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Interlanguage

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An interlanguage is an idiolect which has been developed by a learner of a second language (L2) which preserves some features of their first language (L1) and can overgeneralize some L2 writing and speaking rules. These two characteristics give an interlanguage its unique linguistic organization. It is idiosyncratically based on the learner's experiences with L2. An interlanguage can fossilize, or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages. It is claimed that several factors shape interlanguage rules, including L1 transfer, previous learning strategies, strategies of L2 acquisition, L2 communication strategies, and the overgeneralization of L2 language patterns.

It is based on interlanguage theory, which posits that a dormant psychological framework in the human brain is activated with study of a second language. The theory is credited to Larry Selinker, who coined the terms interlanguage and fossilization. Uriel Weinreich is credited with providing the basis for Selinker's research. Selinker noted in 1972 that in a given situation, the utterances of a learner differ from those of a native speaker to convey an identical meaning. This comparison suggests a separate linguistic system, which can be observed in the utterances of a learner attempting to convey meaning in L2. It is not seen when that the learner performs form-focused tasks, such as oral drills in a classroom.

Interlanguage can vary in different contexts, and may be more accurate, complex, and fluent in one domain than in another. A learner's interlanguage utterances may be compared with two things: utterances in L1 to convey the message produced by the learner, and utterances by a native speaker of L2 to convey the same message. An interlanguage perspective may be used to view a learner's underlying knowledge of the target-language sound system (interlanguage phonology), grammar (morphology and syntax), vocabulary (lexicon), and linguistic norms (interlanguage pragmatics). By describing how learner language conforms to universal linguistic norms, interlanguage research has contributed to the understanding of linguistic universals in second-language acquisition.

Background

The principal theory of second-language (L2) development had been contrastive analysis, which assumed that learner errors were caused by the difference between L1 (their first language) and L2. It was deficit-focused; speech errors were thought to arise randomly, and should be corrected.[1] It was further assumed that a thorough analysis of the differences between a learner's L1 and L2 could predict the difficulties they would face.[2] This assumption was was often anecdotal, and research claims were prone to confirmation bias.[2]

In 1957, Robert Lado said that contrastive analysis should be viewed as hypothetical unless it was based on systematic analyses of learner speech data.[2] Around this time, second-language-acquisition research shifted from hypotheses of language learning and development of language-teaching materials to the systematic analysis of learner speech and writing with error analysis.[2] This was initially done to validate contrastive analysis, but researchers found that many learner behaviors could not be easily explained by transfer from a learner's L1 to L2.[2] The idea that a language learner's linguistic system differed from L1 and L2 was developed independently at around the same time by several researchers.[2] William Nemser called it an approximative system, and Pit Corder termed it transitional competence.

Variability

Interlanguage is said to be a language in its own right, and L2 varies much more than L1. Selinker wrote that in a given situation, the utterances of a learner differ from what a native speaker would produce to convey the same meaning.[3] This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system.[4]

Interlanguage varies by context, and may be more accurate, complex, and fluent in one discourse domain than in another.[5] Variability is observed when comparing a learner's conversational utterances with form-focused tasks, such as memory-based oral drills in a classroom. Spontaneous conversations are more likely to use interlanguage. A learner may produce a target-like variant (e.g. "I don't") in one context, and a non-target-like variant ("me no") in another. Scholars differ about the importance of this phenomenon. Those with a Chomskyan perspective on second-language acquisition typically regard variability as performance errors unworthy of systematic inquiry. Those with a sociolinguistic or psycholinguistic orientation view variability as an inherent feature of a learner's interlanguage; a learner's preference for one linguistic variant over another can depend on social (contextual) variables, such as the status (or role) of the person to whom the learner is speaking.[6] Preference may also be based on linguistic variables, such as the phonological environment or neighboring features denoting formality or informality.[7] Variability in learner language distinguishes between free variation (not systematically related to accompanying linguistic or social features) and systematic variation, which is systematically related.

Free variation

Free variation in the use of a language feature is usually taken as a sign that it has not been fully acquired. The learner is still figuring out what rules govern the use of alternate forms. This type of variability seems to be most common among beginning learners and may be entirely absent among more advanced learners.[citation needed]

Systematic variation

Systematic variation is brought about by changes in the linguistic, psychological, and social context. Linguistic factors are usually extremely local. For example, in earlier stages of acquisition, a learner will often display systematic constraints on their ability to use the correct tense.[8] They may say "Last year we travel to the ocean" rather than "Last year we travelled to the ocean." They also tend to make more mistakes when the word following a tensed word begins with a consonant (e.g., burned bacon). But they will show higher accuracy when the word following the tensed word begins with a non-consonant (e.g., burned eggs).

