Nizaa language
| Nizaa | |
|---|---|
| Galim, Nyamnyam, Suga | |
| Pronunciation | [nɪ́zʌʌ̀] |
| Native to | Cameroon |
| Region | Adamawa Region |
Native speakers | (10,000 cited 1985)[1] |
| Latin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | sgi |
| Glottolog | suga1248 |
Nizaa (Nizaa pronunciation: [nɪ́zʌʌ̀][2]), also known as Galim, Nyamnyam, and Suga, is an endangered Mambiloid language spoken in the Adamawa Region of northern Cameroon. Most of the language's speakers live in and around the village of Galim in the department of Faro-et-Déo.
Nizaa has a complex sound system with 65 consonant phonemes, eleven tones, and a contrast between oral and nasal vowels. In terms of grammar, it is the only Bantoid language that allows multiple verbal suffixes on one verb. It also is generally a head-initial language (the head or main element of a clause comes before its modifiers) and uses postpositions instead of prepositions (the adposition follows the noun it modifies).
Nizaa was first extensively studied and documented in the 1980s by Norwegian linguists Rolf Theil Endresen and Bjørghild Kjelsvik. The language is endangered, but the exact number of active speakers is unknown since the last census of speakers took place in 1985.
Name
[edit]Nizaa is also referred to as Suga (also spelled Ssuga[3]), Galim, Nyamnyam (also spelled Nyemnyem, Njemnjem, and Jemjem[3][4]), Sewe and Mengaka. Nizaa is the word the Nizaa call themselves, while Suga comes from Pero súgò 'stranger' or 'not Pero'.[4] Nyamnyam is a pejorative term likely derived from the Fula word nyaamnyaamjo 'cannibal'[5] which is further derived from nyam-nyam 'to eat', despite there being no evidence of the Nizaa being cannibals,[6] while Galim is the main town of the Nizaa people.[4][7] Nizaa is referred to as 'Mengaka' in the 1988 version of Ethnologue,[8] but Endressen in 1991 did not recognise the name or know where it came from.[2] 'Sewe' may also be another alternate name for the language.[3]
Background
[edit]Nizaa is primarily spoken in and around the village of Galim, located in Faro-et-Déo, which itself is in the Adamawa Region of northern Cameroon; the village has roughly 2,000 inhabitants.[9] The most recent census of speakers was carried out in 1985 and reported 10,000 people actively speaking the language. However, the Atlas Linguistique du Cameroun (ALCAM) estimated only 2,000 speakers in 1983, so the actual number of speakers is unknown.[10][4][11] The language is endangered.[12]
The Nizaa people are primarily farmers who grow maize, though other crops such as yams, millet, sorghum, peanuts, and cassava are also grown, and their main food is "couscous", or paste made from cooked flour, soy, millet, or cassava.[13] Cattle herding and, to a lesser extent, hunting are also popular among the Nizaa.[13] Most Nizaa practise Islam, though some do practise Christianity or animism.[14][8] The Nizaa are divided into various different clans, each with their own sacred animal which they do not eat or harm; traditionally, it is thought that these animals helped a clan overcome a stressful situation in the mythological past.[15]
Most Nizaa are not literate, and the few who are often only can read and write Fula in the Ajami script of Arabic.[8][16] The romanisation of Nizaa also has not widely been adopted by the Nizaa people, because of their low literacy rate.[8][16] Several other languages are spoken in the region, and most Nizaa speakers are bilingual in Fula, specifically the Adamawa dialect, since it is essentially the lingua franca of northern Cameroon. Many also know Hausa, another regional language, or French, because it is an official language of Cameroon.[9][17]
Documentation
[edit]
Several details of Nizaa were known as early as 1932, but the language was first studied extensively from 1979 to 1984 by Norwegian linguist Rolf Theil Endresen at the University of Oslo.[5][18] However, his research was not published until 1991.[5] Theil Endresen devised the romanisation system of Nizaa and published the first analysis of the language,[19][15] and he also supervised later research on Nizaa by his student, Bjørghild Kjelsvik. Kjelsvik began her work in the Nizaa community via the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Cameroon, which documented local languages in addition to engaging in evangelical conversion work.[19]
Classification
[edit]Furthermore, because another language exists in Adamawa Region also called 'nyamnyam', linguists often confused the two languages, and the exact classification of Nizaa is still in doubt.[20] However, in 1983, ALCAM classified Nizaa and another language, Kwanja, as Mambiloid languages.[21] Finally, Roger Blench in 1988 classified the Mambiloid languages, along with another language family in Nigeria's Adamawa State, the Dakoid languages, as members of the Northern Bantoid languages, which are a subdivision of the Bantoid language family.[21]
However, another linguist, Bruce Connell, in 1997, disagreed with this classification. He suggested that the Mambiloid languages form a valid genetic group (or the languages are each others' closest relatives), but also noted that Nizaa and Ndoro, another language, are highly divergent and are tentative members of the Mambiloid languages at best. He also suggested that lexical and grammatical similarities within the Mambiloid languages are partly due to contact, not just shared ancestry, and that the genetic relationship between the Mambiloid languages and the Dakoid languages is weak. Connell also suggested that the Mambiloid languages may either belong within the South Bantoid languages or may branch off independently from the Bantoid languages, separate from both the Dakoid languages and the South Bantoid languages.[22][23]
Phonology and orthography
[edit]When the orthography, or the conventional spelling system of Nizaa, differs from the phonetic representation, it is shown in angle brackets.
