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{{Short description|Biblical figure; Phoenician princess and wife of Ahab}}
{{Redirect|Jezabel|the band|The Jezabels}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Jezebel<br />{{nobold|{{lang|he|{{Script/Hebrew|אִיזֶ֗בֶל}}|rtl=yes}}}}
| title        = Queen of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]]
| image        = John Liston Byam Shaw 003.jpg
| caption      = 19th-century painting of Jezebel by [[John Liston Byam Shaw]]
| death_date   = {{circa}} 842  BCE
| death_place  = [[Tel Jezreel]]
| spouse       = King [[Ahab]]
| issue        = [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]]<br>[[Jehoram of Israel|Jehoram]]<br>[[Athaliah]]?
| father       = [[Ithobaal I]]
| mother       = 
| religion     = [[Canaanite religion]]
}}
'''Jezebel''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|z|ə|b|əl|,_|-|b|ɛ|l}})<ref name=ipa_en>{{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|edition=Second|year=1989}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20190505122805/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Jezebel "Jezebel"] (US) and {{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Jezebel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505000000/http://www.lexico.com/definition/Jezebel |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-05-05 |title=Jezebel |dictionary=[[Lexico|Oxford Dictionaries]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jezebel |title= Jezebel |work=[[Collins English Dictionary]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite Merriam-Webster |Jezebel |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Hebrew Name|אִיזֶבֶל|ʾĪzével|ʾĪzeḇel}}</ref> was the daughter of [[Ithobaal I]] of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and the wife of [[Ahab]], [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|King of Israel]], according to the [[Books of Kings|Book of Kings]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[1 Kings 16]], {{bibleverse|1 Kings|16:31}}).<ref>Elizabeth Knowles, [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O214-Jezebel.html "Jezebel"], ''The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable'', OUP 2006</ref>

In the biblical narrative, Jezebel replaced [[Yahwism]] with [[Baal]] and [[Asherah]] worship and was responsible for [[Naboth]]'s death. This caused irreversible damage to the reputation of the [[Omride dynasty]], who were already unpopular among the Israelites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/micah/6-16.htm|title=Micah 6:16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/2_chronicles/21-6.htm|title=2 Chronicles 21:6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/2_kings/8-18.htm|title=2 Kings 8:18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=ISHDA|first=T.|date=1975|title=The House of Ahab|journal=Israel Exploration Journal|volume=25|issue=2/3|pages=135–137|jstor=27925509}}</ref> For these offences, Jezebel was [[defenestrated]] and devoured by dogs, under [[Jehu]]'s orders ([[2 Kings 9]], {{Bibleverse||2 Kings|9:33-37|kjv|}}), as prophesied by [[Elijah]] ([[1 Kings 16]], {{Bibleverse||1 Kings|21:23|kjv|}}). In the [[New Testament]] [[Book of Revelation]], the name Jezebel is contemptuously attributed to a prophetic woman of [[Thyatira]], whom the author, through the voice of the risen Christ, accuses of leading her followers into fornication ([[idolatry]]). For refusing to repent, she is threatened with sexualized punishment ("throw[n] on a bed") and the death of her children.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Shanell T. |editor-last=Dunning |editor-first=Benjamin H. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZOzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 |title=The Oxford Handbook of New Testament, Gender, and Sexuality |chapter=Female Agency in New Testament Texts |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-021340-4 |pages=168–169, 513}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Streete |first=Gail Corrington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoXi1cWbSPMC&pg=PA154 |title=The Strange Woman: Power and Sex in the Bible |date=1997-01-01 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25622-7 |pages=154–55 |language=en}}</ref>

Jezebel, an [[Anglicized]] form of the Hebrew name אִיזֶבֶל‎ (ʾIzeḇel), is often interpreted as meaning “Where is the Lord?”—a phrase linked to Baal worship rituals. As queen, according to the Hebrew Bible, Jezebel promoted the worship of Baal and Asherah in [[Samaria]], clashing with the followers of [[Yahweh]], killing prophets, and challenging established religious norms. Notable events in her biblical narrative include her conflict with the prophet Elijah, the orchestrated execution of Naboth to secure a vineyard for Ahab, and her violent death at the hands of Jehu, fulfilling Elijah’s prophecy. Scholars debate the historicity of her story, noting inconsistencies and theological bias in the biblical accounts, though some evidence, such as royal seals and extrabiblical records, suggest she may have been a real political figure engaged in the complex religious and dynastic politics of her time.

Over centuries, Jezebel became a cultural symbol associated with false prophets, manipulative women, and [[sexual promiscuity]]. In Christian traditions, she was seen as leading others into idolatry and [[sin]], and her image influenced [[medieval]] and modern perceptions of powerful or nonconforming women. The concept of the “Jezebel spirit” has emerged in some [[American Christian]] circles, portraying her as a [[demon]]ic influence in spiritual and political contexts. Jezebel has also permeated popular culture through literature, music, and film, often reinterpreted as a misunderstood or vilified figure, inspiring works ranging from [[Bette Davis]]’s 1938 film ''[[Jezebel (1938 film)|Jezebel]]'' to contemporary songs, novels, and [[feminist]] scholarship that challenge traditional portrayals of her character.

