View source for Tigrayans

{{short description|Semitic-speaking ethnic group native to northern Ethiopia}}
{{Distinguish|Tigre people}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Tigrayans
| native_name      = {{native name|ti|ተጋሩ|italics=off}}<br />ትግራይ([[Ge'ez]])<br />[[File:Flag of the Tigray Region.svg|30px]]
| image            = Ethiopie-Battage du teff (9).jpg
| image_caption    = A Tigrayan man during the threshing of teff (''Eragrostis tef'') near [[Samre, Ethiopia|Samre]]
| population       = 
| popplace         = 
| region1          = {{flagcountry|Ethiopia}}
| pop1             = 5.9<ref name="ESS2024">{{cite web| last = Ethiopian Statistical Service| title = Projected Population – 2024| url = https://ess.gov.et/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Projected_Population-2024.pdf| publisher = Ethiopian Statistical Service| date = September 2024| access-date = July 1, 2025}}</ref>-7.5<ref>{{cite web |title=Tigrigna: Ethiopia |website=Ethnologue |publisher=SIL International |year=2022 |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref> million (2024)
| region2          = {{flagcountry|Sudan}}
| pop2             = 60,000<ref name="TigraySudanCrisis">{{cite web|title=Tigrayans in Sudan: A Humanitarian Crisis Unfolds|url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2024/08/09/tigrayans-in-sudan-a-humanitarian-crisis-unfolds/|website=Modern Diplomacy|date=9 August 2024|access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref>
| region3          = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop3             = 22,000<ref name="JoshuaTigrayUS">{{cite web|title=Tigray, Tigrinya in United States|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/15481/US|website=Joshua Project|access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref>
| region4          = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop4             = 2,155<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canada: Ethnic origin (279), Single and multiple ethnic origin responses|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Ethnic%20origin&TABID=1&type=0|publisher=Statistics Canada|date=2016|access-date=2025-08-04}}</ref>
| languages        = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
| religions        = '''Overwhelming Majority:'''<br>
[[File:Orthodox cross.svg|11px]] [[Christianity]] ''<br/>[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church |Ethiopian]] [[Orthodox Tewahedo|Tewahedo]]'' [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Orthodoxy]] ~97.6% <br/>[[Ethiopian Catholic Church|Catholicism]] ~0.4% <br/>'''Minority:'''<br>[[File:Star and Crescent.svg|19px]] [[Sunni Islam]] ~2%<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pagani|first1=Luca|last2=Kivisild|first2=Toomas|date=July 2012|title=Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=91|issue=1|pages=83–96|pmc=3397267|pmid=22726845|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015}}</ref>
| related          = [[Habesha peoples|Habesha]] ([[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]], [[Amhara people|Amhara]]) • [[Tigre people|Tigre]] •  [[Argobba people|Argobba]] • [[Beta Israel]] • [[Irob people|Irob]] • [[Kunama people|Kunama]] • [[Agaw people|Agaw]] • [[Gurage people|Gurage]] • [[Harari people|Harari]] • [[Zay people|Zay]] • other<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prunier |first1=Gerard |author-link1= |last2=Ficquet |first2=Eloi |author-link2= |date=2015 |title=Understanding contemporary Ethiopia |location=London |publisher=Hurst & Company |page=39|oclc=810950153 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Levine|first1=Donald N.|author-link=Donald N. Levine |title=Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&q=Habesha&pg=PA19|access-date=28 December 2016|isbn=9780226475615|date=2000}}</ref>

<hr />
<div id="note-a" style="text-align:left; font-size:85%; line-height:1.4em; margin-bottom:0.5em">
<sup>a</sup> The word '''"Orthodoxy"''' here refers to [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], not to be confused with [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. All [[Habesha]] Orthodox Churches ([[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|EOTC]], [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|EriOTC]] and [[Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church|TOTC]]) are part of the [[Oriental Orthodox]] communion.
</div>
}}

The '''Tigrayan people''' ({{langx|ti|ተጋሩ|Təgaru}}) are a [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] [[ethnic group]] indigenous to the [[Tigray Region]] of northern [[Ethiopia]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Tigrayans|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|last=Smidt|first=Wolbert|date=2007|editor-last=Uhlig|editor-first=Siegbert}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia|last1=Shinn|first1=David|last2=Ofcansky|first2=Thomas|publisher=The Scarecrow Press, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8108-4910-5|location=Lanham, Maryland|pages=378–380}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ethiopians|last=Ullendorff|first=Edward|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1973|isbn=|location=London|pages=31, 35–37}}</ref> They speak [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], an [[Afroasiatic language]] belonging to the [[Ethio-Semitic_languages#Hudson_(2013)|North Ethio-Semitic]] language descended from [[Geʽez]], and written in the [[Geʽez script]] serves as the main and one of the five official languages of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="africanews.com">{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=12 April 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] is also the main language of the [[Tigrinya people]] in central [[Eritrea]], who share ethnic, linguistic, and religious ties with Tigrayans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gragg |first=Gene B. |title=Tigrinya |editor=Robert Hetzron |work=The Semitic Languages |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |pages=425–445}}</ref>

According to the 2007 national census, Tigrayans numbered approximately 4,483,000 individuals, making up 6.07% of [[Ethiopia]]’s total population at the time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census |url=https://www.statsethiopia.gov.et/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Statistical-Report-2007.pdf |publisher=Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia |date=2008 |access-date=2025-07-14}}</ref> The majority of Tigrayans adhere to [[Oriental Orthodox Christianity]], specifically the [[Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], although minority communities also follow [[Islam]] or [[Catholicism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abbink |first=Jon |title=Religion in Public Spaces: Emerging Muslim–Christian Polemics in Ethiopia |journal=African Affairs |volume=112 |issue=446 |pages=253–274 |year=2013 |doi=10.1093/afraf/adt008}}</ref>
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Historically, the Tigrayan people are closely associated with the [[Aksumite Empire]] whose political and religious center was in Tigray,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillipson |first=David W. |title=Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300 |publisher=James Currey |year=2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}} and later the [[Ethiopian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taddesse Tamrat |title=Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |pages=98–99}}</ref> Tigrayans played major roles in the political history of Ethiopia, including during the 17th-century [[Zemene Mesafint]] (Era of the Princes), and later in the 20th century through events the [[Woyane rebellion]] and the [[Ethiopian Student Movement]], or movements like  [[Tigray People's Liberation Front]] (TPLF), which became the dominant faction in the coalition that overthrew the [[Derg]] in 1991 and ruled [[Ethiopia]] through the [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) until 2018.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=John |title=Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaughan |first=Sarah |title=Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia |publisher=University of Edinburgh |year=2003 |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/605 |access-date=2025-07-14}}</ref>

Like other northern highland peoples, Tigrayans often identify with the broader [[Habesha]] ([[Abyssinian people|Abyssinian]]) identity—a term used historically to describe the [[Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] Christian populations of the [[Ethiopian Highlands|Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levine |first=Donald N. |title=The Concept of "Greater Ethiopia" |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=367–376 |year=1972 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00024756 |doi-broken-date=18 July 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |publisher=University of California Press |year=1994}}</ref>

Areas where Tigrayans have strong ancestral links are: [[Enderta Province|Enderta]], [[Agame]], [[Tembien]], [[Kilte Awulaelo|Kilite Awlalo]], [[Axum]], Raya, Humera, Welkait, and Tsegede.  The latter three areas are now under the de facto administration of the [[Amhara Region]], having been forcibly annexed by Amhara during the [[Tigray War]].

==Origin==

In his ''[[Geographia]]'', the 2nd-century [[Alexander the Great|Alexandrian]] geographer [[Claudius Ptolemy]], identifies a people known as the ''Tigritae'' or ''Tigraei'' (Τιγρῖται), located inland from the [[Red Sea]] coast in the area corresponding to the northern Horn of Africa. These names have been interpreted by some modern scholars as a possible early reference to the highlanders of modern-day [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref name="Ptolemy, 1965, pp. 8">Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Book 4, Chapter 7; see also: Edward Ullendorff, ''The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People'', Oxford University Press, 1965, pp. 8–9.</ref><ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527 p. 1">Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527)'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972, p. 1.</ref>  Though the identification remains tentative, it is often regarded as the earliest known external allusion to a group or region bearing a name similar to Tigray.<ref name="Ptolemy, 1965, pp. 8"/><ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527 p. 1"/> On top of that, [[Ptolemy]] mentions the existence of a city called ''Coloe'' (Κολόη), which has been identified with [[Qohayto]] in [[Eritrea]], placing his geographical framework close to the [[Tigray-Tigrinya]] highlands.<ref>Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Book 4.7.27; cf. Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopians: A History'', Blackwell, 2001, p. 21.</ref><ref>R.H. Tappe, "The Location of Ancient Coloe," in ''The Geographical Journal'', Vol. 123, No. 4 (1957), pp. 451–454.</ref><ref>A. J. Arkell, "The Location of Coloe", in ''Sudan Notes and Records'', Vol. 38 (1957), pp. 100–102.</ref><ref>R. Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopians: A History'', Oxford: Blackwell, 2001, p. 21.</ref>

The first clear references of Tigray emerged in 9th- to 12th-century Arabic geographical texts, where Islamic scholars such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh|Ibn Khurradādhbih]], [[Ya'qubi|al-Yaʿqūbī]], [[Ibn Ḥawqal]], [[al-Maqdisi|al-Maqdisī]], [[al-Iṣṭakhrī]], and [[al-Idrīsī]] refer to a region called ''Tīgrī'' or ''Tīgra'', identifying it as a distinct Christian province within the broader kingdom of al-Ḥabasha ([[Abyssinia]]).<ref name="Goeje 1889 p. 6">M.J. de Goeje, ed., ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 6: Ibn Khurradādhbih, ''Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik'' (Leiden: Brill, 1889), p. 6.</ref><ref name="Al-Yaʿqūbī, 1892 pp. 333">Al-Yaʿqūbī, ''Kitāb al-Buldān'', ed. M.J. de Goeje, in: ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 7 (Leiden: Brill, 1892), pp. 333–334.</ref><ref name="Arḍ 1964 pp. 77">Ibn Ḥawqal, ''Kitāb Ṣūrat al-Arḍ'', ed. Kramers and Wiet (Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1964), pp. 77–78.</ref><ref>Al-Maqdisī, ''Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm'', ed. M.J. de Goeje, in: ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1877), pp. 227–229.</ref><ref>Al-Idrīsī, ''Nuzhat al-Mushtāq fī Ikhtirāq al-Āfāq'', ed. G. Ferrand, Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1927, vol. 1, p. 46.</ref><ref>Enrico Cerulli, ''Etiopia Occidentale, vol. II: La Storia'', Roma: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1956, pp. 108–111.</ref>{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=260}}<ref>Levine, Donald N., ''Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society'', University of Chicago Press, 1974, pp. 65–66.</ref> These sources portray Tigray as a politically and culturally autonomous highland territory, often differentiated from neighboring regions such as Amhār ([[Amhara Province|Amhara]]) and al-Bajā ([[Beja people|Beja]]), and ruled by its own Christian authorities under the suzerainty of a king (the [[Negus]]).<ref>Trimingham, J. Spencer. ''Islam in Ethiopia''. London: Frank Cass, 1952, pp. 22–25.</ref><ref>Fauvelle, François-Xavier. ''Le royaume chrétien d’Éthiopie: Des origines à l’âge d’or''. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2017, pp. 154–158.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527)'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972, pp. 20–23.</ref>

[[File:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|left|260px|[[Al-Idrisi]]'s world map from his [[Tabula Rogeriana]] (c. 12th century)]]
In his  ''[[Book of Roads and Kingdoms|Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik]]'' ("The Book of Roads and Kingdoms"), the Persian geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh|Ibn Khurradādhbih]] lists “Tīgrī” (تيغري) as a distinct Christian-inhabited territory  under the rule of a king within the lands of ''al-Ḥabasha'' ([[Abyssinia]]), alongside other regions such as [[Nubia]] and al-Bajā ([[Beja people|Beja]]).<ref name="Goeje 1889 p. 6"/><ref name="Trimingham, J. Spencer 1952, pp. 22">Trimingham, J. Spencer. ''Islam in Ethiopia''. London: Frank Cass, 1952, pp. 22–23.</ref> His account marks the first known external textual identification of a distinct ethno-political region in what would later be formalized as Tigray.<ref name="Goeje 1889 p. 6"/><ref name="Trimingham, J. Spencer 1952, pp. 22"/> A few decades later, [[al-Yaʿqūbī]] (d. 897), in his ''[[Kitab al-Buldan (Ya'qubi book)|Kitāb al-Buldān]]'' ("Book of Countries"), echoed this distinstiguishing ''Tigri'' from other regions such as ''Amhār'' and ''Kūstantīn'' (likely referencing the ancient Christian center of Aksum), this providing one of the earliest external sources to record a regional division resembling Ethiopia's later provinces.<ref name="Al-Yaʿqūbī, 1892 pp. 333"/><ref>Cerulli, Enrico. ''Etiopia Occidentale'', vol. 1. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente, 1943, p. 35.</ref> [[Al-Iṣṭakhrī]], in his own version of ''al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik'', similarly names Tīgrī as one of the Christian territories of the Ethiopian highlands.<ref>M.J. de Goeje (ed.), ''Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik'' by al-Iṣṭakhrī, in: ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 1, Leiden: Brill, 1870, p. 7.</ref> His contemporary, [[Ibn Ḥawqal]], in his geographical treatise [[Surat Al-Ard|Kitāb Ṣūrat al-Arḍ]] ("The Face of the Earth"), likewise refers to Tīgrī (تيغري) as a distinct region within the broader Christian kingdom of al-Ḥabasha, emphasizing its separation from other regions such as the land of the Beja and Nubians.<ref name="Arḍ 1964 pp. 77"/><ref>Fauvelle, François-Xavier. ''Le royaume chrétien d’Éthiopie: Des origines à l’âge d’or''. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2017, pp. 155–158.</ref>

Shortly thereafter, [[Al-Maqdisi|al-Maqdisī]] (al-Muqaddasī), writing in his ''Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm'' ("The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions"), includes ''Tīgrī'' in his description of the “land of the blacks” (''bilād al-sūdān''), specifically noting it as one of several Christian realms inland from the [[Red Sea]]. Later, [[al-Idrīsī]], writing in [[Italo-Normans|Norman Sicily]] in 1154 CE, describes “''Tīgra''” as a province of the kingdom of al-Ḥabasha in his major work ''[[Tabula Rogeriana|Nuzhat al-Mushtāq fī Ikhtirāq al-Āfāq]]''. These texts collectively suggest that the toponym "Tigray" (or its variants Tīgrī, Tīgra) had entered the lexicon of Islamicate cartography and ethnography by the early medieval period.<ref>Al-Istakhri, ''Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik'', in: M.J. de Goeje, ed., ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1870), pp. 22–23.</ref><ref>Ibn Ḥawqal, ''Ṣūrat al-’Arḍ'', in: M.J. de Goeje, ed., ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1873), pp. 38–39.</ref><ref>Al-Maqdisī, ''Aḥsan al-Taqāsim fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm'', in: M.J. de Goeje, ed., ''Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum'', vol. 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1877), pp. 354–356.</ref><ref>Al-Idrisi, ''Nuzhat al-Mushtāq fī Ikhtirāq al-Āfāq'', ed. G. Ferrand, in: ''Recueil de documents sur l’histoire de la géographie musulmane'', Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1927.</ref>

While early Islamic geographers offered some of the first external references to Tigray, it should also be acknowledged that the [[Christian world]], particularly through late antique and medieval sources, retained knowledge of the region primarily through [[ecclesiastical]] and [[geographic]] lenses. A notable example of that appears in a marginal 10th-century gloss to the works of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], a 6th-century [[Alexandria]]n merchant and [[Christian]] monk who had traveled to the [[Red Sea]]. According to this source, the inhabitants of the northern Ethiopian highlands are referred to as the ''Tigrētai''  ({{langx|el|Τιγρήται}}) and the ''Agazē'' ({{langx|el|ἀγαζη}}), the latter term referring to the "[[Agʿazi]]" ({{langx|gez|አግዓዚ}}) people, who were associated with the Aksumite ruling elite and [[Habesha peoples|Semitic-speaking highlanders]].<ref name="Wolska-Conus, Wanda 1968, pp. 108">Wolska-Conus, Wanda. ''Cosmas Indicopleustès: Topographie Chrétienne'', vol. 1, Paris: Éditions du CNRS, 1968, commentary and notes on Book 2, pp. 108–110.</ref>

By the 14th century, the term ''Tigray'' appears in [[Geʽez]] royal chronicles and administrative records during the reign of Emperor [[Amda Seyon]] (1314–1344), referring to a northern province of the [[Ethiopian Empire]] governed by regional nobles and military leaders.<ref>Perruchon, Jules. Chronique du roi Amda Sion. Paris: Leroux, 1894.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.</ref> In addition to that, ecclesiastical sources such as the ''Gädlä'' ''[[Ewostatewos]]'' (Hagiography of [[Ewostatewos]]) documents the saint's journeys and religious activities in [[Tigray]], highlighting the region's prominence as a monastic and theological center.<ref>Colin, G. “La vie d’Ewostatewos”, in Annales d'Éthiopie, vol. 4, 1961, pp. 37–74.</ref> Additionally, 15th-century royal land grant charters issued under emperors like [[Zara Yaqob]] mention specific districts in Tigray by name—including [[Tembien]], [[Adwa]], and [[Shire]]—demonstrating a sustained administrative and fiscal delineation of the region.<ref>Derat, Marie-Laure. ''Le domaine des rois éthiopiens (1270–1527)''. École Française d’Athènes, 2003, pp. 201–228.</ref> Administrative land grant documents (''Gwǝlt''), preserved in church archives, also mention estates located in ''“the land of Tǝgray,”'' indicating that the term was used in formal legal and fiscal contexts.<ref>Derat, Marie-Laure. ''Le domaine des rois éthiopiens (1270–1527)''. École Française d’Athènes, 2003.</ref> [[Baeda Maryam I]]'s royal [[chronicle]] (r. 1468–1478) also describes military campaigns and religious patronage in [[Tigray]], especially the emperor's support for monastic networks affiliated with [[Ewostatewos|Ewostatean]] traditions.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat. ''Church and State in Ethiopia: 1270–1527''. Oxford University Press, 1972, pp. 221–230.</ref> These varied Ethiopian sources confirm that Tigray was not only a geographically defined province but also a central node in the religious, political, and symbolic landscape of the medieval [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopian state]]. Local chronicles from [[Enderta province|Enderta]] and [[Agame]] also reference Tigray as a broader regional identity, distinct yet integrated within the imperial order.<ref>Erlich, Haggai. ''Ethiopia and the Challenge of Independence''. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1982, pp. 35–40.</ref>

[[File:Carte d'Ethiopie et de l'Empire des Abyssins, autrement du Prestre Jan - faite sur les lieux par les RR. PP.Manoel d'Almeida, Affonso Mendez, Pero Pays & Jeronimo Lobo qui y ont demeurez long-temps - btv1b8493125n.jpg|thumb|300px| [[Melchisédech Thévenot]]'s map of [[Abyssinia]] based on accounts by Jesuit missionaries [[Manuel de Almeida]], [[Afonso Mendes]], [[Pedro Páez]] & [[Jerónimo Lobo]] (ca. 17th–18th century)]]
The earliest known European references to the region of Tigray appear in the 16th century, during the period of [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] exploration and diplomatic engagement with the [[Christian]] [[Ethiopian Empire]]. One of the most important early witnesses was [[Francisco Álvares]], a Portuguese priest and royal envoy who accompanied the 1520–1527 mission to the court of Emperor [[Lebna Dengel]]. In his account, ''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias'' ("A True Relation of the Lands of [[Prester John]] of the Indies"), Álvares explicitly names “Tigré” as a major province of the empire. He describes it as a land of stone churches, learned clergy, and ancient [[Christian]] traditions, particularly focusing on [[Aksum]], which he identified as the site of royal coronations and religious reverence. Álvares also records the presence of the local nobility and refers to Tigré's role in resisting the [[Muslim]] incursions led by [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] during the early stages of the [[Ethiopian–Adal war]].<ref>Francisco Álvares, ''The Prester John of the Indies'', trans. and ed. Lord Stanley of Alderley, Hakluyt Society, 1881, pp. 193–205.</ref><ref>Pankhurst, Richard. ''The Ethiopians: A History''. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001, pp. 77–79.</ref>