Vowels
[edit]The Nizaa language has a contrast between oral and nasal vowels, with five short oral vowels, ten long oral vowels, and seven long nasal vowels.[24][2] In Endresen's original romanisation, nasalised vowels were indicated by adding an ogonek, but Kjelsvik's revised romanisation indicates such vowels by adding ⟨ŋ⟩ after the vowel.[2]
Older speakers of Nizaa also distinguish an eighth nasalised vowel /ɤ̃ː/ from /ʌ̃ː/, but this distinction has been lost in younger speakers.[25][2] Older speakers of Nizaa also pronounce /ɛː/ as the sequence /aɾ/.[2]
| Nizaa vowels[24][2] | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short oral vowels | Long oral vowels | Long nasal vowels | ||||||||
| Unrounded | Rounded | Front | Central | Back | Front | Central | Back | |||
| unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | |||||||
| Close | ɪ ~ ɯ ⟨i⟩ | ʊ ~ ʏ ⟨u⟩ | iː ⟨ii⟩ | ɯː ⟨ʉʉ⟩ | uː ⟨uu⟩ | ĩː ⟨iiŋ⟩ | ɯ̃ː ⟨ʉʉŋ⟩ | ũː ⟨uuŋ⟩ | ||
| Close-mid | e ~ ɤ ⟨e⟩ | o ~ ø ⟨o⟩ | eː ⟨ee⟩ | ɤː ⟨əə⟩ | oː ⟨oo⟩ | ɛ̃ː ⟨ɛɛŋ⟩ | (ɤ̃ː ⟨ααŋ⟩) | ɔ̃ː ⟨ɔɔŋ⟩ | ||
| Open-mid | (ɛː ⟨ɛɛ⟩) | ʌː ⟨αα⟩ | ɔː ⟨ɔɔ⟩ | ʌ̃ː ⟨ααŋ⟩ | ||||||
| Open | a | aː ⟨aa⟩ | ãː ⟨aaŋ⟩ | |||||||
Consonants
[edit]Nizaa has complex consonantal inventory with 65 consonants, including five marginal phonemes, which occur infrequently in the language.[26] In Nizaa, there are six main types of consonants: labial consonants, or consonants made with one or both lips; alveolar consonants, articulated with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge; post-alveolar consonants, articulated with the tongue behind the alveolar ridge; velar consonants, articulated with the tongue against the velum (the back part of the roof of the mouth); glottal consonants, articulated with the glottis (or the opening between the vocal folds); and labial–velar consonants; consonants that are simultaneously articulated at the lips and velum.[27]
Nizaa also has prenasalised consonants, which refer to sequences of nasal and non-nasal consonants that act like a single consonant, and implosive consonants, which refer to consonants articulated by both moving the glottis downward and expelling air from the lungs.[27] Both types of consonants are common in the languages of Sub-Saharan Africa.[28][29]
The consonants in parentheses are marginal: the labial flap is only found in ideophones or words that evoke a certain sound, and the voiced velar fricative is only found between vowels to distinguish compounds from disyllabic words.[24] The two glottal stops are also marginal and are not written in the orthography.[24] /x/ is only distinguished from /h/ in one word root (xag 'to clear one's throat'), and consequently, shares the same letter as /h/ in the orthography.[24][30]
| Nizaa consonants[24] | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Labial | Alveolar | Post- | Velar | Labial– | Glottal | |||||||
| plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | |||
| Plosive/ | voiceless | p | pʷ ⟨pw⟩ | t | tʷ ⟨tw⟩ | tʃ ⟨c⟩ | tʃʷ ⟨cw⟩ | k | kʷ ⟨kw⟩ | k͡p ⟨kp⟩ | (ʔ) | (ʔʷ) |
| voiced | b | bʷ ⟨bw⟩ | d | dʷ ⟨dw⟩ | dʒ ⟨j⟩ | dʒʷ ⟨jw⟩ | ɡ | ɡʷ ⟨gw⟩ | ɡ͡b ⟨gb⟩ | |||
| prenasalised | ᵐb ⟨mb⟩ | ᵐbʷ ⟨mbw⟩ | ⁿd ⟨nd⟩ | ⁿdʷ ⟨ndw⟩ | ᶮdʒ ⟨nj⟩ | ᶮdʒʷ ⟨njw⟩ | ᵑg ⟨ŋg⟩ | ᵑgʷ ⟨ŋgw⟩ | ͡ᵑᵐɡ͡b ⟨mgb⟩ | |||
| implosive | ɓ | ɓʷ ⟨ɓw⟩ | ɗ | ɗʷ ⟨ɗw⟩ | ||||||||
| prenasalised implosive | ᵐɓ ⟨mɓ⟩ | ᵐɓʷ ⟨mɓw⟩ | ⁿɗ ⟨nɗ⟩ | ⁿɗʷ ⟨nɗw⟩ | ||||||||