==Meaning of name==
Jezebel is the Anglicized transliteration of the Hebrew {{lang|he|{{Script/Hebrew|[[wikt:איזבל|אִיזֶבֶל]]}}|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration|he|ʾIzeḇel}}. ''The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible'' states that the name is "best understood as meaning 'Where is the Lord?'" ({{langx|he|אֵיזֶה בַּעַל|ʾēze baʿal}}), a ritual cry from worship ceremonies in honor of [[Baal]] during periods of the year when the god was considered to be [[Dumuzid#Death|in the underworld]].<ref name="Metzger"/> Alternatively, a feminine [[Punic]] name noted by the ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum]]'', {{langx|phn|𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤀𐤆𐤁𐤋|bʿlʾzbl}},<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/CorpusInscriptionumSemiticarumI1/page/n227/mode/2up|title=Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum I |pages=209 |date=1926 }}</ref> may have been a cognate to the original form of the name, as the Israelites were known to often alter personal names which invoked the names of foreign gods (cf. instances for Baal, [[Mephibosheth]] and [[Ish-bosheth]]).

==Biblical account==
[[File:Leighton, Frederic - Jezabel and Ahab - c.1863.jpg|thumb|''Jezabel and Ahab'' ({{circa|1863}}) by [[Frederic Leighton]]]]

Jezebel is introduced into the biblical narrative as a [[Phoenicia]]n princess, the daughter of [[Ithobaal I]], king of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] ({{bibleverse|1 Kings|16:31}} says she was "Sidonian", which is a biblical term for Phoenicians in general).<ref name="Metzger">{{cite book |last=Hackett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=amlXOOaSuLMC&q=The+Oxford+Guide+to+People+%26+Places+of+the+Bible.|first=Jo Ann |editor1-first=Bruce M |editor1-last=Metzger |editor2-last=Coogan|editor2-first=Michael D |title= The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004 |pages=150–151 |isbn=978-0-19-517610-0}}</ref>
According to apocryphal genealogies given in [[Josephus]] and other classical sources, she was the great-aunt of [[Dido]], Queen of [[Carthage]].<ref name="Metzger"/> As the daughter of Ithobaal I, she was also the sister of [[Baal-Eser II]]. Jezebel eventually married King [[Ahab]] of [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern kingdom of Israel]].

[[Near East]]ern scholar Charles R. Krahmalkov proposed that [[Psalm 45]] records the wedding ceremony of Ahab and Jezebel,<ref>Krahmalkov, Charles R. (2000), ''A Phoenician-Punic Grammar'', page 2</ref> but other scholars cast doubt on this association.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |author-link1=John W. Rogerson |last2=McKay |first2=John William |author-link2=John William McKay |date=1977 |title=Psalms 1–50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwY4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213  |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=213 |isbn=978-0-521-29160-6}}</ref> This marriage was the culmination of the friendly relations existing between Israel and Phoenicia during Omri's reign, and possibly cemented important political designs of Ahab. Jezebel, like the foreign wives of [[Solomon]], required facilities for carrying on her form of worship, so Ahab made a Baalist altar in the house of Baal, which he had built in Samaria.<ref name=je>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=JEZEBEL |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8675-jezebel |encyclopedia=[[The Jewish Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> [[Geoffrey W. Bromiley|Geoffrey Bromiley]] points out that it was Phoenician practice to install a royal woman as a priestess of [[Astarte]], thus she would have a more active role in temple and palace relations than was customary in the Hebrew monarchy.<ref name="Bromiley">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&q=jezebel+bible&pg=PA1058|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|first=Geoffrey W.|last=Bromiley|date=28 August 1979|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0}}</ref>

===Elijah===
[[File:Jezabel-and-Ahab-Meeting-Elijah-in-Naboth-s-Vineyard.jpg|thumb|alt=Coloured illustration of a bearded prophet confronting a luxuriously dressed king and queen|''Jezebel and Ahab Meeting Elijah'', print by Sir [[Frank Bernard Dicksee|Francis Dicksee]] (1853–1928)]]

Her coronation as queen upset the balance of power between [[Yahwism]] and [[Baal]]ism.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Frank E.|last=Eakin|title=Yahwism and Baalism before the Exile|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=84|issue=4|pages=407–414|year=1965|doi=10.2307/3264867|jstor=3264867}}</ref><ref name="MillerAhab">{{cite journal|first=J. M.|last=Miller|title=The Fall of the House of Ahab|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/vt/17/3/article-p307_4.xml|journal=Vetus Testamentum|volume=17|issue=3|pages=307–324|year=1967|doi=10.1163/156853367X00042|url-access=subscription}}</ref> As queen, Jezebel institutionalized Baalism and killed Yahwist prophets, which most likely included the priests of [[Jeroboam]]'s [[golden calf]] cult,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=1 Kings 18 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/1_kings/18.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211024756/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/1_kings/18.htm |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |website=Biblehub.com}}</ref> and desecrated their altars.<ref>Mare, Leonard P. {{"'}}Twice as much of your Spirit': Elijah, Elisha, and the Spirit of God." ''Ekklesiastikos Pharos'' 91.1 (2009): 72–81.</ref><ref name="Kandelmwin">Bayor, Conrad Kandelmwin (2017). "The Alienation of Jezebel: Reading the Deuteronomic Historian's Portrait of Jezebel in the Contemporary Global Context".</ref> [[Obadiah (1 Kings)|Obadiah]], a pro-Yahwist figure in Ahab's royal court, secretly protected the survivors of these purges in a cave.<ref name="je" /><ref name="Kandelmwin" /> Some modern commentators observe that Jezebel's desecration of [[Altar (Bible)|Yahwist altars]] would have normally been condoned since they were built outside of [[Jerusalem]], which contravened the [[Deuteronomic Code]]. However, they were overlooked due to Elijah's piety or Jezebel's 'improper' motives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=1 Kings 19:10 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/1_kings/19.htm |website=Biblehub}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Glatt-Gilad |first=David |date=February 21, 2019 |title=Was Elijah Permitted to Make an Offering on Mount Carmel? |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/was-elijah-permitted-to-make-an-offering-on-mount-carmel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103023709/https://www.thetorah.com/article/was-elijah-permitted-to-make-an-offering-on-mount-carmel |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |website=TheTorah.com}}</ref> Alternatively, some scholars argue that the Deuteronomic Code promotes laicization and considers all of Israel to be Yahweh's "sacred space". Theologians likewise argue that the "sacred space" is any place where Yahweh "manifested" to humans, according to {{Bibleverse|Exodus|20:24}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alster |first=Baruch |date=2014 |title=Deuteronomy: Religious Centralization or Decentralization? |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/deuteronomy-religious-centralization-or-decentralization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418042836/https://www.thetorah.com/article/deuteronomy-religious-centralization-or-decentralization |archive-date=April 18, 2024 |website=TheTorah.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Exodus 20:24 Gill's Exposition |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/exodus/20.htm |website=Biblehub.com}}</ref>