Following [[Francisco Álvares|Álvares]], the [[Jesuit]] missionary [[Jerónimo Lobo]], who traveled through Ethiopia in the early 17th century, also emphasized the importance of Tigré as a Christian stronghold. In his travel narrative ''Itinerário e outras obras'', he recounted the region's churches, monastic communities, and its connections to early Christian relics and traditions, including associations with the Ark of the Covenant in Aksum. He identified Tigré as distinct from other provinces such as Amhara or [[Shewa]], and praised the piety and hospitality of its people. His writings were later translated and popularized in English by [[Samuel Johnson]], further spreading knowledge of Tigré among European readers.<ref>Jerónimo Lobo, ''A Voyage to Abyssinia'', trans. Samuel Johnson, London: 1735, pp. 81–83.</ref><ref>Boxer, Charles R. ''The Christian Century in Japan: 1549–1650''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951, Appendix D.</ref>

In the later 17th century, the most comprehensive European treatment of Ethiopian geography and culture was produced by [[Hiob Ludolf]], a German [[Oriental studies|orientalist]] and [[linguist]] whose ''Historia Aethiopica'' (1681) became the standard European reference on Ethiopia for decades. Ludolf based his work on Ethiopian sources, interviews with Ethiopian monks and emissaries in [[Rome]], and correspondence with [[Jesuit]] missionaries in the [[Horn of Africa]]. He refers to Tigray as ''“Regio Tigrensis”'' or ''“Tigraia”'', describing it as one of the core regions of the Empire. Ludolf notes its proximity to the [[Red Sea]], its connection to the ancient [[Kingdom of Aksum]], and its linguistic particularities — identifying [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] as a variant of [[Geʿez]] still spoken by the people of the region. He includes maps and ethnographic details that distinguish Tigray from neighboring regions such as Amhara and [[Begemder]].<ref>Hiob Ludolf, ''Historia Aethiopica'', Frankfurt: 1681, pp. 26–28, 47–50.</ref><ref>Sven Rubenson, ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence''. London: Heinemann, 1976, p. 31.</ref>

These early European sources consistently depicted Tigray not only as a geographically distinct province but also as a religious and historical heartland of the Ethiopian state. They frequently associated it with the memory of [[Aksumite]] kingship, monastic scholarship, and the ecclesiastical authority of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].<ref>Poncet, Charles Jacques. ''A Voyage to Ethiopia, Made in the Years 1698, 1699 and 1700''. In: Churchill, Awnsham and John (eds.). ''A Collection of Voyages and Travels'', Vol. 1. London: Churchill, 1732, pp. 705–715.</ref><ref>Lobo, Jerónimo. ''The Itinerário: Voyage to Abyssinia''. Translated by Donald M. Lockhart. London: Hakluyt Society, 1984 [original Portuguese manuscript c. 1620s–1630s], pp. 98–102, 143–145.</ref><ref>de Almeida, Manuel. ''The History of High Ethiopia or Abassia''. Translated by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1954 [written c. 1624–1634], pp. 114–117, 140–150.</ref> Over time, references to "Tigré" and "Tigrai" became standard in European maps and writings on the region, including those by [[cartographers]] such as [[Ortelius]], [[Willem Blaeu|Blaeu]], and [[Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville|d’Anville]], who often marked “Tigre Regio” or “Regnum Tigré” on maps of East Africa produced between the 16th and 18th centuries.<ref>Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville, ''Éthiopie ou Abissinie'', in: ''Atlas général'', Paris: 1757.</ref><ref>Willem Blaeu, ''Africa Nova Tabula'', Amsterdam: 1645.</ref><ref>Ortelius, Abraham. ''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum'', Antwerp: 1570.</ref>

[[File:19th cent Tigray map.png|thumb|270px|[[Germany|German]] cartographer [[:de:Friedrich Handtke|Friedrich Handtke]]'s map of [[Tigray]], encompassing places as far as [[Debarwa]] to the north, [[Welkait]] to the east and [[Lasta]] to the south (early 19th-century)]]

The [[Scottish people|Scottish]] explorer [[James Bruce]], writing in the late 18th century, described [[Abyssinia]] as geographically divided into two principal provinces: ''“Tigré, which extends from the Red Sea to the river [[Tekeze River|Tacazzé]]; and Amhara, from that river westward to the [[Oromo people|Galla]], which inclose Abyssinia proper on all sides except the north-west.”'' Moreover, he emphasized the commercial importance of Tigray due to its proximity to the [[Red Sea]] trade routes:

<blockquote> "Tigré is a large and important province, of great wealth and power. All the merchandise destined to cross the [[Red Sea]] to [[Arabia]] must pass through this province, so that the governor has the choice of all commodities wherewith to make his market."<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |title=Bruce's Travels and Adventures in Abyssinia |date=1860 |page=83 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.01037/page/83/mode/2up?q=tigre}}</ref> </blockquote>

By the early 19th century, [[English people|English]] diplomat and [[Egyptologist]] [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]] also emphasized the strategic and military strength of Tigray. In his 1816 account A ''Voyage to Abyssinia'', Salt identified three great divisions of the Ethiopian highlands: Tigré, [[Bete Amhara|Amhara]], and [[Shewa]].<ref name="A10">{{cite book|title=Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sttPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA53|year=1833|publisher=Charles Knight|page=53}}</ref><ref name="A4">{{cite book|first=Henry |last=Salt|url=https://archive.org/details/avoyagetoabyssi00saltgoog |title=A Voyage to Abyssinia|publisher= M. Carey |date=1816}}</ref> He considered Tigré to be the most powerful of the three, citing “''the natural strength of the country, the warlike disposition of its inhabitants, and its vicinity to the sea coast,”'' which enabled it to secure a monopoly on imported [[muskets]].<ref name="SaltVoyage">{{cite book |last=Salt |first=Henry |title=A Voyage to Abyssinia |publisher=M. Carey |date=1816 |pages=378–382 |url=https://archive.org/details/avoyagetoabyssi00saltgoog }}</ref>

Salt further subdivided the kingdom of Tigré into smaller provinces, referring to the heartland as Tigré proper. This included districts such as [[Enderta Province|Enderta]], [[Agame]], [[Wojjerat]], [[Tembien Province|Tembien]], [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shiré]] and [[Medri Bahri|Baharanegash]].<ref name=A11>Henry Salt [https://archive.org/details/avoyagetoabyssi00saltgoog/page/n383 A Voyage to Abyssinia]. Published in 1816 pp. 378–382 Google Books</ref> Within [[Medri Bahri|Baharanegash]], the northernmost district of [[Hamasien]] marked the edge of Tigré, beyond which Salt noted the presence of the [[Beja people|Beja]] (or Boja) people living further north.<ref name="SaltVoyage" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge |publisher=Charles Knight |year=1833 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sttPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA53}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: Bassantin – Bloemaart, Volume 4 |publisher=Charles Knight |year=1835 |page=170 |url=https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias12longgoog/page/n177 }}</ref>

===Ethnogenesis===
{{Main||Agʿazi}}
[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] is a North [[Ethio-Semitic]] language, closely related to [[Geʽez]] and spoken primarily by the Tigrayans and the [[Tigrinya people]] of central [[Eritrea]].<ref>Hetzron, Robert. "The Semitic Languages." Routledge, 1997.</ref><ref>Gragg, Gene B. "Tigrinya." In The Semitic Languages, edited by Robert Hetzron, 425–445. Routledge, 1997.</ref> The ethnogenesis of the Tigrayan people is rooted in the interaction between [[Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumites]], who spoke early forms of [[Geʽez]], and the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic-speaking]] populations inhabiting the northern [[Horn of Africa]], such as the [[Agaw]].<ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1960">Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1960.</ref><ref>Amanuel Sahle. “Ethiopia: A Historical Perspective of the Ethnic Composition of Tigray.” Africa Spectrum, vol. 20, no. 2 (1985), pp. 123–135.</ref> During the height of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (c. 1st–7th century AD), the political, religious, and linguistic center of the empire was located in modern-day [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]], with cities like [[Aksum]] and [[Adulis]] serving as hubs of trade, [[Christianity]], and imperial administration.<ref>Phillipson, David W. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300. James Currey, 2012.</ref>{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}

Building on this historical foundation, scholars have identified the term [[Agʿazi]] (Geʽez: አግዓዚ) in early inscriptions and royal texts from the [[D'mt|pre-Aksumite]] and [[Aksumite]] periods, as referring to both a [[Semitic-speaking]] people and their language, widely seen as ancestral to the [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speaking populations of the [[Ethiopian Highlands|northern highlands]]. Modern scholars regard the [[Agʿazi]] as the direct ethnolinguistic ancestors of the Tigrayan and [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] populations of northern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], rather than of the [[Amhara people|Amhara]], whose [[Amharic|language]] and sociopolitical structures evolved farther south under different influences.<ref>Leslau, Wolf. Etymological Dictionary of Ethiopian Semitic. Otto Harrassowitz, 1987.</ref><ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1965">Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1965.</ref> The development of [[Geʽez]] into [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]] is thus seen as a process of regional linguistic continuity, whereas [[Amharic]]—while part of the broader [[Ethio-Semitic]] family—emerged in a later context, shaped by [[Cushitic]] substrata and more distant from the core [[Agʿazi]] heritage.<ref name="Hetzron, Robert 1997">Hetzron, Robert. The Semitic Languages. Routledge, 1997.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Charles A. “Ethiopian Language Area.” International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 30, no. 3, 1964.</ref>

As the Aksumite polity declined and political power shifted southward, many northern highland communities continued to speak local derivatives of [[Geʽez]], giving rise to [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] as a distinct vernacular language by the early second millennium.<ref>Bender, Lionel M. “The Languages of Ethiopia.” Oxford University Press, 1976.</ref><ref>Kapeliuk, Olga. “The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. Hetzron, 404–423.</ref> The gradual consolidation of Tigrinya-speaking communities, coupled with common religious affiliation to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] and localized political traditions (such as the rules of ''[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Important regional offices|Bahr negash]]'' and ''[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Important regional offices|Tigray Mekonnen]]'' in northern [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]]), fostered the emergence of a coherent Tigrayan identity.<ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527">Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527). Clarendon Press, 1972.</ref><ref>Crummey, Donald. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century. James Currey, 2000.</ref> Archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence suggest that the Tigrayan ethnolinguistic group thus emerged through a long process of ethno-cultural continuity and differentiation within the broader [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] and post-Aksumite highland society.<ref name="Finneran, Niall 2007">Finneran, Niall. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge, 2007.</ref><ref>Bayne, Samuel G. On the Track of the Ancient Ethiopians. London: J. Lane, 1910.</ref>

Moreover, the [[British people|British]] explorer [[Charles Tilstone Beke]], who traveled in [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] in the 1840s, asserted that the Tigréans and [[Amharas]] were ''“two different races, differing in language, character, and physiognomy”'', and argued that the Tigréans were the “true representatives of the ancient [[Abyssinian people|Abyssinians]]” due to their continuity with the [[Aksumite]] heritage.<ref>Beke, Charles T. "On the Origin of the Galla and the Rise of the Amharic Language." Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. 1, 1846, pp. 45–61.</ref> His conclusions reflected a broader trend among 19th-century European travelers—such as [[James Bruce]], [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]], and later [[Theophilus Waldmeier]]—who associated the Tigrayan people with the historical legacy of the [[Aksumite Empire]], and by extension, the classical Christian civilization of Ethiopia.<ref>Bruce, James. ''Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile''. Edinburgh: 1790.</ref><ref>Salt, Henry. ''A Voyage to Abyssinia''. London: 1814.</ref><ref>Waldmeier, Theophilus. ''Ten Years in Abyssinia''. London: 1868.</ref> This association was often based on the concentration of early Christian monuments in Tigray (particularly in [[Aksum]], [[Yeha]], and [[Adwa]]), the continued use of [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], a language derived from [[Geʽez]], and the presence of monastic traditions viewed as direct descendants of early [[Ethiopian Orthodoxy]].

Later scholars, such as [[Edward Ullendorff]], would argue that the linguistic and religious conservatism of the northern highlands (especially the retention of [[Geʽez]] in church liturgy and the preservation of [[Aksumite]] ruins) contributed to a historical self-perception among Tigrayans as guardians of ancient Ethiopian identity, in contrast to the [[Amhara people|Amhara]], who came to political prominence in later medieval and early modern periods.<ref>Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1960, pp. 45–48.</ref>

===Etymology===
{{Main||Tigrinya language|Tigrayan-Tigrinya people}}
The toponym Tigray is probably originally ethnic, the ''Tigrētai'' then meant "the tribes near [[Adulis]]." These are believed to be the ancient people from whom the present-day Tigrayans, the Eritrean tribes [[Tigre people|Tigre]] and [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] are descended from.<ref name="Wolska-Conus, Wanda 1968, pp. 108"/>

Although the linguistic roots of the name ''Tigray'' are not definitively established, several theories exist. Some scholars link it to the [[Geʽez]] root "ተገረ" (''Tagära''), meaning “to ascend” or “upper place,” possibly referring to the elevated terrain of the Tigrayan plateau.<ref>Conti Rossini, Carlo. "Etiopia e Galla." In: Rendiconti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 1910.</ref> A common theory holds that Tigray is a later evolution of the root “T’GR”, which may have originally referred to a specific sub-region or population within the [[Aksumite]] kingdom.<ref>Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Frank Cass, 1952, pp. 22–23.</ref> In this reading, the word may have designated the [[Ethiopian Highlands|central-northern highland]] area from which the language now known as [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] later emerged.<ref>Kapeliuk, Olga. "The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia." In The Semitic Languages, ed. R. Hetzron, Routledge, 1997.</ref>

Another strand of scholarship focuses on the ethnonym ''Təgaru'' (ተጋሩ) — the endonym used in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] to refer to the [[Tigrayan people]] — and its relation to the language name [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] (ትግርኛ, Tǝgrǝñña). Some linguists argue that the root TGR is not only geographic (as in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]]) but also ethno-linguistic, originally designating speakers of a [[Geʽez language|Geʽez]]-derived northern [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] language who maintained cultural and political continuity from the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite period]].<ref name="Weninger, Stefan 2011">Weninger, Stefan. The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 1028–1030.</ref> The suffix ({{langx|gez|ኛ|inya}}) as in {{langx|ti|ትግርኛ|Təgrəñña}} is a typical [[Amharic language|Amharic]]-derived marker for languages or affiliations (comparable to {{langx|am|አማርኛ|Amarəñña}} from [[Amharic|Amhara]]), making Tigrinya literally mean "of the [[Tigray]]" or "''Təgaru''-related".<ref name="Leslau, Wolf 1952">Leslau, Wolf. Ethiopian Semitic: Studies in Classification. University of California Press, 1952.</ref>

While some late sources have occasionally associated ''Təgaru'' with wider [[Semitic peoples|Semitic groups]], most academic interpretations consistently link it to the inhabitants of the [[Ethiopian Highlands|central-northern highlands]], particularly those whose liturgical and linguistic practices descend from [[Geʽez language|Geʽez]].<ref>Weninger, Stefan. "Tigrinya." In The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 1028–1030.</ref><ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1965"/> This framing further reinforces the distinction between [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] as an indigenous highland language and the later emergence of [[Amharic]] to the south.<ref name="Leslau, Wolf 1952"/>

Some marginal interpretations, often found in 20th-century colonial-era dictionaries or speculative linguistic notes, attempt to impose a rigid social hierarchy between the ''[[Agʿazi]]'' (or "Gäzé") and the ''Tigretês'', framing the former as “nobles” and the latter as socially subordinate or ethnically mixed. However, this interpretation has been challenged by scholars who argue that the derivation of ''Təgaru'' from the [[Geʽez]] root ''gäzärä'' (ገዘረ, “to subdue”) is speculative and lacks support from primary [[Aksumite]] inscriptions or early literary sources.<ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1965"/><ref name="Weninger, Stefan 2011"/> Rather than being socially subordinate or external to the [[Aksumite]] elite, the forefathers of the [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speaking communities were integral to the [[Aksumite Empire]], especially in the preservation and transmission of [[Geʽez]], [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Orthodox Christianity]], and [[Ethiopian architecture|classical architecture]]. Their historical centrality is evidenced by their custodianship of core highland religious and cultural centers such as [[Aksum]], [[Yeha]], and [[Debre Damo]].{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}<ref>Fiaccadori, Gianfranco. "Aksum." In Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1, ed. Siegbert Uhlig, Harrassowitz, 2003, pp. 185–192.</ref><ref>Bausi, Alessandro. “The Geʽez Script and Its Role in Ethiopian Identity.” In Africana Studia, no. 28, 2017, pp. 17–34.</ref> Moreover, linguistic studies affirm that terms like ''Təgaru'' and ''Tigrinya'' derive from indigenous [[Ethio-Semitic]] roots linked to the highland region—not from imposed designations of subjugation.<ref name="Leslau, Wolf 1952"/><ref name="Hetzron, Robert 1997"/> As such, framing the ''Tigrétês'' as a socially inferior group distinct from the ''Agʿazi'' overlooks the ethno-linguistic continuity and cultural authority of the northern highland populations, who were among the primary successors of the [[Aksumite Empire]].<ref>Finneran, Niall. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge, 2007, pp. 143–145.</ref><ref>Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1965, pp. 70–73.</ref><ref>Bender, M. Lionel. "The Limits of Tigrinya as a Tool for Understanding Ethiopian Ethnohistory." In Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, 1980, pp. 349–360.</ref><ref>Weninger, Stefan. “Tigre and Tigrinya.” In The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 1028–1045.</ref>

In modern usage, "Tigray" refers to both the region and the ethnic group primarily residing in [[Ethiopia]]’s northern highlands, while "Tigrayan" ({{langx|ti|ተጋሩ|Təgaru}}) designates the people, language, and shared cultural identity associated with that region.<ref>Weninger, Stefan. "Tigrinya." In The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger, De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 1028–1030.</ref><ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1965"/><ref>Kaplan, Steven. "Tigrayans." In Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 4, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010, pp. 886–888.</ref><ref>Levine, Donald N. Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press, 1974.</ref> The term remains distinct from but historically related to [[Tigre people|Tigre]], which refers to a different ethnic group speaking the [[Tigre language|Tigre]] language in [[Eritrea]].<ref>Gragg, Gene B. "Tigrinya." In: Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages, Routledge, 1997.</ref><ref>Kapeliuk, Olga. “The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia.” In: Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, pp. 404–423.</ref>

==History==
{{Main||History of Ethiopia}}

The Tigrayan people's long and rich history is undoubtedly intertwined with the formation of the Ethiopian state, its religious traditions, and the development of its distinct cultural identity. Due to its pivotal role in early [[Ethiopian history]], particularly as the heartland of its ancient [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic]] civilizations like [[D'mt]] or the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], Tigray is sometimes designated as the "cradle of Ethiopian civilization."<ref>{{cite web |last1=National Geographic |title=In search of the real Queen of Sheba, Legends and rumors trail the elusive Queen of Sheba through the rock-hewn wonders and rugged hills of Ethiopia. |website=[[National Geographic Society]] |date=3 December 2018 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/mysterious-queen-sheba-legend-church-archaeology |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804123314/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/mysterious-queen-sheba-legend-church-archaeology }}</ref>

According to [[Edward Ullendorff]], the Tigrinya speakers in [[Eritrea]] and Tigray are the authentic carriers of the historical and cultural tradition of ancient [[Abyssinia]].<ref name="The Ethiopians 1973 p. 36">[[Edward Ullendorff]], ''The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p.&nbsp;36</ref> For their part, [[Donald N. Levine]] and [[Haggai Erlich]] regard the contemporary Tigrayans to be the successors of the [[Aksumite Empire]].<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Haggai |title=Greater Tigray and the Mysterious Magnetism of Ethiopia |date=2024 |page=8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-776933-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gJr8EAAAQBAJ&dq=historic+abyssinia+par+excellence&pg=PA8}}</ref>

===Kingdom of D'mt===
{{Main||D'mt|Sabaeans in the Horn of Africa}}

[[File:Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The Temple of [[Yeha]], dating from 7th century BCE, is the oldest standing structure in Ethiopia.]]
The Tigrayans trace their origin to early [[Semitic-speaking]] peoples whose presence in the region may date back to at least 2000 BC.{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}} One of the first known civilizations to emerge in the area was the [[Kingdom of D'mt]], which flourished around the 10th century BCE. The capital of this ancient kingdom may have been near modern-day [[Yeha]], where the remains of a large temple complex and fertile surroundings suggest a well-established and advanced society.<ref name="Thurstan612">{{citation|last=Shaw|first=Thurstan|title=The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmUwjhQX-rcC&pg=PA612|year=1995|page=612|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-11585-8|access-date=10 July 2017|archive-date=27 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327025526/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmUwjhQX-rcC&pg=PA612|url-status=live}}</ref> Indeed, D'mt was known for its advanced agricultural practices, including the use of ploughs and irrigation systems, as well as its production of iron tools and weapons. Archaeological evidence suggests that D'mt was an important center of trade, interacting with surrounding regions, especially [[Arabia]] and the broader [[Red Sea]] world.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodolfo Fattovich |title=The Rise of the Kingdom of D'mt and the Archaeological Evidence of Early Ethiopian Civilization |journal=The Journal of African Archaeology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=43–62 |year=1994}}</ref>