| Nasal | m | mʷ ⟨mw⟩ | n | nʷ ⟨nw⟩ | ɲ ⟨ny⟩ | ɲʷ ⟨nyw⟩ | ||||||
| Approximant | voiced | l | lʷ ⟨lw⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | ɥ ⟨yw⟩ | w | ||||||
| nasalised | ɰ̃ ⟨ŋ⟩ | w̃ ⟨ŋw⟩ | ||||||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | fʷ ⟨fw⟩ | s | sʷ ⟨sw⟩ | ʃ ⟨sh⟩ | ʃʷ ⟨shw⟩ | (x ⟨h⟩) | h | |||
| voiced | v | z | zʷ ⟨zw⟩ | (ɣ ⟨gh⟩) | ||||||||
| prenasalised | ᶬv ⟨mv⟩ | ⁿz ⟨nz⟩ | ||||||||||
| Tap or Flap | (ⱱ̟ ~ ⱱ ⟨vb⟩) | ɾ ⟨r⟩ | ɾʷ ⟨rw⟩ | |||||||||
Tonology
[edit]Nizaa is a tonal language.[31] Tonal languages use shifts in the pitch of syllables to differentiate words from each other, independently from pragmatic considerations.[32] Such languages are common across Sub-Saharan Africa.[33]
Nizaa has three phonemic tone levels: high, mid, and low, as well as a number of two and three-tone tone contours (combinations of tones), which are indicated in the orthography using a variety of accents.[31] Verb roots can only use the high or mid tones, unlike nouns, which may use any of the three levels.[34] Tones regularly participate in grammatical processes.[31]
Endresen groups the tones into "primary tones" and "secondary tones". The primary tones, high (H), mid (M), low (L), and rising (LH), are found on all types of syllables. The "secondary tones", which include rising (HM), falling (HL, MH, and ML), and peaking (LHM) tones, are found on word-final syllables and can be understood as one of the primary tones plus an additional tone.[35] Kjelsvik, in 2002, recognised two more peaking tones, MHL and LHL.[36]
Syllable structure
[edit]Nizaa has three allowed syllable types: CV (such as the word ge 'to go'), CVV (such as the word sìì 'house'), and CVC, (such as the word yîm 'medicine') where C represents a consonant, V a short vowel, and VV a long vowel (which may be nasalised or not). The syllable structure V (a single short vowel) exists only in the particle a, which has various meanings based on the tone used;[37] these include the copula or "to-be verb" á, which takes a high tone.[38] Monosyllabic nouns can only have the syllable structures CVV and CVC, while monosyllabic verbs can have all allowed syllable structures (CV, CVV, CVC).[37]
Nizaa only permits certain consonants to act as codas, or consonants that end a syllable; these are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ, w, w̃, j, ɾ/. The consonants /d/ and /j/ are fairly marginal as codas, only being found in ideophones and loanwords.[24] In 1991, Endresen also listed another marginal coda /j̃/,[39] but Kjelsvik, in 2002, re-analysed the only word it was known to occur in as /jiːɰ̃/.[40]
Morphophonology
[edit]In some types of suffixes including irregular noun plurals, the root vowel becomes /a/ in Nizaa.[2] Coda consonants in final syllables also change in the imperfective aspect: syllables ending in /b/ instead end with /w/; syllables ending in /w̃/ end with /m/; syllables ending in /n/ nasalise the preceding vowel; syllables ending in /g/ end in a high tone and raise the vowel (i.e. /a/ to /ʌ́/); syllables ending in nasal vowels raise and lengthen the preceding vowel.[41][42]
Grammar
[edit]Word order