As a result, [[Elijah]] invited Jezebel's prophets of Baal and Asherah to a challenge at [[Mount Carmel]].<ref name="Kandelmwin" /><ref name="Merecz" /> The theologian [[Adam Clarke]] writing in the early 1800s argued that these prophets would have been royal chaplains and that the Baalist prophets had more jurisdiction over Samaria during Jezebel's reign than the Asherah prophets, who were always indigenous to Samaria.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=1 Kings 18 Clarke's Commentary |url=https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/acc/1-kings-18.html#verse-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211025138/https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/acc/1-kings-18.html#verse-19 |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |website=StudyLight.org}}</ref> The challenge was to see which god, Yahweh or Baal, would burn a bull sacrifice on an altar. Jezebel's prophets failed to summon Baal in burning the bull sacrifice, despite their cries and cutting themselves. Elijah, however, succeeded when he summoned Yahweh, impressing the Israelites. He then ordered the people to seize and kill the prophets of Baal and Asherah at the [[Kishon River]]. In response, Jezebel vows to kill Elijah.<ref>Micah 6:16</ref><ref name="Kandelmwin" /><ref name="Merecz">{{cite journal|first1=Robert J.|last1=Merecz|title=Jezebel's Oath (1 Kgs 19,2)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42614902|journal=Biblica|date= n.d. |issn=0006-0887|pages=257–259|volume=90|issue=2|jstor=42614902}}</ref> Elijah fled to [[Mount Horeb]],<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Kings|19:8|HE}}</ref> where he mourned the [[apostasy]] of Israel.<ref name=je/><ref name=isbe>{{Cite book|last=Bromiley|first=Geoffrey William|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8028-3785-1}}</ref>

===Attempted kidnapping===
After these events, [[Hadadezer|Ben-Hadad]], the king of [[Aram-Damascus]], besieged Israel and threatened to capture Ahab's wives, including Jezebel. Ahab refused and defeated him in battle. However, he spared Ben-Hadad's life, an act that was denounced by an unnamed prophet. The prophet also declared that Israel would be ravaged by the Arameans as punishment.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Kings|20:3–43|NIV}}</ref>

=== Naboth ===
Jezebel was said to have resolved a failed business deal between Ahab and a civilian named [[Naboth]], concerning a vineyard. To do this, she ordered the execution of Naboth and his sons,<ref name="je2">[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11263-naboth Hirsch, Emil G. and Seligsohn, M., "Naboth", ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=1 Kings 21: Coffman's Commentaries on the Bible |url=https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/bcc/1-kings-21.html#verse-11 |website=StudyLight.org}}</ref> under false charges of blasphemy against God and the king. Commentators observe that the execution was performed according to the [[Death penalty in the Bible|Biblical guidelines]] so that suspicions of foul play could be minimized.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=1 Kings 21: Keil and Delitzsch OT Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/kad/1_kings/21.htm |website=Biblehub}}</ref> After Naboth's death, his corpse was licked by stray dogs. His execution was criticized by Elijah, who prophesized doom for Jezebel's family as punishment.

===Death===
[[File:097.The Death of Jezebel.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt= Engraving of Jezebel being thrown out of a window to waiting mounted troops and dogs|''The Death of Jezebel'' by [[Gustave Doré]]]]

Three years later, Ahab died in battle. Jezebel's son [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]] inherited the throne, but died as the result of an accident and was succeeded by his brother, [[Jehoram of Israel|Jehoram]]. [[Jehu]] later usurped the throne<ref name="Metzger"/> and killed Jehoram, and his nephew [[Ahaziah of Judah|Ahaziah]], who was the son of Jehoram's possible sister [[Athaliah]] and her Judahite husband [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]]. He later approached Jezebel at the royal palace in Jezreel.