However, the origins of D'mt have been a subject of scholarly debate. Some historians, such as [[Stuart Munro-Hay]], [[:fr:Rodolfo Fattovich|Rodolfo Fattovich]], Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder, and [[Ephraim Isaac]], view the civilization as primarily indigenous, though influenced by [[Sabaeans|Sabaean]] culture due to the Sabaeans' dominance over the [[Red Sea]] trade routes.{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodolfo Fattovich |title=The Red Sea and Its Role in the Formation of Early Ethiopian Civilizations |journal=The Mediterranean Journal of Archaeology |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=50–72 |year=2009}}</ref> Others, including Joseph Michels, [[Henri de Contenson]], Tekletsadik Mekuria, and [[Stanley Burstein]], suggest that D'mt emerged from a blend of Sabaean and indigenous peoples, reflecting a synthesis of Arabian and local African cultural influences.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Joseph Michels |title=D'mt and Its Sabaean Connections |journal=Ethiopian Studies Review |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=21–37 |year=1967}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Stanley Burstein |title=The Kingdom of D'mt and the Development of Ancient Ethiopian Culture |journal=Journal of African History |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=15–30 |year=1984}}</ref>

===Aksumite Empire===
{{Main||Aksumite Empire}}
[[File:Aksumite empire.svg|thumb|250px|Map of the [[Aksumite Empire]] (c. 100-700AD) which includes [[Tigray]] and southern [[Eritrea]] as its original heartland]]
By the 1st century CE, [[D'mt]] had been supplanted by the rise to prominence of the [[Aksumite Empire]] in the region. Centered around [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]], it quickly established itself as one of the most powerful civilizations of antiquity alongside [[Roman Empire|Rome]], [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]], and [[Han dynasty|China]] by controlling much of the [[Red Sea]] coast, parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Moreover, its strategic position also made it a powerful player in the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Indian Ocean]] trade networks with the exportation of luxury goods such as ivory, gold, [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]] and the importation of [[silk]], wine, and other exotic goods, which allowed it to prosper and expand its influence far beyond the [[Horn of Africa]].{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=187}}<ref name="Phillips2014">Phillips, Jacke. “The Foreign Contacts of Ancient Aksum: New finds and some random thoughts.” *Journal of African Archaeology*, 2014, p. 1.</ref><ref name="PeacockBlue2007">Peacock, David P.S. and A.J. Blue. “The Ancient Red Sea Port of Adulis, Eritrea.” *International Journal of Nautical Archaeology*, 2007, p. [insert specific page].</ref><ref name="OxfordIODAfrica">“Indian Ocean and Africa.” *Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History*, Oxford University Press, 2021, para. 1.</ref>

[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|250px|thumb|left|Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st century AD ([[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]) until the later part of the 1st millennium, as it declined due to external pressures from various Islamic [[regional power|powers]].]]

On top of that, the empire was also renowned for its technological and architectural feats, which highlighted both its advanced engineering and cultural significance.

[[File:AXUM. Ezanas. Circa 330-360.jpg|thumb|220px|Gold coin of King [[Ezana]] of Axum (c. 330–360 AD)]]
The Aksumites erected monumental stelae and obelisks such as the [[Ezana Stone]] or the [[Obelisk of Axum]], which were used either as grave markers for Aksumite royalty or as testaments to both their political and religious power while remaining to this day one of the most iconic symbols of the empire's grandeur.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fattovich|first=R.|title=The Red Sea and Its Role in the Formation of Early Ethiopian Civilizations|journal=The Mediterranean Journal of Archaeology|volume=22|issue=3|pages=50–72|year=2009}}</ref> Their advanced water management systems, including dams and irrigation channels, enabled the empire to sustain agricultural productivity and support its growing population, further solidifying its economic base.<ref name="Taddesse 2012">{{cite book|last=Taddesse|first=M.|title=The Zagwe Dynasty and the Evolution of Ethiopian Christianity|publisher=Addis Ababa University Press|year=2012}}</ref>

====Aksumite legacy on Tigrayan cultural identity====
[[File:Axum northern stelea park.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Northern Stelae Park in [[Axum]]]]
The [[Aksumite Empire|Aksumite]] legacy is deeply embedded in Tigrayan identity, as the people of [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] are the direct cultural, territorial, and religious heirs of the Aksumite civilization. The core territory of the [[Aksumite Empire|Aksumite kingdom]] lies squarely within modern-day [[Tigray]], and many of the civilization's major architectural and religious landmarks—including the city of [[Axum|Aksum]] itself, the [[Obelisk of Axum|obelisks]], and [[Architecture_of_Ethiopia#Aksumite_architecture|ancient church]] sites—remain integral to Tigrayan cultural and spiritual life.<ref>Phillipson, David W. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300. James Currey, 2012, pp. 123–147.</ref>{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|pp=1–12, 91–110}}<ref>Fauvelle, François-Xavier. The Golden Rhinoceros: Histories of the African Middle Ages. Princeton University Press, 2018, pp. 55–59.</ref> 

As such, the arrival of Christianity and subsequent conversion of King [[King Ezana|Ezana]] in the 4th century CE made [[Aksumite Empire|Aksum]] one of the earliest empires to adopt Christianity as the [[state religion]], and thus represented a crucial turning point in the religious and cultural development of the Tigrayan people as they not only preserved the newly adopted faith but also helped developing it into the uniquely [[Tewahedo|Ethiopian form of Christianity]] that would endure throughout the latter's tumultuous history.<ref name="Taddesse 2012"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=David W. |title=Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300 |publisher=James Currey |year=2012 |pages=147–149}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=R.|title=A History of Ethiopia|publisher=Lalibela Press|year=1997}}</ref><ref name="Kaplan 2009 35–42">{{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Steven |title=The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia |publisher=Studien zur Kulturkunde |year=2009 |pages=35–42}}</ref> This shift towards Christianity also led to the establishment of [[Church (building)|churches]], [[monasteries]], and religious institutions throughout [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]], many of which became centers of learning, intellectual exchange, theological development, thereby nourishing the emergence of the early [[Ethiopian literature]].<ref name="Taddesse 2012"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Sergew Hable Sellassie|title=Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1972}}</ref> 

This identification is further strengthened by linguistic and religious continuity. The [[Geʽez language|Geʽez]] language, used in Aksumite inscriptions and royal declarations, survives today as the [[liturgical language]] of all [[Tewahedo|Orthodox Tewahedo Churches]], which remains dominant in Tigray.<ref>Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1965, pp. 50–55.</ref><ref>Weninger, Stefan, ed. The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 847–849.</ref> [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], the modern language of the Tigrayan people, is a direct descendant of this ancient [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] linguistic tradition, preserving many features of Aksumite syntax and vocabulary.<ref>Baye Yimam. “The Evolution of Tigrinya.” In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa, 1980.</ref><ref>Leslau, Wolf. Ethiopian Semitic: Studies in Classification. Manchester University Press, 1951.</ref> Religious institutions in Tigray—particularly the ancient [[monasteries]] and churches around Aksum—continue practices, [[Liturgy|liturgies]], and theological interpretations that trace their roots to Aksumite Christianity, further entwining the past with the living identity of the region's population.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia. Harrassowitz Verlag, 1984.</ref><ref>Binns, John. The Orthodox Church of Ethiopia: A History. I.B. Tauris, 2016, pp. 17–35.</ref><ref>Heldman, Marilyn. The Rock-Hewn Churches of Tigray. Oxford University Press, 1972.</ref> 
[[File:Aksum, chiesa nuova di santa maria di zion, costruita da haile selassie negli anni '60, esterno 00,0.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]]; which claims to contain the [[Ark of the Covenant]], is located in [[Axum]]]]
A great example is the fact that [[Aksum]] became the holiest site of [[Ethiopian Orthodoxy]], due to the belief that the [[Ark of the Covenant]] resides at the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] after being brought by its first legendary Emperor [[Menelik I]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Kebra Nagast: The Lost Bible of Rastafarian Wisdom and Faith from Ethiopia |translator=Gerald Hausman |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0312169855}}</ref> This tradition, found in the ''[[Kebra Negast]]'', firmly wove the Tigrayan highlands into [[Ethiopian Empire]]’s political and spiritual fabric, ensuring that the memory of [[Aksumite Empire|Aksum]] remained inseparable from the ideals of kingship, unity, and divine favor that would define the [[Ethiopian Empire]].<ref name="Rubenson 1976 25–27"/><ref name="Kaplan 2009 35–42"/> As the city became a cornerstone of imperial legitimacy and national identity, successive [[List of Ethiopian emperors|Ethiopian emperors]] deliberately sought to anchor their authority in the city's sacred legacy, with coronation ceremonies in [[Aksum]] becoming an indispensable rite of passage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles |publisher=Addis Ababa University Press |year=1998 |pages=5–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bowersock |first=Glen W. |title=The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0199739325 |pages=3–5}}</ref>

Beyond language and religion, historical narratives in Tigray often place the [[History_of_Ethiopia#Aksum|Aksumite period]] at the foundation of Tigrayan identity. Educational curricula, [[Oral tradition|oral traditions]], and cultural commemorations in the region frame Aksum not only as a shared [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian heritage]] but as a particularly Tigrayan inheritance—distinct from other [[Ethnic groups in Ethiopia|ethnonational identities]] in Ethiopia.<ref>Tronvoll, Kjetil. War and the Politics of Identity in Ethiopia: Making Enemies and Allies in the Horn of Africa. James Currey, 2009, pp. 21–23.</ref><ref>Berhe, Aregawi. A Political History of the Tigray People's Liberation Front (1975–1991): Revolt, Ideology, and Mobilisation in Ethiopia. Tsehai Publishers, 2009, pp. 41–42.</ref><ref name="tigraycrisis">{{cite web |last= |first= |title=The Tigray Crisis and the Possibility of an Autocephalous Tigray Orthodox Tewahdo Church |date= 30 July 2021|url=https://publicorthodoxy.org/2021/07/30/tigray-orthodox-church/|access-date=2025-04-26}}</ref><ref name="Kaplan 2009 35–42"/><ref name="Rubenson 1976 25–27">{{cite book |last=Rubenson |first=Sven |title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence |publisher=Heinemann |year=1976 |location=London |pages=25–27}}</ref> In this regard, the city of [[Aksum]] and its surrounding highlands serve as enduring symbols of civilizational prestige and spiritual legitimacy, shaping how Tigrayans view their historical role within the [[Politics of Ethiopia|Ethiopian polity]] and the broader [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>Fauvelle, François-Xavier. The Golden Rhinoceros. Princeton University Press, 2018, pp. 56–59.</ref><ref>Woldeyes, Yirga Gelaw. “The Aksumite Empire and the Making of the Ethiopian Nation.” In Decolonizing Civil Society in Ethiopia, edited by Sisay N. Mengisteab, Routledge, 2021.</ref><ref>Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands, 1997, pp. 50–52.</ref> 

For Tigrayans, Aksum is not a distant historical abstraction but a living component of their local environment and collective memory.<ref>Binns, John. The Orthodox Church of Ethiopia: A History. I.B. Tauris, 2016, pp. 15–20.</ref><ref>Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. Red Sea Press, 1997, pp. 56–59.</ref> Indeed, their connection to [[biblical history]] (with the story of the [[Ark of the Covenant]]), coupled with the region's thriving [[Christian monasticism in Ethiopia|monastic]] and [[Christianity in Ethiopia|religious]] culture, bestowed upon the city of [[Aksum]]—and by extension, the Tigrayans—a distinct spiritual status. This heritage positions them not only as custodians of [[Ethiopia]]'s earliest civilization but also as the guardians of the [[Christian]] faith in [[Africa]].<ref name="tigraycrisis" /><ref name="Rubenson 1976 25–27" /><ref>Kaplan, Steven. “Christianity and the Construction of Culture: The Case of the Ethiopians.” Studia Theologica, vol. 49, no. 1, 1995, pp. 110–112.</ref><ref>Heldman, Marilyn. “Architectural Heritage of Aksum.” African Arts, vol. 14, no. 4, 1981, pp. 48–53.</ref> Modern historical narratives and [[Education in Ethiopia|textbooks]] in Tigray often emphasize Aksum as the starting point of Tigrayan and [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian civilization]], contributing to a regional [[Historiography of Ethiopia|historiography]] that centers [[Tigray]] in the broader Ethiopian [[Ethnosymbolism|national story]]. This selective memory also served both to legitimize political claims and to foster [[Cultural identity|cultural cohesion]] among Tigrayans, particularly in times of external threat or internal fragmentation.<ref>Berhe, Aregawi. A Political History of the Tigray People's Liberation Front (1975–1991). Tsehai Publishers, 2009, pp. 41–45.</ref><ref>Woldeyes, Yirga Gelaw. “The Aksumite Empire and the Making of the Ethiopian Nation.” In Decolonizing Civil Society in Ethiopia, Routledge, 2021.</ref><ref>Tronvoll, Kjetil. War and the Politics of Identity in Ethiopia, 2009, pp. 25–26.</ref>

For all these reasons, proeminent historians such as [[Edward Ullendorff]], [[Donald N. Levine]] and [[Haggai Erlich]] regard the contemporary Tigrayans (and [[Tigrinyas]] in [[Eritrea]]) as the successors of the [[Aksumite Empire]] and the authentic carriers of the historical and cultural tradition of ancient Abyssinia.<ref name="The Ethiopians 1973 p. 36"/><ref name="Oxford University Press"/>

===Zagwe dynasty (1137-1270)===
{{Main||Zagwe Dynasty}}
[[File:Islamic frieze, Wukro Chirkos.jpg|thumb|right|160px|An 11th-century mosque [[frieze]] reappropriated as an arch inside the [[Wukro Chirkos]] church in Tigray. After a [[lithograph]] by [[William Simpson (Scottish artist)|William Simpson]], 1868.]]
During the [[Zagwe dynasty]], Tigray played a significant role in both the political and religious development of the [[Ethiopian highlands]]. While Zagwe kings themselves came were not from Tigray but from the [[Lasta|Lästä]] region, they nonetheless claimed descent from [[Aksumite]] nobility despite their [[Agew|Agäw]] origins and remained closely connected to the northern highlands, particularly through monastic institutions and ecclesiastical networks centered in Tigray.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972, pp. 35–40.</ref><ref>Kaplan, Steven. "The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia." In Studia Patristica, vol. 18, 1989.</ref> Important religious centers such as [[Debre Damo]], [[Debre Maryam Qorqor]], and [[Debre Abbay]] in Tigray remained active throughout the Zagwe period, serving as centers of theological learning, manuscript production, and regional authority.

While the Zagwe court attempted to establish legitimacy through monumental church-building projects in [[Lasta|Lästä]] (such as the famous [[Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela|rock-hewn churches of Lalibela]]), they also relied on the prestige of [[Aksumite]] ancestry, which remained rooted in Tigray's cultural memory. Several traditions, preserved in later [[Ethiopian historiography|Ethiopian chronicles and hagiographies]], suggest that the clergy and monastic elite in Tigray acted as both legitimizers and critics of the Zagwe monarchs, often urging a return to the [[Solomonid dynasty|Solomonic line]] associated with Aksum.{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}<ref>Hubbard, J.R. "Ethiopia and the Legend of the Solomonic Dynasty." Journal of Ethiopian Studies 6, no. 1 (1968): 23–33.</ref>

This ethnic and cultural connection to Tigray allowed the Zagwe rulers to establish a powerful religious and political network that thrived in the northern highlands. Tigrayan nobles provided military and administrative support to the Zagwe kings, and their loyalty ensured the persistence of the dynasty, despite challenges from external and internal forces.<ref>Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 19.</ref><ref>Henze, Paul B. Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (Washington, D.C.: Tafel, 2000), p. 40.</ref> For instance, King [[Gebre Meskel Lalibela|Lalibela]] married a woman from the Tigrayan aristocracy to strengthen the dynasty's rule over the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Derat |first=Marie-Laure |title=The Zāgʷē dynasty (11–13th centuries) and King Yemreḥanna Krestos |journal=Annales d'Éthiopie |volume=25 |year=2010 |pages=157–196 |doi=10.3406/ethio.2010.1412 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2010_num_25_1_1412}}</ref>

===Solomonid Dynasty (1270-1974)===
{{Main||Ethiopian Empire}}

====Early Solomonic Period (1270-1632)====
{{Main|Ethiopia in the Middle Ages}}

====Early Modern Period (1632–1855)====
{{Main|Gondarine period|Zemene Mesafint}}

====Modern Period (1855-1974)====
{{Main|Yohannes IV|First Italo-Ethiopian War|Woyane rebellion}}

===Contemporary Era (1974-present)===

====The Ethiopian Revolution and the rise of the TPLF (1974-1991)====
{{Main|Ethiopian Revolution|Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Ethiopian Civil War|Tigray People's Liberation Front}}

==== The EPRDF in power (1991-2018)====
{{Main|Ethiopia|EPRDF|Meles Zenawi}}

====The Tigray War and its aftermath (2020-present)====
{{Main|Tigray War}}

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Ethiopia|List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia}}
[[File:Ethiopie-Ecoliers Tigray (1).jpg|thumb|left|Tigrayan schoolchildren with their teachers singing near their school, between [[Sekota]] and [[Mekelle]]. ]]
The 2007 Ethiopian census recorded 4,483,741 Tigrayans in Ethiopia, making up 6.1% of the national population and constituting the fourth largest ethnic group in the country after the [[Oromo people|Oromo]], [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Somali people|Somali]].<ref name="2007Census">{{cite web|date=13 July 2010|title=Country Level|url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521|access-date=18 January 2013|work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia|publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]]|archive-date=13 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113215945/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia. (2007). "Population and Housing Census Report."</ref> However, independent estimates placed the population closer to 5.5–6.3 million by 2020, just before the outbreak of the [[Tigray War]].<ref>UNOCHA. (2020). "Ethiopia: Tigray Region Humanitarian Needs Overview."</ref><ref>International Crisis Group. (2020). "Clashes in Ethiopia's Tigray Region Spark War Fears."</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch. (2022). "We Will Erase You From This Land: Crimes Against Humanity and Ethnic Cleansing in Ethiopia's Western Tigray Zone." [https://www.hrw.org]</ref>

As of 2023, ethnic Tigrayans are estimated to range between 4.0 and 4.5 million inside Ethiopia, with a global estimate ranging from 5.7 to 7.3 million when diaspora populations are included, though precise figures are difficult to ascertain due to recent war-related demographic shocks, forced displacement, and restricted access to accurate census data.<ref>UNOCHA. (2023). "Ethiopia: Tigray Region Situation Report, May 2023."</ref><ref>[https://starvingtigray.com World Peace Foundation. (2022). "Starving Tigray."]</ref><ref>[https://unpo.org/article/22299 UNPO. (2021). "Tigray: Deliberate Erasure?"]</ref> The predominantly Tigrayan-populated urban centers are found in towns including [[Mekelle]], [[Adwa]], [[Axum]], [[Adigrat]], and [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shire]]. Huge populations of Tigrayans are also found in other large [[Ethiopian]] cities such as the capital [[Addis Ababa]] and [[Gondar]].

Accurate population data is difficult to obtain due to the effects of the [[Tigray War]] (2020–2022), which caused widespread destruction of civil registries, mass displacement, and restrictions on humanitarian access. Independent estimates suggest that between 385,000 and 600,000 Tigrayans may have died from direct violence, famine, and lack of medical care during the conflict.<ref>Kindeya, T. (2023). "The Toll of a Forgotten Genocide." African Affairs, vol. 122, no. 487.</ref><ref>World Peace Foundation. (2022). Starving Tigray</ref><ref>FEWS NET. (2022). Ethiopia: Tigray Emergency Food Security Outlook</ref> Over 60,000 people fled to [[Sudan]], and hundreds of thousands were internally displaced.<ref>UNHCR. (2022). Sudan Situation: Tigray Refugee Influx Data Dashboard</ref> Human rights organizations have described these events as [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]], particularly in [[Western Tigray]], where [[Amhara Region|Amhara]] regional forces forcibly expelled Tigrayan civilians and erased local administrations.<ref name="Human Rights Watch 2022">Human Rights Watch & Amnesty International. (2022). We Will Erase You From This Land</ref><ref>Gebrekidan, S. et al. (2021). The New York Times. "They Have Destroyed Tigray, Literally."</ref>

In the 19th century, foreign observers such as [[James Bruce]] and [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]] described [[Tigray]] as one of the most populous and politically dominant regions in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].<ref>Bruce, J. (1790). Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Edinburgh.</ref><ref>Salt, H. (1814). A Voyage to Abyssinia. London: Rivington.</ref> At the time, Tigray was a center of imperial politics, literacy, and trade, often rivaling [[Shewa]] in military and cultural influence. However, its share of the national population gradually declined over the subsequent two centuries due to a combination of environmental, political, and economic factors.