Other factors

Social factors may include a change in the register or the familiarity of interlocutors. By communication accommodation theory, learners may adapt their speech to either converge with or diverge from, their interlocutor's usage. For example, they may deliberately choose to address a non-target form like "me no" to an English teacher to assert identity with a non-mainstream ethnic group.[9]

The most important psychological factor is usually regarded as attention to form, which is related to planning time. The more time that learners have to plan, the more target-like their production may be. Thus, literate learners may produce much more target-like forms in a writing task for which they have 30 minutes to plan, rather than in conversation where they must produce language with almost no planning at all. The impact of alphabetic literacy level on an L2 learner's ability to pay attention to form is unclear.[10]

Affective factors also play an important role in systematic variation. For example, learners in a stressful situation (such as a formal exam) may produce fewer target-like forms than they would in a comfortable setting. This interacts with social factors, and attitudes toward the interlocutor and topic also play important roles.

Stages of development

Individuals learning a second language may not always hear spoken L2 words as separate units.[11] Some words might blend and become a single unit in the learner's L2 system. The blended words are called "prefabricated patterns" or "chunks". These chunks are often not immediately obvious to the learner or anyone that listens to them speak, but may be noticed as the learner's L2 system becomes more developed, and they use the chunk in a context where it does not apply. For example, if an English learner hears sentences beginning with "do you", they may associate it with being an indicator of a question but not as two separate words. To them, the word is "doyou". They may happen to say "What do you doing?" instead of "What are you doing?" Eventually, the learner will learn to break the chunk up into its component words and use them correctly.

When learners experience significant restructuring in their L2 systems, they sometimes show a U-shaped learning pattern. For instance, a group of English language learners moved, over time, from accurate usage of the "-ing" present progressive morpheme, to incorrectly omitting it, and finally, back to correct usage.[12] Occasionally, the period of incorrect usage is seen as a learning regression.[13] However, it is likely that when the learners first acquired the new "-ing" morpheme or "chunk", they were not aware of all the rules that apply to its use. As their knowledge of tense in English expanded, this disrupted their correct usage of the morpheme. They eventually returned to correct usage when they gained a greater understanding of the tense rules in English. This data provides evidence that the learners were initially producing output based on rote memory of individual words containing the present progressive "-ing" morpheme. However, in the second stage, their systems contained the rule that they should use the bare infinitive form to express present action, without a separate rule for the use of "-ing". Finally, they learned the rule for the appropriate use of "-ing".

The "chunking" method enables a learner to practice speaking their L2 before they correctly break the chunk up into its parts. According to interlanguage theory, this seeming progression and regression of language learning is an important and positive manifestation of the learner's developing understanding of the target language's grammar.

Fossilization

An interlanguage can fossilize, or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages. Fossilization is the process of 'freezing' the transition between the L1 and L2 and is regarded as the final stage of interlanguage development. It can occur even in motivated learners who are continuously exposed to their L2 or have adequate learning support.[14] Reasons for this phenomenon may be due to complacency or inability to overcome the obstacles to acquiring native proficiency in the L2. Fossilization often occurs in adult language learners. It can also occur when a learner succeeds in conveying messages with their current L2 knowledge. The need to correct the form/structure is therefore not present. The learner fossilizes the form instead of correcting it.

Linguistic universals

Research on universal grammar (UG) has had a significant effect on second-language acquisition (SLA) theory. In particular, scholarship in the interlanguage tradition has sought to show that learner languages conform to UG at all stages of development.[15]

Interlanguage UG differs from native UG in that interlanguage UGs vary greatly in mental representations from one L2 user to another.[16] This variability arises from differing relative influences on the interlanguage UG, such as existing L1 knowledge and UG constraints. An example of a UG constraint is an "island constraint," where the wh-phrase in a question has a finite number of possible positions. Island constraints are based on the concept that there are certain syntactical domains within a sentence that act as phrase boundaries. It is theorized that the same constraints that act on a native UG are also often present in an interlanguage UG.

