Run the macro from Excel or Outlook to automate tasks.

ASSIGNMENT-5[edit]

1.  What is MS Excel? List the components of MS Excel window.

MS Excel is a spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft. It is used for calculations, data analysis, graphing tools, and more. The components of the MS Excel window include:
	·       Ribbon: Contains tabs like Home, Insert, Formulas, etc., with various commands and tools. ·       Formula Bar: Displays the content of the active cell and allows you to enter/edit formulas. ·       Name Box: Displays the name or cell reference of the active cell.

·       Cell Grid: Grid of cells organized in rows and columns where you enter data. ·       Worksheet Tabs: Allow you to switch between different worksheets in the same workbook. ·       Scroll Bars: Horizontal and vertical scroll bars for navigating through large worksheets. ·       Status Bar: Displays information like cell mode, current cell count, etc.

2.     Which MS Excel function/formula is used to perform the following operations

explain with an example.

a.  Total: Use the SUM function. Example: =SUM(A1:A5) adds the values in cells A1 to A5.

b. Average: Use the AVERAGE function. Example: =AVERAGE(B1:B10) calculates the average of values in cells B1 to B10.

c. Maximum and Minimum: Use the MAX and MIN functions. Example: =MAX(C1:C20) finds the maximum value in cells C1 to C20.

d. Count: Use the COUNT function. Example: =COUNT(D1:D30) counts the number of non-empty cells in range D1 to D30.

e. Binary to Decimal: Use the BIN2DEC function. Example: =BIN2DEC("1010") converts binary number 1010 to decimal.

f. Convert to Lowercase/Uppercase: Use the LOWER and UPPER functions. Example:

=LOWER("HELLO") converts "HELLO" to lowercase.

3.     List five functions/formulae used in the following category

a.  Text: CONCATENATE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, LEN.

b. Logical: IF, AND, OR, NOT.

c. Engineering: ROUND, FLOOR, CEILING, POWER, SQRT.

d. Date & Time: DATE, TODAY, NOW, DATEDIF, EDATE.

4.     List the different charts available in MS Excel

Excel offers various chart types including Column, Bar, Line, Pie, Scatter, Area, Radar, and more.

5.     How to perform conditional formatting in MS Excel. Write the steps clearly.

To perform conditional formatting:
	·       Select the range of cells you want to format. ·       Go to Home > Conditional Formatting.

·       Choose the desired formatting rule (e.g., highlight cells rules, data bars, color scales). ·       Set the conditions and formatting options. ·       Click OK to apply the conditional formatting.

6.     How to perform data validation in MS Excel. Explain with an example.

For example, if you want to validate entries in a cell to be within a certain range (e.g., between 1 and 100):
	·       Select the cell or range. ·       Go to Data > Data Validation. ·       Choose 'Whole Number' or 'Decimal' as the data type. ·       Set the minimum and maximum values. ·       Optionally, add input message and error alert. ·       Click OK to apply data validation.

7.    Explain the key features of MS Outlook

·       Email management. ·       Calendar and scheduling. ·       Contacts and address book. ·       Task management. ·       Notes and journaling. ·       Integration with other Microsoft Office apps.

8.     Explain calendar feature in MS outlook

Outlook's calendar feature allows you to schedule and manage appointments, meetings, and events. You can set reminders, view daily, weekly, or monthly schedules, share calendars with others, and more.

9.     List the components of an email in outlook

Components of an email in Outlook include:
	·       To, Cc, Bcc fields for recipients. ·       Subject line. ·       Email body. ·       Attachments. ·       Send button.

10.     Write the steps to automate outlook

Automation in Outlook can be done using VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) macros. Here are general steps:
	·       Open Outlook and press Alt + F11 to open the VBA editor. ·       Insert a new module and write your VBA code to automate tasks (e.g., sending emails, scheduling appointments). ·       Save the macro-enabled workbook. ·       Run the macro from Excel or Outlook to automate tasks.

External links

• Wi-Fi Alliance