The decline of Tigrayan population can be traced back to the ''Kifu Qen'' ({{langx|am|ክፉ ቀን}}, lit. “evil days”), the great famine of 1888–1892. Triggered by drought, locust invasions, and a devastating [[rinderpest]] outbreak, the famine severely affected the [[Ethiopian highlands]], particularly in Tigray, wiping out over 90% of Ethiopia's cattle, the collapse of entire communities, and causing the deaths and displacements of hundreds of thousands of people.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard. "The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, vol. 21, no. 2, 1966, pp. 95–124.</ref><ref name="Kaplan, Steven 1992, pp. 111">Kaplan, Steven. “The Famine of 1888–1892: A Tragedy of Paternalism.” In The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia, NYU Press, 1992, pp. 111–123.</ref><ref>Marcus, Harold G. (2002). A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press.</ref><ref>Pankhurst, Richard. "The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, vol. 21, no. 2, 1966, pp. 95–124. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24621531]</ref>  The effects of this “evil time”—including mass mortality, displacement, and social disintegration—left long-term demographic scars and are often cited as the beginning of Tigray's descent from a dominant regional power to a peripheralized province.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard. (1966). The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment, pp. 95–124.</ref><ref>Kaplan, Steven. (1992). The Famine of 1888–1892: A Tragedy of Paternalism, pp. 111–123.</ref><ref>Caulk, Richard. (1972). Bad Times in Tigray: 1888–1892, Journal of Ethiopian Studies, 10(2), 21–40.</ref> Another major demographic crisis occurred during the [[1958 Tigray famine|1958 famine in Tigray]], which reportedly killed over 100,000 people.<ref>Zewde, Bahru. (1991). A History of Modern Ethiopia: 1855–1974. James Currey, p. 196.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Zewde|first1=Bahru|title=Bahru Zewde, [London: James Currey, 1991], p. 196. "A History of Modern Ethiopia: 1855–1974"|year=1991|publisher=J. Currey |isbn=0821409727}}</ref><ref name="Gill">{{Cite web|last=Gill|first=Peter|title=Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/peter_gill_famine_and_foreigners_ethiopia_sincebook4you.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516155623/http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/peter_gill_famine_and_foreigners_ethiopia_sincebook4you.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-16|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mesfin Wolde Mariam, "Rural Vulnerability to Famine in Ethiopia: 1958-77"|isbn=0946688036 |last1=Wolde-Mariam |first1=Mesfin |last2=Waldamāryām |first2=Masfen |date=1986 |publisher=Intermediate Technology Publications }}</ref> This was followed by a more devastating episode during the [[1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia]], which disproportionately affected [[Tigray]], [[Wollo]], and [[Eritrea]].<ref name="US">{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia Drought/Famine (1983–1985) |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAH005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212224417/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAH005.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |website=[[United States Agency for International Development]] |quote=No. Dead: More than 300,000 No. Affected: 7.75 million}}</ref><ref name="Gill2">{{Cite web |last=Gill |first=Peter |title=Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/peter_gill_famine_and_foreigners_ethiopia_sincebook4you.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516155623/http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/peter_gill_famine_and_foreigners_ethiopia_sincebook4you.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-16 |access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref> The [[Derg]] military regime under [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] used the famine as a counter-insurgency strategy against the [[Tigray People's Liberation Front]] (TPLF), deliberately withholding food aid from rebel-held and civilian areas in what scholars and aid workers described as a politicized famine.<ref>Gill, Peter. (2010). Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid</ref><ref>Wolde-Mariam, Mesfin. (1986). Rural Vulnerability to Famine in Ethiopia: 1958–77</ref><ref>de Waal, Alex. (1991). Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia</ref> According to the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID), the famine killed more than 300,000 people, and some estimates place the toll as high as 1.2 million.<ref>USAID. (1985). Ethiopia Drought/Famine (1983–1985)</ref><ref>Young, J. (2006). Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia, p. 132.</ref>
[[File:Population displacement due to Tigray conflict.jpg|thumb|right| 300px|Population displacement due to the [[Tigray War]] (2020–2022). ]]
In the 1990s, the creation of Ethiopia's [[ethnic federalism|ethnic federal system]] led to the incorporation of [[Welkait]], [[Tsegede]], and [[Tselemti]]—formerly part of the historical [[Begemder]] province—into the newly formed [[Tigray Region]].<ref>Tronvoll, K. (2009). War and the Politics of Identity in Ethiopia. James Currey.</ref><ref>Abbink, J. (2011). "Ethnic-based federalism and ethnicity in Ethiopia: reassessing the experiment after 20 years." Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(4), 596–618.</ref> This move was justified by the [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) based on local identity and self-determination, but was contested by [[Amhara nationalism|Amhara political forces]]. During the [[Tigray War]], these districts were retaken by [[Fano (militia)|Amhara forces]], who conducted [[War crimes in the Tigray war#Ethnic cleansing of Tigrayans in the Western Zone|mass expulsions of Tigrayan residents]] and took control of local administrations.<ref>Amnesty International. (2021). The Mass Expulsion of Tigrayans from Western Tigray</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch 2022"/>

As a result of decades of instability, war, and repression, many Tigrayans have emigrated. The Tigrayan diaspora in the [[United States]] alone is estimated to include over 20,000 first-generation migrants, with tens of thousands more in second-generation or undocumented populations.<ref>U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). American Community Survey</ref><ref>Tigray Development Association (TDA). (2019). Annual Report</ref> Large diaspora populations are also found in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], the [[Nordic countries]], [[Sudan]], and the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]].<ref>Tigray Development Association. (2020). Annual Diaspora Report</ref><ref>UNHCR. (2022). Ethiopia Situation: Tigray Refugees in Sudan</ref>

===Subregions===
{{Main|Agame|Enderta province|Tembien|Raya Azebo|Welkait|Tsegede}}
Although the Tigrayans constitute a single [[Ethnolinguistic group|ethnolinguistic]] people, internally they have long exhibited regional and historical sub-identities with their own socio-cultural traditions that correspond to specific highland districts, dialect zones, and former local principalities.<ref>Aregawi Berhe (2008). ''A Political History of the Tigray People's Liberation Front (1975–1991)''. Tsehai Publishers.</ref><ref>Harold G. Marcus (1994). ''A History of Ethiopia''. University of California Press.</ref>

Historically, Tigray was divided into semi-autonomous districts ruled by hereditary elites bearing titles such as ''Shum Agame'', ''Shum Tembien'', and ''Shum Enderta''.<ref>Sven Rubenson (1976). ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence''. Heinemann.</ref> These principalities—like [[Enderta province|Enderta]], [[Tembien]], and [[Agame]]—served as religious and political centers tied to the broader imperial structure. [[Agame]], for example, bordered modern [[Eritrea]] and often supplied high-ranking clergy and officials.<ref>Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. (2005). ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'', vol. 2. Harrassowitz Verlag.</ref> While autonomous in certain eras, they were interconnected through marriage alliances, military coalitions, and a common allegiance to the Christian highland polity centered in [[Aksum]] and later in [[Adwa]] and [[Mekelle]].<ref>Sven Rubenson (1976). ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence''. London: Heinemann.</ref><ref>Richard Pankhurst (1997). ''The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century''. The Red Sea Press.</ref>

The central and eastern highlands—including [[Enderta province|Enderta]], [[Tembien]], and [[Agame]]—formed the historic core of Tigray and were home to major monasteries, Christian institutions, and leaders like ''Ras'' [[Mikael Sehul]], ''Ras'' [[Wolde Selassie]], ''Shum Agame'' [[Sabagadis Woldu]] and ''Ras'' [[Alula Engida]].<ref>Sven Rubenson (1965). ''King of Kings: Tewodros of Ethiopia''. Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University Press.</ref> The southern districts, notably [[Raya Azebo|Raya]] and [[Ofla]], lie at a cultural crossroads with the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Afar people|Afar]] peoples but remain firmly rooted in Tigrayan identity through language, kinship, and religious affiliation.<ref>Kjetil Tronvoll (2009). ''War and the Politics of Identity in Ethiopia''. James Currey.</ref> To the west, areas such as [[Welkait]], [[Humera]], and [[Tsegede]] were long inhabited by [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speaking Tigrayans and historically administered as part of [[Tigray]], though they became zones of violent displacement and identity-based repression during the [[Tigray War]] (2020–2022).<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr25/5444/2022/en/ Amnesty International (2022). ''"We Will Erase You from This Land"'']</ref>

==Language==
{{Main||Tigrinya language}}
[[File:Map by M. Lionel Bender and colleagues (1976) representing the consensus among ethnographers and linguists about the approximate extent of the Tigrinya language.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|300px|[[Americans|American]] linguist [[Lionel Bender]] and colleagues' map representing the approximate extent of the [[Tigrinya language]] across [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]]. (c. 1976)]]
[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] (ትግርኛ) is a North [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethio-Semitic]] language spoken by an estimated 7 to 9 million people across the Horn of Africa, making it one of the most widely spoken [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethio-Semitic languages]] after [[Amharic]].<ref>Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians. Oxford University Press, 1960.</ref><ref name="Ethntir">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir|title=Tigrinya|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=4 September 2013}}</ref> Tigrinya is closely related to [[Amharic]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]], another [[Ethio-Semitic]] language spoken by the [[Tigre people|Tigre]] as well as many [[Beja people|Beja]] of [[Eritrea]] and [[Sudan]].  Tigrinya and [[Tigre language|Tigre]], though more closely related to each other linguistically than either is to [[Amharic]], are however not mutually intelligible. Tigrinya has traditionally been written using the same [[Ge'ez alphabet]] (''fidel'') as [[Amharic]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]]. 

In [[Ethiopia]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] is the principal language of the [[Tigray Region]], spoken by approximately 6 to 7 million people,<ref name="E28">{{cite web |last1=Eberhard |first1=David M. |last2=Simons |first2=Gary F. |last3=Fennig |first3=Charles D. |title=Tigrinya |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir/|website=Ethnologue, 28th ed. |publisher=SIL International |access-date=March 28, 2025 |date=2025}}</ref><ref>Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA). “Population and Housing Census 2007.”</ref> compared to [[Eritrea]]'s 2.5 to 3 million [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speakers.<ref>Asfaha, Yonas. “Multilingual Literacy in Eritrea and Ethiopia.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 234 (2015), pp. 121–145.</ref><ref>Rena, Ravinder. “Language Policy and Literacy in Eritrea.” African Research Review, Vol. 5, No. 3 (2011), pp. 85–99.</ref> Thus, according to [[Ethnologue]], the Tigrayans comprise over 74% of all [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] [[native speakers]] clearly outweighing the number of [[Eritrea|Eritrean]] [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speakers (26%).<ref name="E28" />

Though mutually intelligible, both varieties have developed under different political and educational systems, leading to subtle differences in orthography, terminology, and media standardization.<ref>Wedekind, Klaus. “The Tigrinya Dialects of Ethiopia.” In Language in Ethiopia, Oxford University Press, 1976.</ref>

[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] traces its roots in the ancient [[Geʽez]]-speaking  [[Kingdom of Aksum]]. As Geʽez ceased to be spoken as a vernacular by around the 10th century CE, descendant languages began to emerge in the [[Ethiopian Highlands|Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands]]. It is believed to have developed as a distinct spoken language during the early medieval period, evolving primarily in the highlands of [[Tigray]] and [[Eritrea]]. The earliest known written attestation of Tigrinya is found in a 13th-century land grant inscription discovered in the [[Debre Maryam Qorqor|Monastery of Däbrä Maryam Qorqor]] in eastern Tigray, contains grammatical features and vocabulary that diverge from classical [[Geʽez]] and are widely recognized as early [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]].<ref>Kapeliuk, Olga. “The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia.” In Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages. Routledge, 1997, pp. 404–423.</ref><ref>Woldegabriel, Giday. “Aksumite Archaeological Sites and Early Inscriptions.” In The Archaeology of Ethiopia, Routledge, 2007.</ref><ref>Gragg, Gene. “Tigrinya.” In The Semitic Languages, Routledge, 1997, pp. 425–445.</ref>

The linguistic continuity between Geʽez and Tigrinya was reinforced by the use of [[Geʽez]] in church liturgy and scriptural translation, while [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] remained a spoken vernacular used in day-to-day life. Over centuries, the consolidation of Tigrinya-speaking communities in provinces such as [[Enderta Province|Enderta]], [[Agame]], and [[Tembien]] contributed to the shaping of a shared ethnolinguistic identity among Tigrayans, distinct from their northern [[Tigre language|Tigre]]-speaking and southern [[Amharic]]-speaking neighbors.<ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1960"/><ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527"/>

===Dialects===
Several Tigrinya dialects, which differ phonetically, lexically, and grammatically from place to place, are more broadly classified as [[Eritrea|Eritrean]] Tigrinya or Tigray ([[Ethiopian]]) dialects.<ref name="leslau">Leslau, Wolf (1941) ''Documents Tigrigna (Éthiopien Septentrional): Grammaire et Textes''. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.</ref> No dialect appears to be accepted as a standard. 

Within the [[Tigray]] Region, [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] exhibits notable phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical variation. Regions such as [[Alamata]] and Wajirat in southern [[Tigray]] display features influenced by [[Amharic]], whereas northern and central zones like [[Enderta Province|Enderta]], [[Agame]], [[Adwa]], [[Axum]], [[Shire]], and [[Raya Azebo]] maintain regional continuity, resulting in differing yet mutually intelligible dialects.<ref>Daniel Teklemariam (1991), cited in IJISRT study on southern Tigray varieties (e.g., Alamata, Wajirat) vs northern/central parts (e.g., Enderta); see paper's introduction and section 1.2 for geographic breakdowns and variation types.</ref><ref>Rainer Vossen & Gábor Takács (eds.), Handbook of African Languages, vol. 3: Afroasiatic Languages (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 669-670, for regional variation within Tigrinya in Ethiopia.</ref> A Tigray proverb metaphorically captures this internal variation: ''“[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] was born in [[Adwa]], became sick in [[Agame]], severely sick in [[Enderta Province|Enderta]] and finally was buried in [[Raya Azebo|Raya]],”'' often interpreted as humorously illustrating the tongue's shifting dialectal “health” from north to south.<ref>Tsehaye Kiros (2009: 9), cited in IJISRT, section 1.2 (Proverb on dialect variation).</ref>

Machine-learning research categorizes [[Tigray]]-based varieties alongside wider groupings, merging multiple zones into synthesized dialect labels (e.g., “Z,” “L,” “D”), derived from prior works distinguishing northern, central, and southern dialects within Tigray.<ref>Hadgu et al. (2023) “Tigrinya Dialect Identification” (ICLR/AfricaNLP), summarizing earlier categorizations of northern, central, southern dialects and their mapping into labels Z, L, D (see “Related Work”).</ref><ref>Weninger, Stefan (ed.), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 1146-1148, on dialect clustering and mutual intelligibility in Tigrinya.</ref> Field descriptions emphasize that phonological shifts (e.g., vowel realization, consonant gemination) and lexical differences (borrowings from [[Amharic]] or [[Saho language|Saho]]) are the main markers of variation, but everyday communication across [[Tigray]] remains fluid, and standard written [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] used in education, media, and administration largely neutralizes regional disparities.<ref>Ethnologue (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig, eds.), “Tigrinya [tir],” 2023 ed., on mutual intelligibility and dialect areas.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” on mutual intelligibility and dialect regions in Tigray.</ref>

While [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] in Tigray and in [[Eritrea]] shows minor differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions, these are comparable to regional differences within a single national language elsewhere. Linguists consistently classify both as the same language, belonging to the [[Ethio-Semitic]] branch, with high mutual intelligibility across the [[Ethiopia]]–[[Eritrea]] border.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” on transboundary use and mutual intelligibility.</ref><ref>Weninger (2011), The Semitic Languages, pp. 1146-1148, on the linguistic unity of Tigrinya across political boundaries.</ref><ref>Ethnologue, “Tigrinya [tir],” 2023 ed., classification notes.</ref>

==Religion==
{{Main||Religion in Ethiopia}}

===Aksumite polytheism===
{{Main||D'mt|Kingdom of Aksum|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia#Influence on Aksum}}
Before the adoption of [[Christianity]] in the 4th century CE, the ancestors of the Tigrayan people practiced a [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religion that incorporated both indigenous African beliefs and external influences from [[South Arabia]]. Several deities were worshipped, including [[Almaqah]], the [[moon god]] also revered by the [[Sabaeans]], as well as other Semitic gods such as the sun god [[Utu]], ʾĪlā and [[Wadd]].<ref>Robin, Christian. “Les Hautes Terres d’Éthiopie et la Péninsule Arabique dans l’Antiquité.” Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 2005, pp. 1299–1335.</ref>{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|pp=66–72}} These practices were especially prominent during the [[Sabaeans in the Horn of Africa|pre-Aksumite]] and early [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] periods, which had strong [[Red Sea]] trade links with [[ancient Yemen]].

Archaeological remains such as the [[Yeha|Temple of Yeha]] in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]], dated to the 7th century BCE, show clear South Arabian architectural influence and are believed to have served as temples dedicated to [[Almaqah]].<ref>Fattovich, R. and Bard, K. “The Proto-Aksumite Period: An Overview.” In Annales d'Éthiopie, vol. 25, 2010, pp. 3–18.</ref> Other sites across the region feature [[shaft tombs]], [[stelae]], and altars used in pre-Christian ritual activity. The use of the [[Ancient South Arabian script|Musnad script]] and references to Arabian deities in local inscriptions point to a period of religious syncretism before the Christianization of the region under [[Ezana of Axum|Emperor Ezana]].<ref>Phillipson, David. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300. James Currey, 2012.</ref><ref>Kaplan, Steven. “The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia.” Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 21, no. 3 (1991), pp. 228–247.</ref>

=== Christianity ===

{{Main||Christianity in Ethiopia}}

====  Oriental Orthodoxy ====
{{Main||Oriental Orthodox Churches|Miaphysitism|Tewahedo}}

Christianity has been the predominant religion of Tigrayans since [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. The vast majority of Tigrayans are adherents of ''[[Tewahedo]]'' [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], specifically the [[Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] which has historically been the dominant religious institution in the region.<ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527"/><ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia. Harrassowitz, 1984.</ref> In fact, [[Tigray]] is often regarded as the spiritual heartland of Ethiopian Orthodoxy, due to its association with the early Christian [[Kingdom of Aksum]]. According to tradition and early inscriptions, [[Christianity]] was introduced to Aksum in the 4th century CE by St. [[Frumentius]] ({{langx|gez|አባ ሰላማ ከሳተ ብርሃን|ʾAbbā Sälāmā Käsātä Bərhān}}),<ref name="b" group="lower-alpha">This title means ''Father of Peace'', ''the Light-Bearer''</ref> who was consecrated as the first [[Abuna|Bishop of Ethiopia]] by St. [[Athanasius]], the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]].{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}<ref name="Ullendorff, Edward 1960"/>

[[File:Ethiopian 9 Saints Mural Axum.jpg|thumb|The [[Nine Saints]] (not all in photo) depicted on the mural in the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]], [[Aksum]]]]

Another pivotal moment for Tigrayan Christianity is the arrival of the [[Nine Saints]] ({{langx|gez|ቱዐታት ቅዱሳን|Tuʾātāt Qeddusān}})<ref name="c" group="lower-alpha">Their names were [[Abba Aftse]], [[Abba Alef]], [[Abuna Aregawi|Abba Aragawi]], [[Abba Garima]], [[Abba Guba]], [[Abba Liqanos]], [[Abba Pantelewon]], [[Abba Tsahma]] and [[Abba Yem'ata]]</ref> during the late 5th to early 6th century CE. These ascetic monks, traditionally said to have come from the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantine Syria]], are credited with reviving [[Christian monasticism]] in the Aksumite realm following the conversion of [[King Ezana]]. Settling in different parts of northern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], particularly in Tigray, they established monasteries, schools, and churches, translated biblical and patristic texts into [[Geʽez]], and promoted [[Miaphysite]] doctrine and monastic discipline.<ref>Sergew Hable Selassie. Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa University Press, 1972, pp. 160–167.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527). Clarendon Press, 1972, pp. 25–27.</ref>