Versus creoles and pidgins

The concept of interlanguage is closely related to other types of language, especially creoles and pidgins. Each of these languages have their own grammar and phonology. The difference is mostly one of variability, as a learner's interlanguage is spoken only by the learner and changes frequently as they become more proficient in the language. In contrast, creoles and pidgins are generally the product of groups of people in contact with another language, and therefore may be more stable.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Loewen, Shawn, Reinders, Hayo (2011). Key Concepts in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-230-23018-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e f Tarone 2006.
  3. ^ Selinker, L (1972). "Interlanguage". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10 (1–4): 209–241. doi:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209.
  4. ^ Tarone, E (2010). "Interlanguage". In Berns, Margie (ed.). The concise encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-08-096502-4.
  5. ^ Kasper, Gabriele; Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, eds. (1993). Interlanguage pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 192. ISBN 0-19-506602-2.
  6. ^ Kasper, Gabriele; Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, eds. (1993). Interlanguage pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-506602-2.
  7. ^ Fasold, R; Preston, D (2007). "The psycholinguistic unity of inherent variability: Old Occam whips out his razor". In Bayley, R; Lucas, C (eds.). Sociolinguistic Variation: Theory, methods, and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–69.
  8. ^ Wolfram, Walt (1989). "Systematic variability in second-language tense marking". In Eisenstein, Miriam R. (ed.). The dynamic interlanguage: Empirical studies in second-language variation. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-43174-2.
  9. ^ Rampton, Ben (2005). Crossing : Language & Ethnicity among Adolescents (2 ed.). Manchester: St Jerome Pub. ISBN 9781900650779.
  10. ^ Tarone, Elaine; Bigelow, Martha; Hansen, Kit (2009). Literacy and second language oracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442300-7.
  11. ^ Altarriba, Jeanette; Heredia, Roberto R., eds. (2008). An introduction to bilingualism : principles and practices. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-5135-9.
  12. ^ Lightbown, P (1983). "Exploring relationships between developmental and instructional sequences in L2 acquisition". In Seliger, H; Long, M.H. (eds.). Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley (MA): Newbury House.
  13. ^ Altarriba, Jeanette; Heredia, Roberto R., eds. (2008). An introduction to bilingualism : principles and practies. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-5135-9.
  14. ^ Han, ZhaoHong (2004). Fossilization in adult second language acquisition (Online ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. pp. 12–24. ISBN 1-85359-686-8.
  15. ^ VanPatten, Bill; Williams, Jessica (2015). Theories in second language acquisition : an introduction (2 ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-82421-7.
  16. ^ VanPatten, Bill; Williams, Jessica (2015). Theories in second language acquisition : an introduction (2 ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-82421-7.

References

  • Fasold, R.; Preston, D. (2007). "The psycholinguistic unity of inherent variability: Old Occam whips out his razor." In Bayley, R.; Lucas, C.; eds. Sociolinguistic variation: Theory, methods, and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–69.
  • Lightbown, P. (1983). "Exploring relationships between developmental and instructional sequences in L2 acquisition." In Seliger, H.; Long, M.H.; eds. Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. pp. 217–243.
  • Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. London: Longman. ISBN 978-1900650-779
  • Selinker, L. (1972), Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209–231.
  • Selinker, L., & Douglas, D. (1985). Wrestling with 'context' in interlanguage theory. Applied Linguistics, 6, 190–204.
  • Tarone, E. (1979). Interlanguage as chameleon. Language Learning 29(1), 181–191.
  • Tarone, E., & Liu, G.-q. (1995). Situational context, variation and second-language acquisition theory. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principles and Practice in the Study of Language and Learning: A Festschrift for H.G. Widdowson (pp. 107–124). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Tarone, Elaine (2006). "Interlanguage". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Boston: Elsevier. pp. 747–751. ISBN 978-0-08-044361-4.
  • Tarone, E. (2009). "A sociolinguistic perspective on interaction in SLA." in Mackey, A.; Polio, C.; eds. Multiple perspectives on interaction: Second language research in honor of Susan M. Gass. New York: Routledge. pp. 41–56.
  • Tarone, E., Bigelow, M. & Hansen, K. (2009). Literacy and second language oracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.[1]

Further reading

Look up interlanguage in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Chambers, J.K. (1995), Sociolinguistic Theory, Oxford, England: Blackwell; p249-251.
  • J. C. Richards, Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition, Longman Press, 1974, pp. 34–36.
  • Tarone, E. (2001), Interlanguage. In R. Mesthrie (Ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Sociolinguistics. (pp. 475–481) Oxford: Elsevier Science.
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