Anticipating his arrival, Jezebel put on make-up and a formal wig with adornments and looked out of a window and taunted him. Bromiley says that it should be looked at less as an attempt at seduction and more as the public defiance of the queen mother, invested with the authority of the royal house and cult to confront a rebellious commander.<ref name=Bromiley/> In his two-volume ''[[Asimov's Guide to the Bible|Guide to the Bible]]'' (1967 and 1969), [[Isaac Asimov]] describes Jezebel's last act: dressing in all her finery, make-up, and jewelry, as deliberately symbolic, indicating her [[dignity]], royal status, and determination to go out of this life as a queen.<ref>{{cite book|last=Asimov|first=Isaac|title=Asimov's Guide to the Bible: Two Volumes in One, the Old and New Testaments|year=1988|edition=reprint|publisher=Wings|isbn=978-0-517-34582-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/asimovsguidetobi00asim}}</ref>

Jehu, however, remained unfazed and ordered Jezebel's [[eunuch]] servants to [[Defenestration|throw her from the window]]. Her blood splattered on the wall and horses, and Jehu's horse trampled her corpse. He entered the palace where, after he ate and drank, ordered Jezebel's body to be taken for burial. However, only her skull, her feet, and the palms of her hands remained—her flesh had been eaten by stray dogs, just as the prophet Elijah had prophesied.<ref>{{Bibleverse||2 Kings|9:35-36|kjv|}}</ref><ref>See also [https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jezebel-midrash-and-aggadah jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jezebel-midrash-and-aggadah]</ref>

==Historicity==
[[File:Andrea Celesti - Queen Jezabel Being Punished by Jehu - WGA4622.jpg|alt=painting of Jezebel's dead body being consumed by dogs as Jehu gestures at her body in triumph|thumb|''Queen Jezebel Being Punished by Jehu'', by [[Andrea Celesti]]]]

According to [[Israel Finkelstein]], the marriage of King Ahab to the daughter of the ruler of the Phoenician empire was a sign of the power and prestige of Ahab and the northern Kingdom of Israel. He termed it a "brilliant stroke of international diplomacy".<ref name="Finkelstein">{{Cite book|title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2001|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|pages=169–195|author-link1=Israel Finkelstein}}</ref> He says that the inconsistencies and anachronisms in the biblical stories of Jezebel and Ahab mean that they must be considered "more of a historical novel than an accurate historical chronicle".<ref name="Finkelstein" /> Among these inconsistencies, [[1 Kings 20]] states that "[[Hadadezer|Ben-Hadad]] king of [[Aram-Damascus|Aram]]" invaded Samaria during Ahab's reign, but this event did not take place until later in the history of Israel, and "Ben-Hadad" was the title of the ruler of Aram-Damascus.<ref name="FinkelsteinSilberman2002">{{cite book |author1= Israel Finkelstein |author2= Neil Asher Silberman |title= The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&pg=PA176 |date=6 March 2002 |publisher= Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-2338-6 |page= 176}}</ref> Finkelstein also states that the biblical accounts are "obviously influenced by the [[Deuteronomic Code|theology]] of the seventh century BCE writers".<ref name="Finkelstein" /> They were hostile to polytheism and viewed Samaria as a rival to Jerusalem.<ref name="Finkelstein" />

According to Dr J. Bimson, of [[Trinity College, Bristol]] 1 and 2 Kings are not "a straightforward history but a history which contains its own theological commentary". He points to verses like {{bibleverse|1 Kings|14:19}} that show the author of Kings was drawing on other earlier sources.<ref>''IVP New Bible Commentary'' (21st Century Edition), p. 335</ref> The book mixes the annals of history with legends, folktales, miracle stories and "fictional constructions",<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCgUvQOIvD0C&q=%22fictional+constructions%22&pg=PA1 |page=1 |title=Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching: First and Second Kings |author=Richard D. Nelson |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-664-22084-6}}</ref> and presentation of earlier sources is heavily edited to fit the Deuteronomist agenda.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fretheim|first=Terence E|title=First and Second Kings|publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ODLAo9QouEC |isbn=978-0-664-25565-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Van Seters |first=John |author-link=John Van Seters |title=In search of history: historiography in the ancient world and the origins of biblical history |publisher= Eisenbrauns |year=1997 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0-skPdXtewwC&pg=PA406 |isbn= 978-1-57506-013-2 |page=307}}</ref>  Janet Howe Gaines likewise finds the narratives implausible, especially the narrative of Naboth being betrayed by an entire Israelite town.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gaines |first=Janet Howe |date=2023 |title=How Bad Was Jezebel? |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/how-bad-was-jezebel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211025417/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/how-bad-was-jezebel/ |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |website=Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref> But Christian Frevel argues that the biblical narrative subtly alludes to the Omrides' historical role in introducing Yahwism to Judah, which was obfuscated by anti-Omride Judeans. For example, Ahab gave his children theophoric names during his years of expansion in the northern territories and Judah.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Frevel |first=Christian |date=2021 |title=When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah |url=https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/article/view/8776 |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.46586/er.12.2021.8776 |via=RUB|hdl=2263/84039 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Stahl |first=Michael J. |date=2023 |title=Yahweh or Baal- Who Was the God of Northern Israel? |url=https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/yahweh-or-baal-who-was-the-god-of-northern-israel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418044706/https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/yahweh-or-baal-who-was-the-god-of-northern-israel/ |archive-date=April 18, 2024 |website=Biblical Archaeology Review}}</ref> Other scholars propose that the Baal worshipped by Ahab and Jezebel was the "[[Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions|YHWH of Samaria]]", which was opposed as Yahwist heresy by the Judean priests,<ref name="lipinski">Edward Lipiński "Studia z dziejów i kultury starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu" Nomos Press, 2013, {{ISBN|978-83-7688-156-0}}</ref> but some disagree based on archaeological evidence and extrabiblical records on Jezebel's upbringing.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Merrill F. Unger, ''Unger's Bible Dictionary'' (Chicago: Moody Press, 1977) 327.</ref> Brian R. Doak believes the narratives are historically plausible because of the historicity of Omri and Ahab, evidence for widespread paganism among Israelites, international marriages for political purposes and competition between religious professionals during periods of "political unrest or social change". In addition, other contemporary sources, including sources written by Phoenicians, face similar issues in terms of being unverified by third-party sources.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doak |first=Brian R. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/33589/chapter/288065678 |title=Ancient Israel's Neighbors |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190690632}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2025}}