Among the most prominent foundations associated with the Nine Saints are the monasteries of [[Debre Damo]] (founded by [[Abuna Aregawi]]), [[Abuna Yemata Guh]], [[Abba Pantalewon]], Mata Mekel, Mesḥa, and May Qoybah which became hubs of theological learning and spiritual authority, and played a key role in shaping [[Ethiopian architecture|Ethiopian monastic architecture]], hymnography, and liturgy. The saints are also credited with standardizing the use of the [[Geʽez language]] for liturgical purposes and transmitting elements of [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] and [[Coptic Christian]] thought into the Ethiopian context.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia. Harrassowitz Verlag, 1984, pp. 67–72.</ref><ref>Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. Oxford University Press, 1960, pp. 56–57.</ref> The legacy of the [[Nine Saints]] adds to [[Tigray]]’s reputation as a cradle of [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] monasticism and theological development.<ref>Finneran, Niall. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge, 2007, pp. 138–140.</ref><ref>Gabra Giyorgis. Lives of the Saints (Gadla Samāʿtāt). Ethiopian Synaxarium, 15th-century MS.</ref>

Tigray is also home to some of the oldest and most significant churches such as the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]], [[Abreha we Atsbeha]], Teka Tesfay, but also numerous rock-hewn churches, many of which are believed to predate the more famous monolithic churches of [[Lalibela]]. Numbering over 120, they contain mural iconography that reflects a synthesis of [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]], [[Coptic architecture|Coptic]], and local Ethiopian styles, depicting biblical scenes, saints, and angels with distinct Tigrayan features and attire.<ref>Phillipson, David W. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300. James Currey, 2012, pp. 187–191.</ref>

[[File:ET Axum asv2018-01 img08 Abba Pentalewon.jpg|thumb|Manuscript depicting [[Jesus]]' crucifixion and the [[Madonna (art)]] from [[Abba Pentalewon]] Monastery, [[Aksum]]]]

In addition, the region has long been a center of [[Ethiopian art|religious art]] and manuscript production within the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition. The region's churches and monasteries are renowned for their wall paintings, carved icons, [[illuminated manuscripts]], and rock-hewn architecture,<ref>Finneran, Niall. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge, 2007, pp. 113–119.</ref><ref>Buxton, David. The Abyssinians. Penguin Books, 1970, pp. 124–126.</ref> while contributing significantly to the transmission and preservation of [[Ge'ez]] religious texts, producing manuscripts in local scriptoriums that combined calligraphy, theological commentary, hymnography ([[zema]]), and illustrated miniatures.<ref name="Finneran, Niall 2007"/><ref>Buxton, David. The Abyssinians. Penguin, 1970.</ref><ref>Heldman, Marilyn. “Churches and Monasteries of Tigray.” In The Ark of the Covenant: Ethiopia and the Holy Ark, UCLA Fowler Museum, 2002.</ref><ref>Derat, Marie-Laure. Lieux de pouvoir et églises royales en Éthiopie (1270–1527). Publications de la Sorbonne, 2003.</ref> Several Tigrayan monasteries served as centers of Orthodox clerical education and liturgical training and oral transmission of [[Ge'ez]] chants, prayers, and [[Geʽez#History and literature|exegetical tradition]].<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia. Harrassowitz Verlag, 1984, pp. 74–76.</ref>

This long-standing manuscript and monastic tradition in Tigray is closely intertwined with the development of the region's unique [[liturgy]] and sacred chant. The origins of this rich liturgical and musical heritage are traditionally attributed to [[Yared|Saint Yared]], a Tigrayan-born composer and scholar who is credited with developing the [[Zema]], a system of sacred music composed in [[Ge'ez]], which still serves as foundation of all [[Tewahedo]], [[Ethiopian Catholic]] and [[Eritrean Catholic Church|Eritrean Catholic]] liturgical practice.

His compositions are preserved in major chant books such as the ''[[Deggua]]'', which contains hymns for feast days and daily services, the ''Zema Zēta'', used for antiphonal chants, and the ''Mewas'et'', which includes funeral music. Taught and transmitted through oral tradition in monastic liturgical schools, Yared's system remains integral to the identity of [[Alexandrian liturgical rites#Ge'ez|Ge'ez]] rite worship and is particularly revered in the churches and monasteries of Tigray, where his legacy is most closely tied.<ref>Kay Kaufman Shelemay, ''Music, Ritual, and Falasha History''. Michigan State University Press, 1986.</ref><ref>Steven Kaplan, ''The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia''. Steiner Verlag, 1984.</ref><ref>Ugo Monneret de Villard, ''Storia della chiesa d'Etiopia''. Milan: Hoepli, 1938.</ref>

Throughout [[History of Ethiopia|medieval]] and early [[History of Ethiopia|modern Ethiopian history]], Tigrayan clergy and monastic communities were highly influential in shaping theological debates, religious practices, and church-state relations. Monastic movements such as those founded by [[Ewostatewos]] and [[Abba Estifanos of Gwendagwende]] originated in Tigray and advocated for liturgical purity, Sabbath observance, and a stricter interpretation of Orthodox tradition. The followers of [[Ewostatewos]] (Ewostathians) played a major role in defending indigenous religious practices against foreign and royal interventions, eventually influencing national doctrine.<ref name="Taddesse Tamrat 1527"/><ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia, pp. 115–132.</ref>

[[File:Tigray Region (23538463483).jpg|thumb|left|Picture of the interior of the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] in [[Aksum]]]]
The ecclesiastical office of the ''Bahre Negeśt'', often based in the coastal and highland regions of Tigray, was historically responsible for administering large Orthodox dioceses and coordinating religious authority between the center and the periphery.<ref>Crummey, Donald. Priests and Politicians: Protestant and Catholic Missions in Orthodox Ethiopia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.</ref>

Prominent Ethiopian Orthodox saints and writers, including [[Abba Yohanni of Däbrä Qwästos]], [[Abba Libanos]] and Abba [[Samuel of Waldebba]], are also traditionally associated with the region. These figures contributed to the development of mystical theology, fasting practices, and monastic discipline within the Orthodox tradition.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. Ethiopian Christianity: History, Theology, Practice. James Currey, 2021.</ref><ref>Gäbrä Heywät Baykädañ. Tigray: Roots of Ethiopian Civilization. Addis Ababa: Mega Printing Press, 2004.</ref> Many of their monasteries remain active pilgrimage sites today, particularly during feast days and local fasts.


In modern times, the Orthodox Church continues to play a central role in the religious and cultural identity of Tigrayans, with most rural communities organized around local parishes, feast-day observances, and monastic networks.

====  Catholicism ====
[[Catholicism]] among the [[Tigrayan people]] has historical roots in the [[Jesuit]] missions of the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]]-supported missionaries such as [[Francisco Álvares]], [[Pedro Páez]] and [[Manuel de Almeida]] established religious centers in the northern highlands, notably at [[Fremona]], near [[Adwa]], which served as the Jesuit headquarters in [[Ethiopia]]. While the mission ultimately failed due to local resistance and the imperial expulsion of the [[Jesuits]] in [[Fasilides#Reign|1632]], it introduced [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] theological concepts and liturgical influences that would later be revived.<ref>Manuel de Almeida, ''Historia de Etiopía'', ed. Beccari, Rome, 1907.</ref><ref>Francisco Álvares, ''The Prester John of the Indies'', [[Hakluyt Society]], 1881.</ref>

The modern Catholic presence in [[Tigray Region]] is mainly associated with the [[Ethiopian Catholic Church]], a ''[[sui iuris]]'' church of the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] that follows the [[Alexandrian Rite]], similar in structure to the [[Orthodox Tewahedo Churches]] but in full communion with the [[Holy See|papacy]]. Catholicism was reintroduced in the 19th century through the efforts of [[Lazarists]] and [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin missionaries]], supported by the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]] ([[Propaganda Fide]]). Their activities focused on education, translation, health, and liturgical accommodation to local customs.<ref>Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes. London: Longman, 1968.</ref><ref>Trevisan, Matteo. “The Origins and Evolution of the Ethiopian Catholic Church.” In: African Ecclesial Review 53.3–4 (2011): 183–201.</ref> These missions laid the foundations for the establishment of the [[Ethiopian Catholic Eparchy of Adigrat|Eparchy of Adigrat]] in [[1939]], which today is the main ecclesiastical seat for [[Catholics]] in northern [[Ethiopia]].<ref>Trevisan, Matteo. “The Origins and Evolution of the Ethiopian Catholic Church.” ''African Ecclesial Review'' 53.3–4 (2011): 183–201.</ref><ref name="Eparchy of Adigrat">{{Cite web|title=Eparchy of Adigrat|url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dadig.html|access-date=2025-07-15}}</ref>

[[File:Adigrat, cattedrale del Salvatore, esterno 03.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Cathedral of the Holy Saviour, [[Adigrat]]]]
As of the early 21st century, the [[Ethiopian Catholic Eparchy of Adigrat|Eparchy of Adigrat]] serves tens of thousands of Tigrayan [[Catholics]], and includes [[parishes]], schools, and religious orders operating in the region.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2. HarperOne, 2010.</ref><ref name="Eparchy of Adigrat"/> The liturgy is conducted in [[Geʽez]], and priests are typically drawn from local Tigrayan communities.

Most Catholics in Tigray belong to the [[Irob people]], an [[Ethnic groups in Ethiopia|ethnic subgroup]] inhabiting the northeastern escarpments of the Tigray Region near the [[Eritrea–Ethiopia border]]. The Irob have historically maintained a distinct religious identity, preserving [[Catholic]] faith practices while participating in broader Tigrayan linguistic and cultural life.<ref>Fritsch, Emmanuel. “The Catholic Church and the Irob: An Enduring Minority in Northern Ethiopia.” In: ''Annales d’Éthiopie'', vol. 14 (1998), pp. 163–176.</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''[[Church and State in Ethiopia]]'' (1270–1527), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.</ref>


While Catholics remain a minority among Tigrayan Christians—who are overwhelmingly adherents of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]—they continue to play a significant role in religious, educational, and social life, particularly through schools, health centers, and monastic communities affiliated with the [[Ethiopian Catholic Eparchy of Adigrat|Eparchy of Adigrat]].

===Islam===
{{Main||Islam in Ethiopia}}
While the majority of Tigrayans adhere to [[Christianity]], a historically rooted minority of [[Muslims]] has long existed in the [[Tigray Region]]. The presence of Islam is traditionally linked to the [[First Hijrah]] in the 7th century CE, when early [[Muslims]] fled persecution and were welcomed by the [[Najashi|Negus]] ([[Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|ٱلنَّجَاشِيُّ}}, ''al-Najāshī'') of [[Abyssinia]]. The town of [[Negash]], located in eastern Tigray, is considered one of the earliest Muslim settlements in [[Africa]], and its restored [[Al Nejashi Mosque]] (the oldest in [[Ethiopia]]) remains a prominent religious site.{{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2025}}
 
[[File:Negash, la moschea sul sito della più antica moschea d'etiopia, del vii secolo 03.jpg|thumb|The [[Al Nejashi Mosque]] in [[Negash]]]]

Over the centuries, [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] communities became integrated into the social and cultural fabric of [[Tigray Region|Tigray]], and they are now concentrated in border regions near [[Agame]], [[Gulomahda]], [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shire]], and [[Humera]], where interaction with the [[Sudanese people|Sudanese]], [[Beja people|Beja]], and [[Saho people|Saho]] was common.<ref>Caulk, Richard A. “The Occupation of Tigray by the Egyptian Army, 1875–1885.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies, vol. 8, no. 2 (1970): 67–96.</ref> Among them are the [[Jeberti]], a [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]-speaking Muslim group also present in Eritrea, often considered among the oldest Islamized populations in the Horn of Africa.<ref>Gaiser, Adam. “Muslim Communities in Christian Ethiopia: The Jeberti of the North.” Islamic Africa, vol. 3, no. 2 (2012): 145–164.</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Ashura - a Festival in al-Negash Mosque|last=Buzuayeu|first=Wondimagegn|publisher=Mekelle University|year=2006|location=Mekelle, Ethiopia}}</ref> These communities traditionally follow [[Sunni Islam]] and maintain institutions such as [[madrasa]]s, [[Sufism|Sufi]] lodges, and local shrines.<ref>Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes. Praeger, 1968, pp. 114–116.</ref>

Despite being a minority, Tigrayan [[Muslims]]  have generally coexisted peacefully with their [[Christian]] neighbors, although they experienced marginalization during periods when [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Orthodoxy]] was the state religion. In multi-religious cities like [[Adigrat]] and [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shire]], interfaith marketplaces, communal celebrations, and even intermarriage were historically not uncommon.<ref name="Abbink, Jon 2012">Abbink, Jon. “Religion in Public Spaces: Emerging Muslim–Christian Polemics in Ethiopia.” African Affairs, vol. 111, no. 442 (2012): 583–605.</ref><ref>Donham, Donald. Old Abyssinia and the New Ethiopian Empire: Themes in Social History. University of California Press, 1986.</ref>

In more recent times, since the adoption of [[Ethiopia]]’s current [[Constitution of Ethiopia|federal constitution]] has granted religious freedom, Muslim communities in Tigray have maintained their religious institutions and participate more actively in regional life, often in alignment with [[Ethiopian Islamic Affairs Supreme Council|national Islamic councils]] rather than region-specific ethnic platforms.<ref name="Abbink, Jon 2012"/>

==Culture==
=== Literature ===
[[File:Tigray Region (24165234955).jpg|thumb|right| [[Ge'ez]] religious manuscript, [[Aksum]], [[Tigray Region]]]]
Tigrinya literary traditions encompass both oral and written forms, with deep historical roots and continuing contemporary production. [[Oral literature]] includes [[proverb]]s, [[riddle]]s, [[folktale]]s, [[epic poetry|epic poems]], and [[Qené|qǝne]] (poetic compositions), often performed in social gatherings, [[Festival|festivals]], [[wedding]]s and religious contexts, many of which transmit moral lessons, historical memory, and communal values.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” sections on oral literature and cultural transmission.</ref><ref>Appleyard, David. “Tigrinya.” In Weninger, Stefan (ed.), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 1146–1150, overview of oral traditions.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Oral literature (Tigrinya),” on genres and performance contexts.</ref><ref>Appleyard, David. “Tigrinya.” In Weninger, Stefan (ed.), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 1146–1150, on oral genres and their stylistic features.</ref> Such oral forms serve as vehicles for moral instruction, historical commemoration, and communal identity, preserving accounts of local heroes, historical conflicts, and genealogies.<ref>Bulakh, Maria. “Tigrinya.” In Bausi, Alessandro et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages (Oxford: OUP, 2023), pp. 627–630, on oral heritage in Tigray.</ref>

Written literature in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] developed under the influence of [[Geʽez]] [[manuscript]] culture, with [[illuminated manuscript]]s, [[hagiography|hagiographies]], and theological treatises produced in monastic [[scriptorium|scriptoria]] from the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite period]] onwards.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Manuscripts, Ethiopian,” on monastic scriptoria in Tigray and manuscript production.</ref> In religious life, Geʽez remains the liturgical language of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], used in the [[Divine Liturgy]], [[Hymn|hymns]], and canonical readings. [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], however, plays a complementary role in sermons, hymn explanations, [[catechesis]], religious education, and devotional publications intended for laypeople.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A Brief Introduction (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, various eds.), chapter on liturgical languages and vernacular preaching.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Gʿǝz” and “Tǝgrǝñña,” on functional separation between classical and vernacular usage.</ref> This combination ensures that while sacred tradition remains tied to the classical idiom, religious understanding is accessible in the vernacular.

However, [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] really began to emerge as a literary language in the late 19th century, first through translations of religious texts, catechisms, and hymnals, later expanding to secular genres including [[Newspaper|newspapers]], [[novel]]s, [[Poetry|poetry anthologies]], political pamphlets, [[Play (theatre)|plays]], and [[fiction]].<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” on the emergence of Tigrinya as a written language.</ref><ref>Appleyard, David, “Tigrinya,” in Weninger, The Semitic Languages, pp. 1148–1149, on early print history.</ref> Modern print culture in Tigray is anchored by regional presses, with content ranging from news reporting to literary criticism and historical essays.<ref>Bulakh, Maria. “Tigrinya.” In Bausi, Alessandro et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages (Oxford: OUP, 2023), pp. 607–640, sections on literacy and media.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” on print history and literary development.</ref>

Tigrinya literature in Tigray today spans a variety of genres—novels, short stories, historical essays, political commentary, and children's literature—published through regional presses and broadcast via [[radio]] and [[television]]. Literary events and competitions, often held in urban centers such as [[Mekelle]] and [[Adwa]], continue to foster the development of both standardized written Tigrinya and the creative adaptation of oral forms to contemporary contexts.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tǝgrǝñña,” on modern publishing and literary activities.</ref><ref>Bulakh, Maria, “Tigrinya,” in Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages, pp. 634–635, on contemporary literary culture.</ref>

Cultural events such as poetry recitals, historical commemorations, and theatrical performances reinforce the role of [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] in the public sphere. Many works are performed in the standardized written register taught in schools, which helps bridge regional speech differences. At the same time, oral performance in local dialects remains vibrant, preserving community-specific styles and expressions.<ref>Appleyard, David. “Tigrinya.” In Weninger, The Semitic Languages, pp. 1149–1150, on literary register and dialects in performance.</ref><ref>Bulakh, Maria. “Tigrinya.” In Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages, pp. 627–630, on dialect use in oral literature.</ref> In the diaspora, particularly in [[North America]], [[Europe]], and the [[Middle East]], Tigrinya continues to be used in community associations, church services, satellite broadcasting, and [[Online newspaper|online publications]], sustaining cultural continuity across generations.<ref>Ethnologue (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig, eds.), “Tigrinya [tir],” 2023 ed., on diaspora use and media presence.</ref><ref>Tronvoll, Kjetil. ''War & the Politics of Identity in Ethiopia: Making Enemies & Allies in the Horn of Africa'' (James Currey, 2009), pp. 51–53, on language and identity in diaspora communities.</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Ethiopia}}
Up until the mid 20th century, Tigrinya music consisted mainly of religious and secular folk songs and dances.<ref>Shelemay, Kay Kaufman. ''Music, Ritual, and Falasha History'' (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1986), pp. 45–46.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Music (Tigray),” ed. Siegbert Uhlig (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005), p. 446.</ref> Like [[Amharic]] music, Tigrayan music uses a variety of traditional instruments, such as the ''[[:masenqo]]'', a one-string [[Bow (music)|bowed]] [[:lute]]; the ''[[:krar]]'', a six-string [[:lyre]]; the ''Meleket'' wind instrument, the ''[[washint]]'' flute often played by local village musicians called the [[Azmari]]s, the ''chira wata/wata'' (regional one-string bowed lutes), but also the ''[[kebero]]'' and ''Negarit'' (double-headed drum), the ''[[:begena]]'', a large ten-string lyre; is an important instrument solely devoted to the spiritual part of Church music,<ref>{{Cite CiteSeerX|citeseerx=10.1.1.569.2160|title=FNRS-Université Libre de Bruxelles}}</ref> and the ''[[Sistrum|tsenatsil]]'' (sistrum used in [[liturgy]]), but is characterized by distinctive rhythmic patterns, pentatonic scales, and call-and-response structures.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Music (Tigray),” on instruments, scales, and performance traditions.</ref><ref>Shelemay, Kay Kaufman. Music, Ritual, and Falasha History (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1986), pp. 45–48, on northern Ethiopian instruments (krar, masenqo, kebero).</ref><ref>Ashenafi Kebede. Roots of Black Music: The Vocal, Instrumental, and Dance Heritage of Africa and Black America (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1982), pp. 88–95, on Ethiopian bowed lutes/fiddles including the masenqo and regional variants.</ref> 

Much of the traditional repertoire is closely tied to oral poetry, with singers improvising verses that recount local history, praise individuals, or comment on current events. Some genres, such as ''fǝqǝr'' (love songs) and ''mälkʷ’ä'' (panegyric songs), are performed at weddings and communal celebrations, while others commemorate historical battles or heroes.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Music (Tigray),” on genre types and social functions.</ref><ref>Appleyard, David. “Tigrinya.” In Weninger, Stefan (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook'' (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 1149–1150, on integration of poetic forms in song.</ref>