[edit]Nizaa generally uses SVO word order, and is generally head-initial[43] (in the English phrase eat an apple, the verb and head of the verb phrase eat precedes its complements, making English head-initial[44]). Relative clauses follow the noun they modify and usually carry no overt grammatical marking.[45] However, in noun phrases, the language is neither head-initial nor head-final, i.e. some nouns are head-initial while others are head-final.[46] Although Nizaa is generally head-initial, adpositions are an exception to this rule since the language primarily uses postpositions.[47] However, there is evidence of at least one preposition.[47] The possessor always precedes the possessee and most adjectives, demonstratives, and numerals also precede the noun they modify. Kjelsvik lists the following examples of Nizaa noun constructions in her 2002 thesis:[48]
|
Associative construction: mbírā́m child ndùùŋ sack 'the child's sack' |
Noun and adjective: nyánì language nízαὰ Nizaa 'the Nizaa language'
|
|
Noun and demonstrative: nìì person làw DEM 'this/that person' |
Two nouns: sìì house yîm medicine 'hospital'
|
|
nìì person nwààŋ fight njèwā̀ tires fà NEG díwurḗ come-PRF.DETR 'a person who does not tire of fighting, has come' |
Prepositional phrase (comitative): wú COM wā̀n chief 'with the chief'
|
|
Postpositional phrase: wûr field ndiŋ in 'in the field' |
cún tree ɓirâ head-LOC 'in the tree top'
|
|
Possessive phrase: kùù grandpa fɔ́ɔ̀ staff 'grandpa's staff'
|
Nouns and pronouns
[edit]Definiteness on nouns is marked by adding a low tone. The marking for plurals depends on the animacy of the noun: when the noun is animate, i.e. refers to a human or an animal, the suffix -wu is added, and when the noun is inanimate, another suffix -ya is added. No case-marking exists in Nizaa, with the exception of the locative, which marks location, though this may be a clitic instead because it may behave more like a full word in a sentence.[2][49] Kjelsvik lists the following examples of noun morphology (forms of nouns) in her 2002 thesis:[49]
| Singular (e.g 'a house') | Singular definite (e.g. 'the house') | Plural (e.g. 'houses') | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular nouns | sìì | sìì | sìì ɓaara |
| cún | cûn | cún ɓaara | |
| mbéw | mbêw | mbéw ɓaara | |
| Irregular nouns | nìì | nìì | náw |
| mbíram | mbírā́m̀ | mbírarī́ | |
| yéŋw | yêŋw | yáŋw |
Pronouns have three forms: their isolated versions, the versions when combined with the copula á and their versions in context (i.e. in a sentence with a finite noun). Some pronouns in Nizaa have different forms to show respect (honourific), to refer to someone speaking or being spoken about (logophoric), or address someone directly (vocative). Pronouns have singular and plural forms.[34] Kjelsvik lists the following examples of pronouns in her 2002 thesis:[34]
| Isolated form | Form with copula | Context form | Vocative | Honourific | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | 1st | mi | máá | mi | N/A | N/A |
| 2nd | wi | wáá | wu | |||
| 3rd | ŋwi | ŋwáá | ŋwu | nùro | ||
| Logophoric | N/A | yí | N/A | |||
| Plural | 1st | yí | yáá | |||
| 2nd | nywí | nywáá | nywú | ɗiwu | ||
| 3rd | ɓwi | ɓwáá | ɓwu (búsúúŋwu) | N/A | nàro | |
| Logophoric | N/A | yíwú | N/A | |||
Verbs