A seal from the 9th century BCE, discovered in 1964, has a partially damaged inscription of "[[Yodh|Y]][[Zayin|Z]][[Bet (letter)|B]][[Lamedh|L]]" which could have once read, "belonging to Jezebel". However, there are some issues with this theory. Whereas on the seal it appears the inscription begins with the letter [[yodh]], Jezebel's name starts with an [[aleph]], which is lacking on the seal; furthermore, the possessive [[lamedh]] which would translate to the predicate "belonging to&nbsp;..." is also missing from the seal. However, it is entirely possible these letters simply could have been located where the seal is now [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|damaged]]. The seal includes motifs associated with both Egyptian and Israelite royalty, such as the [[Uraeus]] cobra, which is commonly found on pharaonic artifacts, and symbols such as the [[winged sun]] and [[ankh]], which are found on numerous other Israelite royal seals from the 8th century BCE and onwards. Regardless, scholars do not agree on whether the seal is evidence for the historicity of the biblical character. Some scholars have said that the size and intricacy of the seal could mean it was used by royalty. If the seal truly represents Jezebel, then she most likely represented '[[Anat]] as queen, who was the wife of the [[Baal#Baʿal|Ugaritic Baal]]. This aligns with Phoenician royal tradition.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |last= Korpel |first= Marjo C. A. |title= Fit for a Queen: Jezebel's Royal Seal |date= May 2008 |url= https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/uncategorized/fit-for-a-queen-jezebels-royal-seal |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130307071240/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/uncategorized/fit-for-a-queen-jezebels-royal-seal |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2013-03-07 |publisher= Biblical Archaeology Society |access-date=17 November 2013}}</ref>

==Cultural symbol==
[[File:Jezabel - Léon Auguste Perrey.jpg|thumb|''Jezabel'' by Léon Auguste Perrey]]

According to [[Geoffrey Bromiley]], the depiction of Jezebel as "the incarnation of Canaanite cultic and political practices, detested by Israelite prophets and loyalists, has given her a literary life far beyond the existence of a ninth-century Tyrian princess."<ref name=Bromiley/>

Through the centuries, the name ''Jezebel'' came to be associated with false prophets. By the early 20th century, it was also associated with fallen or abandoned women.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|first=Stanley Arthur |last=Cook |wstitle=Jezebel |volume=15|page=411}}</ref> By the 1950s and 1960s, the figures of Jezebel in 1 and 2 Kings and the Jezebel of Revelation began to be conflated and became "a trope for women".<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Archer |first=Melissa L. |date=2022-07-25 |title=The S/spirit of Jezebel and the Spirit of Prophecy: A Pentecostal Reading of Revelation 2:18–29: SPS Presidential Address 2022 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/pneu/44/2/article-p159_2.xml |journal=Pneuma |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=159–182 |doi=10.1163/15700747-bja10068 |issn=0272-0965|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In Christian lore, a comparison to Jezebel suggested that a person was a [[paganism|pagan]] or an [[apostasy|apostate]] masquerading as a servant of God. By manipulation and seduction, she misled the saints of God into sins of idolatry and sexual immorality.<ref>{{cite book|title=''The New Testament, Book of Revelation''|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=REV%202:20-23&version=ESV}}, Ch. 2, vs. 20-23.</ref> In particular, Christians associated Jezebel with [[promiscuity]] and the usurpation of male authority.<ref name=":6" /> The [[cosmetics]] which Jezebel applied before her death also led some Christians to associate makeup with vice, although, as Isaac Asimov points out in his ''Guide to the Bible'', such cosmetics—used on ceremonial occasions by royalty and priestesses—could be interpreted as the desire of a proud woman to meet her last moments in a manner and attire becoming a Queen. In the [[Middle Ages]], the chronicler [[Matthew Paris]] criticised [[Isabella of Angoulême]], the [[queen consort]] of [[John, King of England]], by writing that she was "more Jezebel than Isabel".<ref>Nicholas Vincent 'John's Jezebel' 1999</ref> The [[Jezebel stereotype]] is an oppressive image and was used as a justification for sexual assault and sexual servitude during the eras of [[Slavery in the colonial United States|colonization]] and [[slavery in the United States]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donovan |first1=Roxanne |last2=Williams |first2=Michelle |name-list-style=amp |date=2002 |title=Living at the intersection: The effects of racism and sexism on Black rape survivors |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254379185 |format=PDF |journal=Women & Therapy |volume=25 |issue=3–4 |pages=95–105 |doi=10.1300/J015v25n03_07 |s2cid=143180295 |access-date=April 17, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buchanan |first1=Nicole T. |last2=Ormerod |first2=Alayne J. |name-list-style=amp |date=2002 |title=Racialized sexual harassment in the lives of African American women |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230630584 |format=PDF |journal=Women & Therapy |volume=25 |issue=3–4 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1300/J015v25n03_08 |s2cid=144425126 |access-date=April 17, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pilgrim |first=David |title=Jezebel Stereotype |url=http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/jezebel/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728034514/http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/jezebel/ |archive-date=28 July 2011 |access-date=29 July 2011 |work=Jim Crow Museum |publisher=Ferris State University}}</ref> In modern usage, the name of Jezebel is sometimes used as a synonym for sexually promiscuous or controlling women.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jezebel |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jezebel |access-date=24 May 2012 |work=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |quote=2 often not capitalized :  an impudent, shameless, or morally unrestrained woman}}</ref><ref name=":6" />