Religious music also plays a central role in Tigrayan cultural life, with the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] preserving a rich liturgical chant tradition in [[Geʽez]], transmitted through the [[Zema]] system attributed to [[Yared|Saint Yared]]. These chants are performed by trained ''[[debtera|däbtära]]'' (cantors) using sistrums, drums, and choreographed movements during feast days and processions.<ref>Shelemay, Kay Kaufman and Peter Jeffery. ''Oral and Written Transmission in Ethiopian Christian Chant'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 12–20.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Zema,” on origins, notation, and performance practice.</ref>

However, Tigrayan culture is also famously known for its various dances. While ''guayla'' is the most widespread social dance among [[Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigrinya-speaking communities]]— performed at weddings, graduations, and communal celebrations across the region — Tigray also maintains a rich variety of distinct regional dance traditions.These local traditional dances often reflect significant regional diversity, each style rooted in local history and community life. In [[Tembien]], the lively dance known as ''Awrs'' (or ''Awurs'') is often performed during social gatherings and communal celebrations, with dancers circling to the beat of [[Drum (musical instrument)|drums]], flutes, clapping, and improvised verses that may praise, tease, or critique participants.<ref>[https://www.tourismtigrai.com/attraction/view/MjA5 Tigrai Culture and Tourism Bureau – Awris dance in Tembien]</ref> In [[Raya Azebo|Raya]], dances such as Kuda and Saesiet/Tilhit are marked by spirited percussion, faster tempos, and expansive arm movements, reflecting cultural interactions with neighboring [[Oromo people|Oromo]] and [[Amhara people|Amhara]] communities.<ref name="traddances">[https://ethiopiangobgnu.com/blogs/Traditional-Ethiopian-Dances%3A-Exploring-the-Beautiful-Embodied-Rhythms Traditional Ethiopian Dances – Ethiopian Gob Gnu]</ref> In the highlands of [[Adwa]] and [[Axum]], older guayla forms are preserved, characterized by restrained shoulder movements and circular formations, while the [[Western Zone, Tigray|western lowland]] areas perform ''Shim Shim'', ''Esthina'', and ''Ehmbaza'', incorporating [[Ululation]], varied drum patterns, and call-and-response singing.<ref name="traddances" /><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Music (Tigray),” on regional variations in dance and song.</ref><ref>Milkias, Paulos. Ethiopia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), pp. 355–356, on cultural diversity in Tigrayan music.</ref>

[[File:Cover Ethiopiques, vol.5 (1970-1975).jpg|thumb|left|Cover of [[Ethiopiques]] vol.5 (Tigrigna Music), featuring [[Tigray]]an and [[Eritrea]]n artists]]
In the modern era, the release of albums like ''Éthiopiques, Vol. 5'', part of the 1970s [[Éthiopiques]] series, an album entirely devoted to Tigrinya music featuring both Tigrayan and [[Eritrea|Eritrean]] artists whose work blended traditional forms with emerging modern arrangements, played a notable role in bringing [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] music to wider audiences.<ref>Francis Falceto, liner notes to ''Éthiopiques, Vol. 5: Tigrigna Music 1970-1975'' (Buda Musique, 1999).</ref>

Afterwards, singers like [[Kiros Alemayehu]] rose to national prominence, further helping to popularize [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] music in a largely [[Amharic]]-speaking [[Ethiopian music]] industry during the 1970-80s. Meanwhile, people like [[Gebretsadik Woldeyohannes]], [[Eyasu Berhe]], [[Abebe Araya]] or to a lesser extent [[Amir Dawud]] became renowned for their patriotic and emotionally resonant songs, many of which reflected themes of struggle, unity, and sacrifice. In more recent years, artists such as [[Aziz Hagos]], [[Ataklti Hailemichael]], [[Abraham Gebremedhin]], [[Eden Gebreselassie]], [[Solomon Haile]], [[Amanuel Yemane]], [[Mahlet Gebregiorgis]], [[Ephrem Amare]] or [[Dawit Nega]] were celebrated for their sophisticated fusion of traditional Tigrayan melodies with modern instrumentation, appealing to audiences across generations.<ref>Milkias, Paulos. Ethiopia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), pp. 356–357, on the cultural role of modern Tigrinya music and key figures.</ref><ref>BBC Tigrinya, “እያሱ በርሀ ኣርእስተ ዓለም ብቕልጡፍ ተዋዒዱ” (Eyasu Berhe obituary), 2010.</ref><ref>Addis Standard, interview with Abraham Gebremedhin (2019), on blending traditional Tigrayan rhythms with modern genres.</ref> 

Contemporary Tigrayan music is disseminated through radio, television, weddings, diaspora concerts, and online platforms, sustaining its popularity among younger generations both at home and abroad.<ref>Ethnologue (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig, eds.), “Tigrinya [tir],” 2023 ed., on cultural transmission via media.</ref>

=== Art ===
[[File:Dugum, chiesa di mariam papasieti, interno, affreschi della seconda stanza, donati da basahi denegeze e la moglie emebiet hirut al tempo di ras wolda selassie, 1788-1816, 20.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Frescoes from ''Ras'' [[Wolde Selassie]]'s era depicting saints and biblical scenes in [[Ethiopian art|Ethiopian]] style inside an Orthodox Church in [[Dugum]], [[Kilte Awulaelo]].]]
Tigrayan artistic traditions are deeply intertwined with the region's religious, architectural, and historical heritage. The most prominent expressions are found in church art, particularly in [[Ethiopian architecture|rock-hewn churches]], whose interiors are decorated with murals depicting biblical scenes, saints, and liturgical motifs in a style influenced by both [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] and later [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] iconography.<ref>Phillipson, David W. Ancient Churches of Ethiopia: Fourth–Fourteenth Centuries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 133–156, on Tigrayan rock-hewn churches and their murals.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Rock-hewn churches (Tigray),” on architecture and painted decoration.</ref> 

These wall paintings often combine bold colors, flattened perspective, and frontal figures characteristic of [[Ethiopian art|Ethiopian ecclesiastical art]], adapted to local themes and saints venerated in Tigray.<ref>Mercier, Jacques. Art That Heals: The Image as Medicine in Ethiopia (London: Prestel, 1997), pp. 85–90.</ref>
[[Illuminated manuscript|Illuminated manuscripts]] have been another major artistic medium, produced for centuries in monastic scriptoria using parchment, natural pigments, and the [[Geʽez script]]. These works range from Gospel books and psalters to [[hagiography|hagiographies]], often featuring intricate harag (interlace) designs and miniature portraits of evangelists or saints.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Manuscripts, Ethiopian,” on manuscript illumination in Tigray.</ref><ref>Bausi, Alessandro et al. (eds.). The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Tradition: A Guide to Manuscript Culture (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2015), pp. 212–215.</ref>

Tigrayan artisans are also known for metalwork, particularly elaborate hand crosses, processional crosses, and pendant crosses, often cast or carved in distinctive regional styles. These objects are both liturgical tools and symbols of personal devotion, sometimes decorated with geometric motifs and inscriptions in [[Geʽez language|Geʽez]].<ref>Mercier, Jacques and Jacques Vandermeersch. Crosses of Ethiopia: The Sign of Faith (Paris: Hazan, 1997), pp. 54–60, on Tigrayan regional cross styles.</ref>

Stone carving has a long legacy in the region, dating back to the monumental architecture of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], with continued traditions in church construction, gravestones, and commemorative monuments.<ref>Phillipson, David W. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300 (Woodbridge: James Currey, 2012), pp. 185–190.</ref> Modern and contemporary Tigrayan artists, often trained in [[Mekelle]] or [[Addis Ababa]], blend these historical influences with new media, producing works in painting, sculpture, and photography that engage with themes of heritage, resilience, and social change.<ref>Milkias, Paulos. Ethiopia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), pp. 460–462, on contemporary Ethiopian visual arts.</ref>

=== Society ===
Tigrayans communities are marked by numerous social institutions with a strong networking of character, where relations are based on mutual rights and bonds. Thus, Tigrayan society is marked by a strong ideal of [[communitarianism]] and, especially in the rural sphere, by egalitarian principles. This does not exclude an important role of [[Gerontocracy|gerontocratic]] rules and in some regions such as the wider [[Adwa]] area, formerly the prevalence of feudal lords, who, however, still had to respect the local land rights.<ref name=":1" /> Still now, Tigrayans communities are marked by numerous social institutions with a strong networking of character, where relations are based on mutual rights and bonds. Indeed, traditional Tigrayan society has historically been organized around a combination of kinship networks, village communities, and customary councils of elders. 

[[File:Shimagile.webp|thumb|250px|Art depicting elders during Shimagile]]
One of the most significant and remarkable institutions is the ''shimagile'' (elders’ council), which functions as a respected body for mediating disputes, negotiating marriages, and resolving conflicts at the local level.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Shimagile,” on role and structure of elders’ councils in northern Ethiopia.</ref><ref>Markakis, John. Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers (Woodbridge: James Currey, 2011), pp. 51–53, on customary conflict resolution in Tigray.</ref> The process emphasizes consensus-building and reconciliation, with elders chosen for their moral standing, wisdom, and rhetorical skill.<ref>Young, John. Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975–1991 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 45–46, on traditional leadership and decision-making in rural Tigray.</ref>
Beyond dispute resolution, Tigrayan communities maintain various cooperative labor and mutual aid systems, such as ''debo'' (communal work parties for agricultural tasks), ''maḥbär'' (rotating feast associations, often linked to religious observances), and ''iqʷub'' (rotating credit associations).<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Mahber” and “Iqub,” on social associations in Tigray.</ref><ref>Crummey, Donald. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), pp. 232–236, on communal institutions.</ref> These networks strengthen social solidarity and provide safety nets during hardship. In the urban context, the modern local government have taken over the functions of traditional associations. In most rural areas, however, traditional social organizations are fully in function. All members of such an extended family are linked by strong mutual obligations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smidt|first=Wolbert|date=2005|title=Selbstbezeichnungen von Tegreññ-Sperchern (Habäša, Tägaru u.a.)|journal=Studia Semitica et Semitohamitica, Fetschrift Rainer Voigt|pages=385–404}}</ref> Villages are usually perceived as genealogical communities, consisting of several lineages.<ref name=":1"/>

[[File:Funeral Procession, Tigray, Ethiopia (17239696322).jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Funeral procession]] in Tigray]]
However, Tigrayans are sometimes described as “individualistic”, due to elements of competition and local conflicts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Household and Society in Ethiopia, an Economic and Social Analysis of Tigray Social Principles and Household Organization|last=Bauer|first=Franz|year=1985|location=East Lansing, MI}}</ref> This, however, rather reflects a strong tendency to defend one's own community and local rights against—then widespread—interferences, be it from more powerful individuals or the state. Historically, Tigrayan rural society was also shaped by land tenure systems, notably the ''rist'' system, in which land rights were inherited through descent from a common ancestor. This system reinforced lineage-based community organization and shaped patterns of settlement and local governance until the agrarian reforms of the 1970s.<ref>Pausewang, Siegfried. Peasants, Land and Society in Ethiopia (London: Routledge, 1983), pp. 67–71, on ''rist'' in Tigray.</ref> While urbanization, education, and migration have introduced new social dynamics, many customary practices remain active in Tigray and among Tigrayan diaspora communities, adapted to contemporary settings while preserving their traditional emphasis on mutual responsibility and communal cohesion.<ref>Young, John. Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia, pp. 45–47, on adaptability of traditional structures.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Saleh|first1=Abdulkader|last2=Hirt|first2=Nicole|date=2008|title=Traditional Civil Society in the Horn of Africa and its Contribution to Conflict Prevention: The case of Eritrea|journal=Horn of Africa Bulletin|volume=11|pages=1–4}}</ref>

Religious institutions, especially the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], continue to play a major role in community life, organizing festivals, providing moral guidance, and acting as centers for education and charity. In many rural areas, priests and monks are also influential mediators in local disputes, working alongside or within the ''shimagile'' system.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A Brief Introduction (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, various eds.), pp. 38–41, on church–community relations.</ref>

====Festivals and celebrations====
[[File:Ashenda festival, Tigray.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Women celebrating [[Ashenda]]]]
Tigrayan social life is punctuated by major religious and cultural festivals that serve as key moments for community gathering, cultural expression, and intergenerational continuity. One of the most prominent is [[Ashenda]], a festival celebrated annually in late August (around 16–21 Nehase in the [[Ethiopian calendar]]) by young women and girls. Originating in [[Tigray]] and parts of [[Eritrea]], Ashenda is marked by participants wearing brightly embroidered dresses, bead necklaces, and floral headdresses, while singing and dancing in public spaces. Groups go from house to house performing songs—sometimes improvised—that blend praise, humor, and social commentary, receiving small gifts or food in return.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Ashenda,” on origins, customs, and regional spread.</ref><ref>Tsehay, Andom. “Ashenda: A Cultural Festival of Tigray.” Ethiopian Journal of Cultural Studies 12, no. 2 (2017): 55–70.</ref> Ashenda is both a celebration of womanhood and community solidarity and, in some interpretations, linked to the [[Feast of the Assumption]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].

Other important events include [[Hidar Tsion]], the annual pilgrimage to the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] in [[Axum]], held every 21 Hidar (30 November), which draws thousands of pilgrims from across Ethiopia and the diaspora.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A History (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, 1990), pp. 210–212.</ref> [[Meskel]] (Finding of the True Cross, 27 September) is celebrated with bonfires (''demera''), processions, and church services, while [[Timket]] (Epiphany, 19 January) features outdoor processions, prayers, and the ceremonial blessing of water.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A Brief Introduction (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, various eds.), pp. 58–60.</ref> Many rural communities also observe local saints’ feast days, often involving church gatherings, communal meals, and music.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Ethiopian cuisine|Wat (food)}}
Tigrayan cuisine shares many features with the broader [[Ethiopian cuisine|Ethiopian culinary tradition]], while retaining distinctive local dishes and preparation styles. Thus, it characteristically consists of vegetable and often very spicy meat dishes, usually in the form of ''tsebhi'' ({{langx|ti|ፀብሒ}}), a thick stew, served atop ''[[injera]]'', a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]] made primarily from [[teff]] flour, which serves as both plate and utensil. {{sfn|Munro-Hay|1991|p=187}} 
It is typically accompanied by a variety of stews (''[[wat]]''), including ''zigni'' (spicy beef or lamb stew), ''[[shiro (food)|shiro]]'' (seasoned ground legumes), and ''alicha'' (milder vegetable or meat stews).<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Cuisine (Tigray),” on regional dishes and staples.</ref><ref>Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), entry on Ethiopian cuisine.</ref>
[[File:Hareg Making Coffee, Ethiopia (8012029031).jpg|thumb|A Tigrayan woman pouring traditionally brewed coffee from a [[jebena]] during a [[coffee ceremony]]|212x212px]]
Tigrayan cuisine is shaped by the [[fasting]] traditions of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which prescribe numerous periods each year when adherents abstain from animal products as well as a prohibition on the consumption of pork. For instance, meat and dairy products are not consumed on Wednesdays and Fridays, and also during the seven compulsory fasts. This has led to a rich repertoire of vegan dishes, including lentil, chickpea, and fava bean stews, vegetable ''wat'', seasoned salads, and dishes made from fermented legumes such as ''shiro''.<ref>Kaplan, Steven. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A Brief Introduction (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, various eds.), pp. 55–57.</ref> Eating around a shared food basket, ''[[Mesob|mäsob]]'' ({{langx|ti|መሶብ}}) is a custom in the Tigray region and is usually done so with families and guests. The food is eaten using no cutlery, using only the fingers (''of the right hand'') and sourdough flatbread to grab the contents on the bread.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Costa-Rica-to-Georgia/Tigray.html|title=Countries and their Cultures- Tigray|website=Countries and their Cultures}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk/pages/culture.htm|title=Ethiopian Treasures- Culture|website=Ethiopian Treasures}}</ref>

On top of that, the [[coffee ceremony]] is one of the most important daily and social rituals in Tigrayan culture, symbolizing hospitality, friendship, and respect. The process begins with washing and roasting green coffee beans over a charcoal brazier, their aroma wafting through the room to invite participants. The beans are then ground using a [[mortar and pestle]] and brewed in a traditional clay pot called a ''jebena''. The ceremony typically involves three successive servings—''abol'' (first), ''tona'' (second), and ''baraka'' (third)—each slightly weaker than the last, with conversation and sometimes the burning of incense accompanying the service.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard. Coffee and Coffeehouses in Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, 2010), pp. 33–35.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Coffee ceremony,” on symbolic meaning and practice.</ref> The ceremony is often accompanied by snacks such as roasted barley, popcorn, or traditional bread, and serves as a central setting for discussing community matters and strengthening social bonds.

==== Regional dishes and drinks ====
[[File:Eating Traditional Tihlo, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|245x245px|[[Tihlo|T'ihlo]] dish]]
[[Tihlo|T'ihlo]] ({{langx|ti|ጥሕሎ}}, ''ṭïḥlo'') is a dish originating from the historical [[Agame]] and [[Akele Guzai|Akkele Guzai]] provinces. The dish is unique to these parts of both countries, but is now slowly spreading throughout the entire region. T'ihlo is made using moistened roasted barley flour that is kneaded to a certain consistency. The dough is then broken into small ball shapes and is laid out around a bowl of spicy meat stew. A two-pronged wooden fork is used to spear the ball and dip it into the stew. It is often associated with communal gatherings and special occasions and is usually served with ''[[Tej|mes]],'' a type of honey wine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nutritionfortheworld.wikifoundry.com/page/Tihlo|title=Tihlo|website=Nutrition for the world}}</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tihlo,” on origins and preparation.</ref> 

''[[Hilbet]]'' ({{langx|ti|ሕልበት|''ḥilbet''}}) is a vegan cream dish, made from fenugreek, lentil and fava bean powder, typically served on injera with ''Silsi,'' ({{langx|ti|ስልሲ}}) tomatoes cooked with [[berbere]] ({{langx|ti|በርበረ}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wgntv.com/midday-news/lunchbreak-a-traditional-northern-ethiopian-recipe-and-details-on-chicago-chefs-cook-for-tigray/|website=WGN-TV |title=Lunchbreak: A Traditional Northern Ethiopian Recipe and Details on Chicago Chefs Cook for Tigray |date=12 September 2022 }}</ref> Other regional foods include ''[[himbasha]]'' ({{langx|ti|ሕምባሻ|''ḥimbasha''}}), a slightly sweet, round leavened bread often flavored with spices, ''[[Kitcha fit-fit|chechebsa]]''  ({{langx|ti|ጨጨብሳ|''č̣eč̣ebsa''}}), a pan-fried flatbread pieces coated in spiced butter or oil, and ''[[Kitcha fit-fit|fit-fit]]''  ({{langx|ti|ፍትፍት|''fitfit''}}), shredded injera mixed with stew or sauce.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard. The Social History of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press, 1990), pp. 201–202.</ref> Leafy greens such as ''[[Collard (plant)|hamli]]''  ({{langx|ti|ሓምሊ|''ḥamli''}}) and wild herbs are commonly sautéed with garlic and spices, while dishes are seasoned with ''[[berbere]]'' (chili and spice blend) or ''mekelesha'' ({{langx|ti|መከለሻ|''mekeleša''}}), an aromatic spice mix added at the end of cooking.

[[File:Tigrayans with Siwa.png|thumb|left|260px|Typical Tigrayans drinking [[Siwa (beer)|Siwa]]]]
A notable feature of Tigrayan food culture is the production of traditional fermented beverages. The most widespread is ''[[Siwa (beer)|Siwa]]'' ({{langx|ti|ሰዋ|translit=säwa}}), a home-brewed beer made from barley or other grains, flavored with dried leaves of the ''[[Rhamnus prinoides|gesho]]'' plant used for bittering and fermentation.<ref>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, s.v. “Tella/Siwa,” on brewing methods and cultural role in Tigray.</ref> Siwa is typically brewed in large clay vessels and served at social gatherings, weddings, and holidays, where it plays an important role in hospitality and community bonding.<ref>Griefenow-Mewis, Catherine. “Traditional Drinks in Ethiopia: Social Functions and Regional Variations.” Paideuma 45 (1999): 213–230.</ref> Other beverages include ''[[tej]]'' (honey wine), often consumed during festive occasions, and ''[[Ethiopian_cuisine#Areki_(katikala)|arak’i]]'' (grain- or fruit-based distilled liquor).