[edit]Nizaa verb roots are monosyllabic, and always have a mid or high tone, but extra elements can be added to change the original meaning of the verb or for grammatical purposes.[34] These suffixes include a "habitual/imperfective" -cì, signifying a repeated action; a "perfective/stative" -wū́, signifying a completed action or a current state of being; and two additional perfect tenses[note 1]. Progressive (indicating an ongoing action) -ri and imperative (indicating a demand, marked with a low tone) suffixes also exist, as well as suffixes negating the original verb. A "detransitivizer" suffix, that demotes the direct object of a verb to an oblique argument or removes it altogether, also is present in Nizaa.[50] Many suffixes, like the imperative, have negative counterparts. For example, the perfective/stative's negative counterpart is -ŋwa.[51]
In addition to these verb tense suffixes, Kjelsvik also describes several verb number indicators and a variety of suffixes indicating location.[52] For example, four directional suffixes, which serve to identify the path of motion verbs, were described by Kjelsvik in 2002. These are the illative -a, which indicates "motion into an enclosure"; the allative -ri, indicating "motion towards a location"; the distinctive -wa, indicating "motion away from a location"; and the sublative suffix -sa, indicating "motion towards a lower location".[53]
Nizaa is the only Bantoid language that permits strings of verbal suffixes.[54] A stacking of up to three suffixes to a single verb is grammatical in Nizaa[52], and up to four verbs may occur in one sentence in Nizaa.[55] Kjelsvik lists the following examples of Nizaa verb constructions in her 2002 thesis:[56]
ge
go
kwɛɛ
find
jʉʉŋ
return
ŋu
3SG
mάάŋ
friend
'He went and found his friend again.'
à
AUX
yí
LOG
seghə́ə́
mother-in-law
gè
go
nyin
speak
ni
give
càŋw
again
'... so that (it) will go to greet my mother-in-law.'
mbéw
monkey
ɗàà
other
kǔm
while
bαά
seek
tαάŋ
eat
yɛɛ
change
jíwcí
roam-PRES
ŋú
3SG
cún
tree
yɛ̀ɛ̀
fruit
konā̀
bush-LOC
ā̀
AUX
nǎm̀
hyena-DEF
di
come
kwɛɛkìwí
find-TOT-PST
'A monkey who just then was roaming about seeking and eating his tree nuts in the bush, came and found the hyena.'
Kinship system
[edit]The Nizaa language uses the same word maaŋ for both mothers and maternal aunts, and táá for both fathers and paternal uncles. However, it has different words for maternal uncles and paternal aunts, distinguishing them from the other relatives. The Nizaa language does not distinguish maternal and paternal grandparents either. Separate terms exist for older sisters and brothers, but there is no distinction of sex for younger siblings. The terms for 'older sister' díí and 'older brother' daà are also used as generic terms for polite address, while addressing someone as a 'younger sibling' nā́m is seen as disrespectful. The words for cousins are the same as the ones for siblings and also depend on age. A generic term for in-laws, jwììŋ, also exists.[57]
Sample text
[edit]Kjelsvik gives a sample sentence in Nizaa in her 2002 thesis:[58]
ŋu wààwu
3SG grandchild-PL
se
see
kekirā́,
know-TOT-PRF.DETR
ɓulαὰŋ
they.3PL-these.DEM.PROX
sewu
see-PST
mbân
place
kùù
grandpa
fɔ́ɔ̀
staff-DF
ɗag
fall
gewunâ,
go-PST-PCPL
yɛ́ɛ́wú-ŋwā́
will-STAT-NEG
kùù
grandpa
kpááŋ
talk
nìwà.
give-SUB
'His grandchildren have seen and know, they saw the place grandpa's staff went and fell into, they do not want to tell him.'
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Nizaa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Theil Endresen, Rolf [in Norwegian] (1 January 1991). "Diachronic Aspects of the Phonology of Nizaa". Journal of African Languages and Linguistics. 12 (2): 171–194. doi:10.1515/jall.1991.12.2.171. ISSN 1613-3811. Full access available to users of The Wikipedia Library.