In feminist interpretations and Bible scholarship, Jezebel is re-examined and, for example, seen as unfairly framed<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Bellis |first=Alice Ogden |url=https://www.pcusastore.com/Content/Site119/FilesSamples/175270Helpmates_00000145967.pdf |title=Helpmates, harlots, and heroes: women's stories in the Hebrew Bible |date=1994 |publisher=Westminster/John Knox Pr |isbn=978-0-664-25430-8 |location=Louisville, Ky |pages=3 |language=en |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> or her story altered,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beach |first=Eleanor Ferris |url=http://archive.org/details/jezebellettersre0000beac |title=The Jezebel letters: religion and politics in ninth-century Israel |date=2005 |location=Minneapolis, MN |publisher=Fortress Press |via=the Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8006-3754-5 |pages=4–5 |language=en}}</ref> or as a resource for [[womanist]] theology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lomax |first=Tamura A. |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Assets/PubMaterials/978-1-4780-0107-2_601.pdf |title=Jezebel unhinged: loosing the black female body in religion and culture |date=2018 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-1-4780-0248-2 |location=Durham London |archive-date=15 April 2020 |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415065708/https://www.dukeupress.edu/Assets/PubMaterials/978-1-4780-0107-2_601.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Jezebel spirit <span class="anchor" id="Jezebel spirit"></span> ==
In American Christian [[spiritual warfare]] contexts, particularly popular among [[Neo-charismatic movement|neo-Charismatic]] groups such as the [[New Apostolic Reformation]] (NAR), the Jezebel spirit is considered one of multiple named demons or [[territorial spirit]]s and is "near [ubiquitous] in spiritual warfare literature".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jonathon O'Donnell |first=S. |date=2017-02-19 |title=The Body Politic(s) of the Jezebel Spirit |journal=Religion and Gender |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=240–255 |doi=10.18352/rg.10138 |issn=2589-8051|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is a powerful demon representing an "apocalyptic threat to American life, one whose demonic reign [is] hastening US moral decline and who thus [has] to be both guarded against and dethroned and replaced, spiritually and politically, if the nation [is] to evade divine judgement".<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=S. Jonathon |url=https://www.cdamm.org/articles/spiritual-warfare-in-america |title=Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements |date=October 26, 2022 |editor-last=Crossley |editor-first=James |access-date=September 28, 2024 |editor-last2=Lockhart |editor-first2=Alastair}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> "The story of Jezebel so permeates NAR culture", states religion journalist [[Frederick Clarkson]], that prophetic art has been made by one of the movement's apostles "depicting the scene when she's devoured by dogs."<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Clarkson |first=Frederick |author-link=Frederick Clarkson |date=2024-10-17 |title=Packed with Threats of Political Violence, Media Largely Ignore the NAR's 'Million Women' Rally in DC |url=https://religiondispatches.org/packed-with-threats-of-political-violence-media-largely-ignore-the-nars-million-women-rally-in-dc/ |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=[[Religion Dispatches]]}}</ref> In 2016, the senior editor of ''[[Charisma (magazine)|Charisma]]'' magazine claimed that the 2016 US presidential election removed the spirit of Jezebel present in the government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Donnell |first=S. Jonathon |date=2020-09-14 |title=Demons of the deep state: how evangelicals and conspiracy theories combine in Trump's America |url=https://theconversation.com/demons-of-the-deep-state-how-evangelicals-and-conspiracy-theories-combine-in-trumps-america-144898 |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=LeClaire |first=Jennifer |date=2016-11-15 |title=After Massive Jezebel Attack, Oprah Repents for Positive Trump Statement |url=https://awakeningmag.com/after-massive-jezebel-attack-oprah-repents-for-positive-trump-statement/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917014114/https://awakeningmag.com/after-massive-jezebel-attack-oprah-repents-for-positive-trump-statement/ |archive-date=2020-09-17 |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=Awakening Magazine}}</ref> NAR [[Apostolic-Prophetic Movement|apostles and prophets]] have used the term in reference to American politics. NAR apostle [[Lance Wallnau]] has stated US Vice President [[Kamala Harris]] is guided by an "[[occult]] spirit", the Spirit of Jezebel";<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hixenbaugh |first1=Mike |last2=Marquez |first2=Alexandra |date=September 27, 2024 |title=Vance to attend event with evangelist who said Harris used 'witchcraft' |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/jd-vance-event-evangelist-kamala-harris-witchcraft-rcna173020 |access-date=September 28, 2024 |website=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> NAR pastor [[Ché Ahn]] prayed at a January 5, 2021 rally that the Jezebel spirit upon the 2020 US presidential election would be thrown out to allow Christians to "rule and reign through [[President Trump]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Matthew D. |title=The violent take it by force: the Christian movement that is threatening our democracy |date=2024 |publisher=Broadleaf Books |isbn=978-1-5064-9778-5 |location=Minneapolis |pages=112, 135}}</ref> Ahn has also invoked Jezebel in reference to Harris, decreeing that she would be "cast out" by Trump in 2024, who he sees as a Jehu figure, and "lose in Jesus's name".<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Herman |first=Alice |date=2024-10-19 |title=Why experts say Christian nationalists' rhetoric may spur violence |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/oct/19/christian-nationalists-violence-concerns |access-date=2024-10-27 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The [[Political violence|politically violent]] implications of such messaging, and lack of significant media coverage, have been criticized by Clarkson and others.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> In 2024, a candidate for lieutenant governor in the US state of Indiana referred to the race as being between Republican "strength and godly boldness" and the "Jezebel spirit".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Volmert |first1=Isabella |last2=Smith |first2=Michelle R. |date=2024-10-18 |title=What's a 'Jezebel spirit'? Some Christians use the term to paint Kamala Harris with a demonic brush |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/whats-a-jezebel-spirit-some-christians-use-the-term-to-paint-kamala-harris-with-a-demonic-brush |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=PBS News |language=en-us |via=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> Others who have been identified with the demonic Jezebel spirit include singer [[Madonna]].<ref name=":6" /> In 2024, pastor [[Mark Driscoll]] criticized the [[James River Church]] Stronger Men's Conference for being opened by "the Jezebel spirit" following a sword-swallowing act.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gomez |first=Julia |title='Jezebel spirit': Pastor kicked off stage at Christian conference in Missouri |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/04/15/pastor-mark-driscoll-kicked-off-state-christian-conference/73331462007/ |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=[[USA TODAY]]}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:Bette Davis in Jezebel trailer 1.jpg|thumb|right|alt=close up photo of classic film actress with "Bette Davis' written across the bottom of the image|[[Bette Davis]] as Julie in the film ''[[Jezebel (1938 film)|Jezebel]]'']]
[[Bette Davis]] and [[Henry Fonda]] starred in the 1938 romantic drama ''[[Jezebel (1938 film)|Jezebel]]''.