==Tigrayans vs. Tigrinya people: what's the difference? ==
{{Main|Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigrinya people|Agazian Movement}}

Despite various attempts to deny the close kinship between the Tigrayans of northern [[Ethiopia]] and the [[Tigrinya people]] ({{langx|ti|ብሄረ ትግርኛ|bəherä Təgrəñña}}) of central highland [[Eritrea]], most historians, linguists, and anthropologists regard them as parts of a single [[ethnolinguistic group]] whose settlement spans the [[Eritrea|Eritrean]]–[[Tigrayan]] plateau. Both groups speak [[Tigrinya language]], with only minor dialectal variation and full mutual intelligibility, and share a largely continuous cultural heritage rooted in highland society since at least the late Aksumite period.<ref name="Wolbert Smidt">Wolbert Smidt, “Tegreñña-speakers (ethnography of the Tigrinya-speakers in Ethiopia and Eritrea),” in Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 4 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2010).</ref><ref name="David Appleyard">David Appleyard, “Tigrinya,” in Stefan Weninger (ed.), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011).</ref><ref>Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 90–94.</ref><ref>Christopher S. Clapham, “The Political Framework: Ethiopia,” in Roland Oliver (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 487–495.</ref><ref>Enid Schildkrout, “People of the Horn: Tigrinya,” in Peoples of Africa, edited by James L. Gibbs Jr. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1978), pp. 364–367.</ref>

[[File:Extract of Thomson’s map (1817) with borders of Tigray.jpg|thumb|right|Extract of [[John Thomson (cartographer)|John Thomson]]’s map (1817) which shows ''Greater'' [[Tigray]] extending over the [[Mereb River]]]]
Historical and ethnographic sources consistently indicate that the [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya-speaking]] populations of northern [[Ethiopia]] and central highland [[Eritrea]] have long been part of the same cultural and political sphere. Scholars such as [[Edward Ullendorff]] have identified them as the principal bearers of the historical traditions of ancient [[Abyssinia]], while [[Donald N. Levine]] and [[Haggai Erlich]] trace their heritage directly to the [[Aksumite Empire]].<ref>Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 36.</ref><ref>Haggai Erlich, Greater Tigray and the Mysterious Magnetism of Ethiopia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2024), p. 8.</ref> During the medieval and early modern periods, the highlands north and south of the [[Mereb River]] often came under the authority of the same imperial rulers, such as [[Amda Seyon I]] and [[Zara Yaqob]], whose domains encompassed both present-day [[Tigray]] and the [[Eritrean Highlands]].<ref>Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopians, pp. 37–39.</ref><ref name="Richard Reid">Richard Reid, “The Trans-Mereb Experience: Perceptions of the Historical Relationship between Eritrea and Ethiopia,” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1, no. 2 (2007): 238–255.</ref> European observers such as the Portuguese Jesuit [[Jerónimo Lobo]] in the 1620s reinforced this perception by describing the inhabitants on both sides of the Mereb as speaking the same language and practising the same [[Tewahedo Orthodox|Orthodox Christian]] faith.<ref>Jerónimo Lobo, A Voyage to Abyssinia, trans. Samuel Johnson (London: 1735), pp. 65–66.</ref> In the nineteenth century, the British explorer [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]] subdivided the kingdom of [[Tigray Province|Tigré]] into various districts which included [[Medri Bahri|Baharanegash]], noting that the northernmost district of [[Hamasien]] marked the edge of Tigré before the territory of the [[Beja people|Beja]].<ref>Henry Salt, A Voyage to Abyssinia (London: Rivington, 1814), pp. 378–382.</ref><ref>Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (London: Charles Knight, 1833), p. 53.</ref><ref>The Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: Bassantin – Bloemaart, vol. 4 (London: Charles Knight, 1835), p. 170.</ref>

While cultural and linguistic commonalities are well-documented, scholars emphasise that modern political history has shaped distinct identities.<ref name="Tekeste Negash">Tekeste Negash, Eritrea and Ethiopia: The Federal Experience (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1997).</ref><ref name="Okbazghi Yohannes">Okbazghi Yohannes, Eritrea: A Pawn in World Politics (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1991).</ref><ref name="Redie Bereketeab">Redie Bereketeab, Eritrea: The Making of a Nation, 1890–1991 (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2007).</ref>  [[Italian Eritrea|Italian colonial rule]] in Eritrea from the 1890s, followed by [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|federation with Ethiopia]] and the subsequent [[Eritrean War of Independence|independence struggle]], fostered a strong [[Eritrean nationalism|Eritrean nationalist]] narrative that differentiates [[Biher-Tigrinya]] from their southern kin.<ref name="Tricia Redeker Hepner">Tricia Redeker Hepner, Soldiers, Martyrs, Traitors, and Exiles: Political Conflict in Eritrea and the Diaspora (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).</ref><ref name="Jordan Gebre-Medhin">Jordan Gebre-Medhin, Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea: A Critique of Ethiopian Studies (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1989).</ref><ref>Ruth Iyob, The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism 1941–1993 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).</ref> Professor [[Richard Reid (historian)|Richard Reid]] notes that interpretations of the “[[Mereb River|trans-Mereb]]” relationship—referring to ties across the [[Mereb River]] dividing the [[Ethiopian Highlands|Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands]]—are often polarised between [[Ethiopian nationalism|Ethiopianist]] claims of long-standing unity and [[Eritrea|Eritrean]] [[Historical revisionism|revisionist]] assertions of historic autonomy.<ref name="Richard Reid" /> He argues that while cycles of conflict and cooperation have marked relations over the centuries, there is no evidence of complete and permanent separation between these highland communities.

[[File:Eritrea Tigray people relation, Zalambesa2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] and [[Tigrayan]] elders meeting in [[Zalambessa]] after decades of separation]]
Anthropological and historical studies further show that political divergence has been shaped by state structures and nationalist mobilisation in the 20th century. Tekeste Negash links the emergence of distinct [[Eritrean nationalism|Eritrean identity]] to the [[Italian Eritrea|colonial]] and [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|post-colonial experience]], whereas Tricia Redeker Hepner and Jordan Gebre-Medhin stress that shared kinship and cultural ties persisted despite the consolidation of separate political projects.<ref name="Tekeste Negash" /><ref name="Tricia Redeker Hepner" /><ref name="Jordan Gebre-Medhin" /><ref>Abebe Zegeye and Siegfried Pausewang (eds.), Ethiopia in Change: Peasantry, Nationalism and Democracy (London: British Academic Press, 1994), pp. 103–120.</ref><ref name="John Young">John Young, “The Tigray and Eritrean Peoples’ Liberation Fronts: A History of Tensions and Pragmatism,” Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no. 1 (1996): 105–120.</ref><ref name="Redie Bereketeab" /><ref name="Okbazghi Yohannes" /> The prevailing scholarly view is that Tigrayans and [[Biher-Tigrinya]] form one broader ethnolinguistic group whose identities have diverged primarily due to differing political histories, rather than deep cultural or ethnic separation.<ref name="Wolbert Smidt" /><ref name="David Appleyard" /><ref>Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973).</ref><ref>Christopher S. Clapham, “The Political Framework: Ethiopia,” in Roland Oliver (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).</ref><ref>Enid Schildkrout, “People of the Horn: Tigrinya,” in Peoples of Africa, edited by James L. Gibbs Jr. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1978).</ref><ref name="Richard Reid" /><ref name="Tekeste Negash" /><ref name="Tricia Redeker Hepner" /><ref name="Jordan Gebre-Medhin" /><ref>Abebe Zegeye and Siegfried Pausewang (eds.), Ethiopia in Change: Peasantry, Nationalism and Democracy (London: British Academic Press, 1994).</ref><ref name="John Young" /><ref name="Redie Bereketeab" /><ref name="Okbazghi Yohannes" />

Intermarriage and cross-border kinship have further reinforced the close ties between Tigrayans and Biher-Tigrinya. Many prominent figures in both communities have mixed ancestry or family origins on both sides of the [[Mereb River]]. Former Ethiopian Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] was born to an Eritrean mother from [[Adwa]], while Eritrean President [[Isaias Afwerki]] has Tigrayan paternal ancestry from the [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] highlands.<ref>Dan Connell, Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp. 21–22.</ref><ref>Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p. 333.</ref> Other examples include Eritrean independence leader [[Woldeab Woldemariam]], whose family roots trace to both Eritrea and Tigray, and former Eritrean defence minister [[Sebhat Ephrem]], born to parents of Tigrayan and Eritrean-Tigrinya descent.<ref>David Pool, From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), p. 47.</ref><ref name="Richard Reid" /> Such familial connections illustrate the permeability of the modern border and the enduring social fabric linking the two groups.

In recent years, symbolic and grassroots initiatives have emerged to improve relations between the two communities. The [[2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit|2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia peace agreement]], reached between [[Abiy Ahmed]] and [[Isaias Afwerki]], formally ended two decades of hostility and briefly reopened border crossings such as [[Zalambessa]] and [[Bure (disputed zone)|Bure]], enabling large-scale family reunions and renewed trade.<ref>BBC News, “Ethiopia and Eritrea declare war ‘over’,” 9 July 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45475876.</ref> Although most crossings later closed, local actors have continued to pursue informal contact, with joint religious and cultural events reported in 2025 along the [[Mereb River]] frontier.<ref>BBC News, “Eritrea and Ethiopia's war anniversary marked at border,” 8 June 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c15wz4l5pddo.</ref>

[[File:Agazia_flag.png|right|thumb|Flag of the [[Agazian Movement|Agazian movement]]]]
Parallel to these reconciliatory gestures, ideological projects such as the [[Agazian Movement|Agazian movement]] have emerged in the diaspora and online spaces. First noted in the mid-2010s, the movement promotes a vision of a unified, [[Tigrinya language]]-speaking [[Oriental Orthodox|Orthodox Christian]] state across [[Eritrea]] and the [[Tigray Region]], rooted in appeals to a shared [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] heritage.<ref>"Time for Ethiopians to start talking and deal with the Agazain movement," Tigrai Online, retrieved 15 August 2024.</ref><ref>"The far-right nationalist movement roiling Eritreans in Israel," +972 Magazine, 7 May 2018.</ref><ref>"The Agazian Movement: Exhuming a Corpse?," Horn Affairs, 18 March 2017.</ref><ref>Mustafa Omer, "The conflict in Ethiopia and [[Tigray People's Liberation Front|TPLF]]'s ultra-nationalist ideology," Al Jazeera, retrieved 15 August 2024.</ref><ref>Saleh "Gadi" Johar, "Eritrea: 'A Foolish Undertaking'," Awate.com, 17 August 2021.</ref><ref>Abraha Mehari Ateweberhan, "Eritreans caught in dilemma over [[Tigray War|Tigray conflict]]," The Africa Report, 11 December 2020.</ref><ref>Abdulkader Saleh Mohammad, "The Resurgence of Religious and Ethnic Identities among Eritrean Refugees: A Response to the Government's Nationalist Ideology," Africa Spectrum 56, no. 1 (2021): 39–58.</ref><ref>Getachew Gebrekieros Temare, "The [[Republic of Tigray]]? Aydeln, yekenyeley!," Ethiopia Insight, 28 September 2019.</ref> While dismissed by many as a fringe or extremist current, others see it as symptomatic of unresolved debates over identity, political sovereignty, and the legacy of the [[Eritrea–Ethiopia relations|trans-Mereb relationship]].

==Genetics==

===Autosomal ancestry===
Genome-wide studies indicate that Tigrayans, like other northern [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] groups, exhibit a roughly equal mixture of indigenous [[East Africa|East African]] and [[West Eurasia|West Eurasian]] ancestry.<ref>Pickrell, Joseph K., et al. "Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.7 (2014): 2632‑2637.</ref> Principal component analyses place Tigrayan samples between [[Sub-Saharan Africa|sub‑Saharan African]] and [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]]/[[Europe|European]] reference populations, forming part of a broader “[[Habesha people|Habesha]]” cluster that also includes [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Gurage people|Gurage]].<ref name="Pagani">Pagani, Luca, et al. "Ethiopian genetic diversity reveals linguistic stratification and complex influences on the Ethiopian gene pool." American Journal of Human Genetics 91.1 (2012): 83‑96.</ref>
A forensic study of Tigrayan individuals using 46 ancestry-informative Indels and 31 SNPs estimated ~50 % non‑[[Demographics of Africa|African]] ancestry and confirmed their intermediate genetic position.<ref name="Kumar">Kumar, H. R. S., et al. "Characterization of ancestry informative markers in the Tigray population of Ethiopia and evaluation of their forensic efficacy." Forensic Science International: Genetics 45 (2020): 102207.</ref> Another study showed that Tigrayan samples had (~50%) of a genetic component shared with [[Demographics of Europe|European]] and [[Middle Eastern]] populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=H. R. S. |last2=Haddish |first2=K. |last3=Lacerenza |first3=D. |last4=Aneli |first4=S. |last5=Gaetano |first5=C. Di |last6=Tewelemedhin |first6=G. |last7=Manukonda |first7=R. V. |last8=Futwi |first8=N. |last9=Alvarez-Iglesias |first9=V. |last10=Puente |first10=M. de la |last11=Fondevila |first11=M. |last12=Lareu |first12=M. V. |last13=Phillips |first13=C. |last14=Robino |first14=C. |date=2020-03-01 |title=Characterization of ancestry informative markers in the Tigray population of Ethiopia: A contribution to the identification process of dead migrants in the Mediterranean Sea |url=https://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(19)30305-9/abstract |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |language=English |volume=45 |article-number=102207 |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.102207 |issn=1872-4973 |pmid=31812100|hdl=2318/1723024 |s2cid=208869986 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> 

Genetic studies suggest that the [[West Eurasian]] component entered the [[Horn of Africa]] during the late [[Holocene]], roughly 2,500‑3,000 years ago, likely through movements across the [[Red Sea]] from [[South Arabia]] during the period associated with the [[Dʿmt|Kingdom of Dʿmt]] and the formative phases of [[Aksumite Empire|Aksumite civilization]].<ref>Petraglia, Michael D., and Nicole Boivin, eds. Human Dispersal and Species Movement: From Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge University Press, 2017.</ref> Comparative analyses indicate that Tigrayans are more closely related to  [[Amhara people|Amhara]]  and [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritrean]] [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya speakers]] than to southern [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]] or [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] populations, highlighting the relative genetic continuity of the [[Ethiopian Highlands|northern highlands]].<ref name="Kumar" />

Ancient DNA research also provides insight into the temporal layering of this ancestry. The ~4,500‑year‑old [[Mota (Ethiopia)|Mota]] genome from southwestern [[Ethiopia]] represents the pre‑admixture indigenous component, which is still present in modern Tigrayans but is now diluted by later West Eurasian gene flow, likely entering the [[Horn of Africa]] around 3,000 years ago through maritime and overland links with [[South Arabia]].<ref name="Llorente">Llorente, M. G., et al. "Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture in Eastern Africa." Science 350.6262 (2015): 820‑822.</ref> This genome lacked the later [[West Eurasian]] admixture present in modern Tigrayans, supporting the view that the [[Eurasian]] component entered the region in the late    [[Holocene]].

===Paternal and maternal lineages===
Maternal ancestry in northern [[Ethiopia]]n populations, including Tigrayans, is dominated by [[Haplogroup L (mtDNA)|African L haplogroups]], which comprise about 60 % of lineages.<ref>Kivisild, Toomas, et al. "The Ethiopian mitochondrial DNA heritage: tracking gene flow across and around the gate of tears." American Journal of Human Genetics 75.5 (2004): 752‑770.</ref> The remaining 40 % belong to Eurasian-associated lineages, primarily [[Haplogroup M1 (mtDNA)|M1]] and subclades of [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|haplogroup N]]. These lineages are associated with prehistoric migrations across the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] and back‑migration events that shaped the [[Horn of Africa]] during the late Holocene.<ref name="Pagani" /> These patterns highlight the role of both local continuity and long‑distance gene flow in shaping the maternal heritage of Tigrayans.<ref name="Pagani" />

On the paternal side, the [[Y-chromosome]] of Tigrayan men is overwhelmingly dominated by [[Haplogroup E-V68|haplogroup E1b1b]], which is prevalent among [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro‑Asiatic]] speakers in both [[East Africa]] and [[North Africa]].<ref>Semino, Ornella, et al. "Origin, diffusion, and differentiation of Y‑chromosome haplogroups E and J: inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and later migratory events in the Mediterranean area." American Journal of Human Genetics 74.5 (2004): 1023‑1034.</ref> Significant secondary lineages include [[Haplogroup J-M267|haplogroup J1]], linked to [[West Asia]]n ancestry, and [[Haplogroup T-M184|haplogroup T‑M184]], occurring at low frequencies (~6–7 %) and highlighting ancient [[Near Eastern]] connections into the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>Cruciani, Fulvio, et al. "Tracing past human male movements in northern/eastern Africa and western Eurasia: new clues from Y‑chromosomal haplogroups E‑M78 and J‑M12." Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.6 (2007): 1300‑1311.</ref>

Multiple [[forensic genetics]] studies have characterized [[Y-STR]] [[haplotype]] diversity in the Tigray male population, using panels such as Y‑Filer Plus across 23–27 loci. These studies report extremely high haplotype diversity and complete individualization of profiles, valuable for regional forensic databases and population genetics reference.<ref>A reference database of forensic autosomal and gonosomal STR markers in the Tigray population of [[Ethiopia]] (Forensic Sci. Int. Genet., 2021).</ref><ref>Y‑chromosomal haplotype diversity for 27 STR loci in the Tigray population (Northern Ethiopia), Forensic Science International, 2019.</ref> Analysis of [[molecular]] variance indicates minimal heterogeneity across [[Ethiopian]] and [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritrean]] [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] samples, suggesting long‑standing internal diversity rather than recent founder effects.<ref>A reference database... Tigray sample displayed high Y‑STR diversity... complete individualization of haplotypes ... analysis did not detect significant heterogeneity across prior reports</ref>

===Adaptation to high‑altitude environments===
[[File:Dusk at Debre Damo.JPG|thumb|right|Young monk watching the dusk on top of [[Debre Damo|Debre Damo Monastery]], [[Ethiopia]]'s oldest monastery (2,216m above sea level)]]
{{Main|High-altitude adaptation in humans}}
Tigrayans, living on the northern [[Ethiopian Highlands]] (often above 2,000 meters), experience chronic [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] due to the thin air of high‑altitude environments. Similar to the neighboring [[Amhara people|Amhara]], they exhibit a distinct physiological adaptation profile compared to other high‑altitude populations such as [[Tibetans]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Andes|Andeans]]. While [[Andean]] highlanders often develop elevated [[hemoglobin]] concentrations as a compensatory response, and [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] maintain low hemoglobin due to adaptive variants in [[EPAS1]] and [[EGLN1]], [[Habesha peoples|Ethiopian highlanders]], including Tigrayans and [[Amhara people|Amhara]], show near‑sea‑level hemoglobin values combined with efficient oxygen saturation.<ref>Beall, Cynthia M., et al. "Higher blood flow and lower hemoglobin concentration in Ethiopian highlanders." American Journal of Human Biology 14.4 (2002): 493‑510.</ref><ref>Simonson, Tatum S. "Altitude adaptation: a glimpse through various lenses." High Altitude Medicine & Biology 16.2 (2015): 125‑137.</ref> This is due to a unique adaptive architecture, with polygenic adaptation and hematological adjustments that reduce risks of chronic hypoxia without extreme polycythemia.<ref>Huerta-Sánchez, Emilia, et al. "Altitude adaptation in Tibetans caused by introgression of Denisovan-like DNA." Nature 512.7513 (2014): 194‑197.</ref>

Genome‑wide studies of high‑altitude adaptation in [[Ethiopia]] have identified population‑specific genetic signatures. Candidate genes under positive selection in northern highlanders include CBARA1, VAV3, ARNT2, and THRB, all of which are associated with [[Hypoxia-inducible factor|HIF‑1]] pathways.<ref>Alkorta-Aranburu, Gorka, et al. "The genetic architecture of adaptations to high altitude in Ethiopia." PLoS Genetics 8.12 (2012): e1003110.</ref> Interestingly, these loci differ from the [[EPAS1]] variants known to drive adaptation in [[Tibet]] and the erythropoietic response typical of [[Andean civilizations|Andean]] highlanders, indicating convergent evolution along different genetic routes.<ref>Scheinfeldt, Laura B., et al. "Genetic adaptation to high altitude in the Ethiopian highlands." Genome Biology 13.1 (2012): R1.</ref>