- ^ a b c Grimes, Barbara F., ed. (1992). Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Twelfth ed.). Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. p. 205. ISBN 0-88312-815-2. LCCN 73-646678.
- ^ a b c d Blench, Roger (1993). "An outline classification of the Mambiloid languages". Journal of West African Languages. 23 (1). West African Linguistic Society: 105–118 [108–109]. ISSN 0022-5401. Archived from the original on 2 November 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2025.
- ^ a b c Theil Endresen 1991, p. 171.
- ^ Leis, Philip (2011). "Past Passages: Initiation Rites on the Adamawa Plateau (Cameroon)". Ethnology. 50 (2): 169–188 [171]. ISSN 2160-3510.
- ^ Kjelsvik, Bjørghild (31 March 2008). Emergent speech genres of teaching and learning interaction. Communities of practice in Cameroonian schools and villages. Faculty of Humanities (Linguistics PhD thesis). University of Oslo. pp. 91–134 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ a b c d Grimes, Barbara F., ed. (1988). Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Eleventh ed.). Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. p. 72. ISBN 0-88312-825-X.
- ^ a b Kjelsvik 2002, p. 3.
- ^ Kjelsvik, Bjørghild (November 2002). Verb chains in Nizaa. Department of Linguistics (Cand. Philol. thesis). University of Oslo – via ResearchGate.
- ^ Binam Bikoi, Charles, ed. (2012). Atlas linguistique du Cameroun (ALCAM) [Linguistic Atlas of Cameroon]. Atlas linguistique de l'Afrique centrale (ALAC) (in French). Vol. 1: Inventaire des langues. Yaoundé: CERDOTOLA. ISBN 9789956796069.
- ^ "Nizaa". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 26 February 2025. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
- ^ a b Theil Endresen 1992, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Kjelsvik 2008, pp. 131–132.
- ^ a b Theil Endresen, Rolf [in Norwegian] (30 June 1992). "La phonologie de la langue nizaa (nizaà)" [The phonology of the Nizaa language]. Nordic Journal of African Studies (in French). 1 (1). Nordic Africa Research Network: 28–52. doi:10.53228/njas.v1i1.57. Retrieved 16 May 2025. pp. 28–29:
Il n'existe pas de description de la langue nizaa. Cet article-ci constitue la première analyse linguistique de cette langue. ... Le peuple nizaa est composé de différents clans, comme nàw, ɓon, cααrì, maŋnì, mgbε̨ε̨, sugbàm, yǫw, zew, nàw yarà, nzaŋtàŋ, et nàw tiberà. Chaque clan a un animal sacré, qui dans le passé mythologique a aidé les membres du clan dans une situation de crise, et que les membres du clan ne tuent pas et ne mangent pas.
[No description of the Nizaa language exists. This article constitutes the first linguistic analysis of this language. ... The Nizaa people are made up of different clans, such as Nàw, ɓon, Cααrì, Maŋnì, Mgbε̨ε̨, Sugbàm, Yǫw, Zew, Nàw Yarà, Nzaŋtàŋ, and Nàw Tiberà. Each clan has a sacred animal, which in the mythological past helped the clan members in a crisis situation, and which the clan members do not kill or eat.] - ^ a b Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. p. 72. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. LCCN 2004-112063. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
- ^ Pepper, Steve (30 September 2010). Nominal Compounding in Nizaa – A cognitive perspective (Language Documentation and Description MA thesis). School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) – via Academia.
- ^ Theil Endresen 1992, p. 30.
- ^ a b Kjelsvik 2002, p. 1.
- ^ Blench 1993, pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b Blench 1993, p. 105.
- ^ Connell, Bruce (1997). The Integrity of Mambiloid. The Second World Congress of African Linguistics.
- ^ Connell, Bruce (2010). "Mambiloid Inside and Out: Mambiloid Integrity Revisted and The Situation of Somyev Within Mambiloid". Retrieved 24 July 2025.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ a b c d e f g Kjelsvik 2002, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Kjelsvik 2002, p. 9 note 9.
- ^ Kjelsvik 2002, pp. 9–11.
- ^ a b International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (PDF). Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0.
- ^ Sande, Hannah (2020). Features of Implosives: Emergent or Universal?* (PDF). Linguistic Society of America. p. 2.
- ^ "PHOIBLE 2.0 - Consonant ŋmɡb". phoible.org. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
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