[[Gene Loves Jezebel]] are a British rock band formed in the early 1980s by twin brothers Michael Aston and Jay Aston, initially associated with gothic rock and post-punk. 

The American gospel vocal group [[Golden Gate Quartet]] released a single called "Jezebel" in 1941 which narrates the story of Jezebel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Young |first=Alan |date=1997 |title=Woke Me Up This Morning: Black Gospel Singers and the Gospel Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dus_CgzkkhIC&q=%22golden+gate+quartet%22+jezebel&pg=PA50 |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |page=50 |isbn=0-87805-943-1}}</ref><ref>{{AllMusic| class= song |id= jezebel-mt0032224718 | label= Jezebel}}</ref>

[[Frankie Laine]] recorded "[[Jezebel (Frankie Laine song)|Jezebel]]" (1951), written by [[Wayne Shanklin]], which became a hit song.<ref>[http://www.meantime-jp.com/EditorsPick/Yakame/Data/FrankieLaine.html Frankie Laine's hits in the years 1947-1952].{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106022655/http://www.meantime-jp.com/EditorsPick/Yakame/Data/FrankieLaine.html |date=6 January 2009 }}</ref> The song begins:

{{Poem quote|If ever the Devil was born without a pair of horns
It was you, Jezebel, it was you
If ever an angel fell
Jezebel, it was you, Jezebel, it was you!<ref>{{cite web|title=Jezebel lyrics|url=http://www.metrolyrics.com/jezebel-lyrics-frankie-laine.html|work=Frankie Laine lyrics|publisher=Metro Lyrics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219045746/http://www.metrolyrics.com/jezebel-lyrics-frankie-laine.html|archive-date=2016-12-19|url-status=unfit|access-date=17 November 2013}}</ref>}}

[[Paulette Goddard]] starred as Jezebel in the film ''[[Sins of Jezebel]]'' (1953).<ref>{{cite news|title=At The Imperial: 'Jezebel' Color Spectacle Stars Paulette Goddard In Title Role|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2IQuAAAAIBAJ&pg=3263,4699346&dq=sins+of+jezebel&hl=en|access-date=17 November 2013|newspaper=The News and Eastern Townships Advocate|date=14 January 1954}}</ref>

[[Claude Demetrius]] refers to Jezebel in the fourth verse of the No. 1 hit single, ''[[Hard Headed Woman]]'' released as a single (1958) by [[Elvis Presley]].

The [[Faces (band)|Faces]] 1971 song "[[Stay with Me (Faces song)|Stay with Me]]" includes the line, "I hear you're a mean old Jezebel".

[[David Byrne]] and [[Brian Eno]]'s 1981 album ''My Life in the Bush of Ghosts'' includes the song "[[The Jezebel Spirit]]", featuring clips of the exorcism of a Jezebel spirit.

In [[Margaret Atwood]]'s ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]'' (1985) and its [[The Handmaid's Tale (TV series)|Hulu adaptation]], Jezebel's is the name of a brothel where women are forced to work as prostitutes for the totalitarian and theocratic Republic of Gilead.

[[Sade (band)|Sade's]] 1985 album [[Promise (Sade album)|''Promise'']] includes the track "Jezebel", written by [[Sade (singer)|Sade Adu]].