Comparative physiological studies highlight that Tigrayans and [[Amhara people|Amhara]] share the “low‑hemoglobin” phenotype, but may differ subtly in arterial oxygen saturation, hematocrit levels, and blood flow velocity, suggesting micro‑regional variation in adaptation within the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>Beall, Cynthia M. "Andean, Tibetan, and Ethiopian patterns of adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia." Integrative and Comparative Biology 46.1 (2006): 18‑24.</ref> This unique strategy contrasts with the hemoglobin‑based adaptation of [[Indigenous peoples of the Andes|Andeans]] and the [[EPAS1]]‑driven [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] profile, placing Tigrayans within the “Ethiopian mode” of high‑altitude adaptation, which combines genetic selection, stable oxygen delivery, and minimal erythrocytosis.<ref>Huerta-Sánchez, Emilia, and Xin Jin. "Altitude adaptation in Tibetans and beyond." Nature Reviews Genetics 15.9 (2014): 569‑581.</ref> Historical demography also indicates that these adaptations likely arose over thousands of years of local continuity, reinforcing evidence from uniparental markers and autosomal studies that northern [[Ethiopia]] maintained a relatively stable highland population core since the late [[Holocene]].<ref name="Llorente" /><ref>Reich, David, et al. "Ancient Human DNA and African Population History." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (2022): e-484.</ref>

==Notable people==

<gallery>
File:Sabagadis Woldu.jpg|[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Shum Agame|''Shum Agame'']] [[Sabagadis Woldu]], one of the key actors during the [[Zemene Mesafint]]
File:SMITH(1890) p211 JOHANNIS, KING OF ABYSSINIA.jpg| ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|''Atse'']]'' [[Yohannes IV]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] born in [[Tembien Province|Tembien]], [[Ethiopian Empire]]
File:Alula Engida.jpg|[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Ras|''Ras'']] [[Ras Alula|Alula (Abba Nega)]], commander of the battles of [[Battle of Dogali|Dogali]] and [[Battle of Adwa|Adwa]]
File:Tilahun Gizaw.jpg|[[Tilahun Gizaw]], leader of the [[Ethiopian Student Movement]]
File:Kiros Alemayehu (1).jpg|Legendary singer [[Kiros Alemayehu]]
File:Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus - AI for Good Global Summit 2018 (40316994230) (cropped).jpg|[[Tedros Adhanom|Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus]], the first ever [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African]] Director-General of the [[World Health Organization]]
File:Meles Zenawi - World Economic Forum on Africa 2012.jpg| [[Meles Zenawi]], leader of the [[TPLF]] and former Prime Minister of [[Ethiopia]].
File:Abune Matthias.jpg|[[Abuna]] [[Abune Mathias|Mathias]], current [[Patriarch]] and [[Catholicos]] of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].
File:Rophnan Uganda.jpg|[[Rophnan]] performing at a concert in [[Kampala]], [[Uganda]]
File:Letesenbet Gidey Oregon 2022 (cropped).jpg|[[Letesenbet Gidey]] at the [[2022 World Athletics Championships|2022 World Championships]] in [[Eugene, Oregon|Eugene]], [[Oregon]]
</gallery>

{{Div col|small=yes}}
{{Compact TOC|num=no|side=yes|center=yes|seealso=no|nobreak=yes}}

===A===
*[[Abay Tsehaye]] - Co-founder of the [[Tigray People's Liberation Front]]
*[[Abeba Aregawi]] – runner and gold medalist of world, world indoor and European indoor
*[[Abebe Fekadu]] – Tigrayan-Australian powerlifter.
*[[Abune Mathias]] –  [[Patriarchs of Ethiopia|Patriarch]] and [[Catholicos]] of [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopia]], Archbishop of [[Axum]] and [[Echege]] of the See of [[Takla Haymanot]]
*[[Abune Paulos]] – Former Patriarch of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].
*[[Addis Abebe]] - former [[long-distance runner]]
*[[Alemayehu Fentaw]] - Ethiopian constitutional law scholar, political theorist, conflict analyst, and a public intellectual.
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Ras|''Ras'']] [[Ras Alula|Alula (Abba Nega)]] – 19th Century Ras of [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Araya Mengesha]] - Canadian actor and descendant of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]]
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Men.27s honorifics|''Ras'']] [[Araya Selassie Yohannes]] - Son and first heir of [[Yohannes IV]]
*[[Araya Zerihun]] - Chairman of the Tigray Development Association
*[[Arkebe Oqubay]] – politician, a Minister and Special Advisor to the former Prime Minister of Ethiopia, [[Hailemariam Desalegn]].
*[[Aregawi Sabagadis]] - ''[[Dejazmach]]'' (governor) of [[Agame]] from 1831 to 1859.<ref name="Rubenson 2003">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2003|isbn=978-3-447-06246-6|location=Wiesbaden|page=310}}</ref> 
*[[Aster Gebrekirstos]] - Ethiopian scientist and professor of [[agroforestry]] at [[World Agroforestry Centre]] (ICRAF).
*[[Azeb Mesfin]] – Second [[First Lady of Ethiopia]] and widow of [[Meles Zenawi]].

===B===
*[[Emperor of Ethiopia|''Atse'']] [[Atse Baeda Maryam|Baeda Maryam]] – A pretender, grandson of [[Mikael Sehul|Ras Mikael Sehul]]<ref>[[Herbert Weld Blundell]], ''The Royal chronicle of Abyssinia, 1769–1840'', (Cambridge: University Press, 1922), pp. 384–390</ref>
*[[Bereket Desta]] - Ethiopian athlete, competed during the [[2012 Summer Olympics]]
*[[Berihu Aregawi]] - [[Long-distance running|Long-distance runner]] and current world record holder in the [[5K run|5000 m road race]] and the [[10K run|10,000 m road race]].
*[[Berhane Meskel Reda]] - [[Ethiopian Student Movement|Ethiopian student leader]] and founding figure of the [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party]] (EPRP)
*[[Birke Haylom]] -  Ethiopian long-distance runner and gold medalist at the [[2022 World Athletics U20 Championships]]

===D===
*[[Dawit Nega]] – Influential contemporary [[Tigrigna]] artist and singer
*[[Dawit Kebede]] – winner of the 2010 [[CPJ International Press Freedom Award]].
*[[Debretsion Gebremichael]] – Former president of the [[Tigray Region]].
*[[Dejen Gebremeskel]] – [[long-distance runner]] who primarily competes in [[track and field|track events]].
*[[Desta Hagos]] – First female painter in [[Ethiopia]] to hold a solo exhibition; landscapes and women's daily life<ref>{{cite web|title=Desta Hagos – Laureate Artist|url=https://art.state.gov/personnel/desta_hagos/|website=Art in Embassies, U.S. Department of State|access-date=6 August 2025}}</ref>

===E===
* ''[[Ab (Semitic)#Coptic|Abba]]'' [[Abba Estifanos of Gwendagwende|Estifanos of Gunda Gunde]] – Christian monk, itinerant preacher, and martyr known for his reformation movement and as an early dissident of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]]
* ''[[Ab (Semitic)#Coptic|Abba]]'' [[Ewostatewos]] - Prominent monk, religious reformer, and saint of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].
*[[Eyasu Berhe]] – singer, writer, producer and poet, as well as a member of the [[Tigray People's Liberation Front]] (TPLF).
*[[Eyeru Tesfoam Gebru]] – Professional cyclist from [[Aksum]], rode for [[UCI Women's team]], competed in World Championships & [[2024 Olympics]] as [[Refugee Olympic Team at the 2024 Summer Olympics|Refugee Team]]

===F===
*[[Fetien Abay Abera]] – professor of [[crop science]] at [[Mekelle University]] and former President of [[Mekelle University]].
*[[Ferede Aklum]] – A [[Zionist]] activist best known for helping 900 [[Ethiopian Jews]] [[Aliyah|immigrate]] to [[Israel]].
*[[Fisseha Desta]] – [[Vice President of Ethiopia]]
*[[Freweini Mebrahtu]] –  [[chemical engineer]] and inventor, recipient of the [[CNN_Heroes#2019|2019 CNN Hero of the Year]]
*[[Freweyni Hailu]] – [[Middle-distance running|middle-distance runner]] and two-times gold medalist at the [[World Athletics Indoor Championships]]
*[[Fryat Yemane]] – Actress, television host and model.

===G===
*[[Gebregziabher Gebremariam]] – runner who won 5 times in the World Cross Country Championships
*[[Gebre Kristos Desta]] - Born to a Tigrayan father, he was a painter and poet credited with bringing modern art to Ethiopia.<ref name="Giorgis">{{cite book | last=Giorgis | first=Elizabeth W. | title=Modernist Art in Ethiopia | publisher=Ohio University Press | year=2019 | isbn=9780821423479 | page=205 | url=https://www.ohioswallow.com/book/Modernist+Art+in+Ethiopia }}</ref><ref name="Pankhurst">{{cite book | last=Pankhurst | first=Richard | title=A Biographical Dictionary of Ethiopian Artists | publisher=Red Sea Press | year=2002 | isbn=9781569021415}}</ref>
*[[Gebrehiwot Baykedagn]] –  was an Ethiopian doctor, intellectual and a pioneer in developmental economics.
*[[Gebretsadik Abraha]] - athlete, gold medalist and record-breaker of the 2019 [[Guangzhou Marathon]]
*[[Gudaf Tsegay]] – athlete, 5,000 and 10,000 world champion, current world record holder for 5,000 m
*[[Gugsa Araya Selassie]] – [[Army of the Ethiopian Empire|army commander]] and ''Shum'' of [[Eastern Tigray|Tigray Province]]
*[[Gotytom Gebreslase]] – athlete, marathon world champion

===H===
*[[Hailemariam Reda]] – Local notable and main leader of the 1943 [[Woyane rebellion]]
*[[Hailemaryam Kiros]] – Ethiopian [[long-distance runner]]
*[[Hagos Gebrhiwet]] – athlete and former World Junior Record holder in the 5,000 meters
*[[Haile Selassie Gugsa]] – Dejazmatch from [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Hayelom Araya]] – Ethiopian [[General of the army]]<ref name=Gebru-105>Gebru Tareke, ''The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa'' (New Haven: Yale University, 2009), p. 105 {{ISBN|978-0-300-14163-4}}</ref>
*[[Hayle Ibrahimov]] - Ethiopian-born Azerbaijani international [[Middle distance running|middle]] and [[Long-distance running|long distance]] [[track and field]] athlete
*[[Hiwot Gebrekidan]] - Ethiopian [[long-distance runner]]

===I===
*[[Ilfenesh Hadera]] – American actress, her father  is   from Tigray
*[[Ileni Hagos]] – 19th century regent and mother of [[Ras (title)|''Ras'']] [[Woldemichael Solomon]] of [[Hamassien]]

===K===
*[[Keria Ibrahim]] - [[Ethiopian]] politician and former speaker of the [[House of Federation]] from 2018 to 2020. 
*[[Kindeya Gebrehiwot]] - Forestry professor and former president of [[Mekelle University]]. He advanced sustainable forest management in Tigray and advised the [[Ethiopian Ministry of Education]]
*[[Kinfe Abraham]] – Founder of Ethiopian Institute of Peace and former president of Horn of Africa Democracy and Development
*[[Kiros Alemayehu]] - Prolific songwriter and singer. Known for popularizing [[Music of Ethiopia|Tigrigna songs]] to non-[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] speaking Ethiopians.

===L===
*[[Letesenbet Gidey]] - athlete, 10,000 meters world champion and multiple gold medalist, holds two world records.

===M===
*[[Mazor Bahaina]] – Israeli [[Kessim|kes]], [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[rabbi]], and former politician, who served as a member of the [[Knesset]] for [[Shas]]
*[[Meles Zenawi]] – Former [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia]]
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Ras|''Ras'']] [[Mengesha Yohannes]] – "Natural" son and heir of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]], later [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Men.27s honorifics|Ras]] of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]].
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|''Le'ul Ras'']] [[Mengesha Seyoum]] - [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|Governor-General]] of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]], and Minister of Public Works and Communications under [[Haile Selassie I]]
*[[Mercha Wolde Kidan]] – [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Ras|''Shum Tembien'']] and father of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]]
*[[Mogos Tuemay]] – Ethiopian [[long-distance runner]]
*[[Merid Wolde Aregay]] - Ethiopian historian and a scholar of [[Ethiopian studies]].
*[[Mikael Sehul]] – ''[[Ras (title)|Ras]]'' and governor of [[Tigray]], regent of the [[Ethiopian Empire]] during the [[Zemene Mesafint]]
*[[Miruts Yifter]] – athlete who won two gold medals in the [[1980 Moscow Olympics]]
*[[Mitiku Haile]] – Ethiopian researcher who was Professor of Soil Science at [[Mekelle University]]
*[[Mulugeta Gebrehiwot]] - Ethiopian peace researcher, senior fellow at the [[World Peace Foundation]], [[Tufts University]] and founder of the [[Institute for Peace and Security Studies]].
*[[Mulu Gebreegziabher]] – Known as ''Kashi Gebru'', a [[feminist]] and [[TPLF]] fighter remembered for her bold advocacy against [[feudalism]] and [[patriarchy]]; executed under the [[Derg|Derg regime]]
*[[Mulu Hailemichael]] - cyclist, who last rode for [[UCI ProSeries|UCI ProTeam]] {{UCI team code|CJR|2024}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uci.org/team-details/17697|title=Caja Rural-Seguros RGA|work=UCI.org|publisher=[[Union Cycliste Internationale]]|access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref>

===N===
*[[Nahu Senay Girma]] - Women's rights activist, co-founder and executive director of the [[Association of Women in Boldness (AWiB)]], an NGO which trains women for leadership roles

===R===
*[[Rophnan]] – Famous musician and  DJ who signed contracts with [[Universal Records]]<ref>{{cite web |title=ምስ ሓደ ካብ ትግራይ ዳያስፖራ ኣመሪካ ተዓዘበና ንስኻ ምስ እዚ እንተኾንካ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/tigrinya/articles/cyx8vx20znqo |website=BBC News Tigrinya |publisher=BBC |date=2 November 2021 |access-date=4 August 2025 |language=ti}}</ref>

===S===
*[[Sabagadis Woldu]] - [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Shum Agame|''Shum'']] of [[Agame]] and Governor of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] during the [[Zemene Mesafint]]
*[[Samora Yunis]] - Former [[Chief of General Staff (Ethiopia)|Chief of General Staff]] of the [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]]
*[[Se'are Mekonnen]] - Former [[Chief of General Staff (Ethiopia)|Chief of General Staff]] of the [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]] until his [[Amhara Region coup attempt|assassination]] in 2019.
*[[Sebhat Aregawi]] - [[Ras (title)|''Ras'']] of [[Agame]] and son of ''[[Dejazmach]]'' [[Aregawi Sabagadis]]
*[[Sebhat Gebre-Egziabher]] – Ethiopian writer
*[[Selam Tesfaye]] – Actress, one of the most popular icon in the [[Cinema of Ethiopia|Ethiopian film industry]] and recipient of multiple awards.
*[[Seyoum Mengesha]] - Governor of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] and army commander during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] and descendant of [[Yohannes IV]]
*[[Seyoum Mesfin]] - Co-founder of the [[Tigray People's Liberation Front|TPLF]], later became Ethiopia's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ethiopia)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] and [[List of ambassadors of Ethiopia to China|Ethiopia's Ambassador to China]].
*[[Siye Abraha]] – leading the [[UN Development Programme]]'s security sector reform in [[Liberia]]

===T===
*[[Tedros Adhanom]] – The Director General of [[World Health Organization]]<ref>"Together for a healthier world", Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO's General Director [https://www.who.int/dg/tedros/en/]</ref>
*[[Tesfasellassie Medhin]] -  [[Bishop in the Catholic Church|Bishop]] of [[Ethiopian Catholic Eparchy of Adigrat]]
*[[Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher]] – world-renowned environmental scientist
*[[Tewolde Gebremariam]] – Former group chief executive officer of the [[Ethiopian Airlines]] from 2011 to 2022
*[[Tilahun Gizaw]] – Main leader of the [[Ethiopian Student Movement]] which ultimately led to the [[Ethiopian Revolution]]
*[[Tsadkan Gebretensae]] – Former [[Chief of General Staff (Ethiopia)|Chief of Staff]] of the [[Ethiopian National Defence Forces|ENDF]] and later member of the central command of the [[Tigray Defense Forces]]
*[[Tsigie Gebreselama]] – Ethiopian [[long-distance runner]] and silver medal winner in the women's race at the [[2023 World Athletics Cross Country Championships|2023 World Cross Country Championships]] 
*[[Tsgabu Grmay]] – road cyclist, one-time African time trial champion

===W===
*[[Werknesh Kidane]] – runner who won a gold medal in the 2003 [[World Cross Country Championships]]
*[[Woldeab Woldemariam]] – [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritrean]] revolutionary of Tigrayan descent,<ref>''"While he (Walda'ab) confirms [[Tedla Bairu|Tadla Byru]]'s allegation about his [[Tigray]] origin, Walda'ab nevertheless asserts that he has as much right to comment on the fate of [[Eritrea]]."'' — Hailu Habtu, ''Aspects of [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] Literature (Until 1974)'', MPhil thesis, [[School of Oriental and African Studies]], University of London, June 1981, p. 15.</ref> one of the main proponents of the [[Eritrean nationalism]]
*[[Wolde Selassie]] – [[Ras (title)|Ras]] and [[Regent]] of the [[Ethiopian Empire]]
*[[Wolete Israel Seyoum]] –  daughter of ''[[Ethiopian aristocratic and religious titles|Leul Ras]]'' [[Seyoum Mengesha]], Prince of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] and great-granddaughter of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]]
*[[Weyni Mengesha]] – [[Canadian]] film and theatre director and descendant of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]]

===Y===
*[[Yared Nuguse]] –  American professional middle-distance runner bronze medalist in 1500m from the [[2024 Summer Olympics]].
*[[Yeebio Woldai]] – [[Tigrayan nationalism|Tigrayan nationalist]]  intellectual, journalist, and chronicler of the 1943 [[Woyane rebellion]]
*[[Yengus Azenaw]] - T47 para-athlete in sprints; represented Ethiopia at 2012 & 2016 [[Paralympics]]
*[[Abuna Yesehaq]] - leader of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the [[Western Hemisphere|Western hemisphere]].
*[[Yohannes IV]] – [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] born in [[Tembien Province|Tembien]]
*[[Yohannes Abraham]] – Former [[List of ambassadors of the United States to ASEAN|US Ambassador to ASEAN]] and executive director of the [[Presidential transition of Joe Biden|Biden-Harris transition]].
*[[Yohannes Haile-Selassie]] – paleoanthropologist and curator of [[Physical Anthropology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]] from 2002 until 2021, and current director of the [[Arizona State University]] [[Institute of Human Origins]].

===Z===
*[[Zeresenay Alemseged]] – paleoanthropologist who was the Chair of the Anthropology Department at the [[California Academy of Sciences]] in [[San Francisco]], [[U.S.]]
*[[Zera Yacob (philosopher)]] – Ethiopian philosopher best known for his treatise, [[Hatata]] ("The Inquiry"), which explores themes of reason, morality, and religious tolerance.
*[[Zewde Gebre-Sellassie]] - Ethiopian [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|nobleman]], historian, and former deputy [[Prime_Minister_of_Ethiopia#Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Ethiopia|Prime Minister of Ethiopia]]

{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last1=de Waal |first1=Alexander |title=Evil days : thirty years of war and famine in Ethiopia |date=1991 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=1564320383|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RcVFXUwraxsC}}
* {{cite book|last=Young|first=John|title=Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975-1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9LX8UpI97MC|date=20 April 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-02606-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Plaut | first=Martin | title=Understanding Ethiopia's Tigray War | publisher=Hurst Publishers | year=2023 | isbn=9781805260684 }}
* {{cite book | last=Erlich | first=Haggai | title=Greater Tigray and the Mysterious Magnetism of Ethiopia | publisher=Hurst Publishers | year=2023 | isbn=9781787388246 }}
* {{cite book | last=Abbay | first=Alemseged | title=Identity Jilted, or, Reimagining Identity: The Divergent Paths of the Eritrean and Tigrayan Nationalist Struggles | publisher=Red Sea Press | year=1998 | isbn=9781569020722}}
* {{cite book | last=Mulugeta | first=Gebrehiwot | title=Laying the Past to Rest: The EPRDF and the Challenges of Ethiopian State-Building | publisher=Hurst Publishers | year=2020 | isbn=9781787382343 }}
* {{cite book | last=Zewde | first=Gebre-Sellassie | title=Yohannes IV of Ethiopia: A Political Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1975 | isbn=9780198215752 }}
* {{cite book | last=Munro-Hay | first=Stuart | title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=1991 | isbn=9780748601066 }}
* {{cite book | last=Pankhurst | first=Richard | title=The Ethiopians: A History | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2001 | isbn=978-0631224938}}
* {{cite book | last=Levine | first=Donald | title=Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2000 | isbn=978-0226475615}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Hammond | editor-first=Jenny | title=Sweeter than Honey: Testimonies of Tigrayan Women | publisher=Red Sea Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0932415561}}
{{Ethnic groups in Ethiopia}}
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[[Category:Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Habesha peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]]