The [[Natalie Merchant]] song "Jezebel" was released on the [[10,000 Maniacs]] 1992 album ''[[Our Time in Eden]]'' and later performed acoustically on the 1993 live album ''[[MTV Unplugged (10,000 Maniacs album)|MTV Unplugged]]'' (10,000 Maniacs album).

The 1995 [[KMFDM]] song "[[Juke Joint Jezebel]]" is the band's most well-known song with around three million copies sold.

In 2000, the [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]] [[Pop singers|pop singer]] [[Ricky Martin]] released his song, "Jezabel" [sic], on his sixth studio album, [[Sound Loaded]]. The song is about a character who seduces famous men and then sells the story to [[paparazzi]].

The underground rapper [[Dizzee Rascal]] in his 2003 album ''boy in da corner'' features a song named "Jezebel".

The popular historian [[Lesley Hazleton]] wrote a revisionist account, ''Jezebel: The Untold Story of the Bible's Harlot Queen'' (2004), presenting Jezebel as a sophisticated queen engaged in mortal combat with the fundamentalist prophet [[Elijah]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jezebel: The Untold Story of the Bible's Harlot Queen, by Lesley Hazleton|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/lesley-hazleton/jezebel/|publisher=Kirkus reviews|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref>

[[Iron & Wine]] included a song "Jezebel" on his 2005 EP ''[[Woman King]]''. It contains many references to the biblical Jezebel, in particular the dogs associated with her death.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leahey|first=Andrew|title=Iron & Wine, 'Jezebel'|date=9 April 2012|url=http://www.americansongwriter.com/2012/04/iron-wine-jezebel/|publisher=americansongwriter.com|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref>

[[The Jezabels]] is an Australian indie rock band founded in 2007. The band's name is based on the biblical character, whom one band member describes as "misunderstood or misrepresented" and "an example of how women are really wrongly presented".<ref name="Cherrie">{{cite web | url = http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-jezabels-mn0002189231 | title = The Jezabels | last = Cherrie | first = Chrysta | website = [[AllMusic]] | publisher = [[Rovi Corporation]] | access-date = 2 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Lam2">{{cite news | url = http://digitaledition.expressadvocate.com.au/?iid=25424&startpage=page0000035#folio=34 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130115000403/http://digitaledition.expressadvocate.com.au/?iid=25424&startpage=page0000035%23folio=34 | url-status = dead| title = The Jezabels | last = Lam | first = Lana | work = Central Coast Express Advocate | publisher = [[News Limited]] ([[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]]) | page = 35 | date = 20 May 2009 | access-date = 3 December 2012 |archive-date = 15 January 2013}}</ref>

The 2019 [[Kanye West]] song "[[Closed on Sunday (Kanye West song)|Closed on Sunday]]" closes with the line 'Jezebel don't even stand a chance'

The [[Kid Harpoon]] 2022 song "[[Little Freak (Harry Styles song)|Little Freak]]" released by [[Harry Styles]] includes the line, "Little freak, Jezebel".

[[Finland]] sent a song by the name "[[Jezebel (The Rasmus song)|Jezebel]]" to the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]].

In the 2023 [[Barbie (film)|Barbie Movie]], the [[Will Ferrell|Mattel CEO]] calls Barbie a "Jezebel" while trying to force her back into her toy box.

=== In literature ===
* Barnard, Megan (2023). ''Jezebel''. Penguin Random House.
* Beach, Eleanor Ferris (2005). ''The Jezebel Letters: religion and politics in ninth-century Israel''. Fortress Press.
* Bellis, Alice Ogden (2007). ''Helpmates, harlots, and heroes: Women's stories in the Hebrew Bible''. Westminster John Knox Press.
* Everhart, Janet S. (2010). "Jezebel: Framed by eunuchs?" ''The Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 72, no. 4: 688-698.
* Garrett, Ginger (2013). ''Reign: The Chronicles of Queen Jezebel'', Book #3 in the Lost Loves of the Bible Series. {{ISBN|143-4-7659-62}}
* Hazleton, Lesley (2009). ''Jezebel: The Untold Story of the Bible's Harlot Queen''
* Jackson, Melissa (2015). "Reading Jezebel from the 'Other' Side: Feminist Critique, Postcolonialism, and Comedy". ''Review & Expositor'' 112, no. 2: 239-255.
* Lomax, Tamura (2018). ''Jezebel unhinged: Loosing the Black Female Body in religion and culture''. Duke University Press,.
* Mokoena, Lerato (2021). "Reclaiming Jezebel and Mrs Job: Challenging Sexist Cultural Stereotypes and the Curse of Invisibility" in ''Transgression and transformation: Feminist, postcolonial and queer Biblical interpretation as creative interventions''.
* Moran, Michelle (2003). ''Die Phönizierin'', München: Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag (Random House Group). (Original title ''Jezebel''). {{ISBN|3-442-35775-6}}
* Quick, Catherine S. (1993). "Jezebel's last laugh: the rhetoric of wicked women." ''Women and Language'' 16, no. 1: 44-49.
* Snyder, J. B. (2012). "Jezebel and her Interpreters". ''Women's Bible Commentary: Twentieth–Anniversary Edition''. Louisville, KY. pp.&nbsp;180–183.
* Wyatt, Stephanie (2012). "Jezebel, Elijah, and the widow of Zarephath: A ménage à trois that estranges the holy and makes the holy the strange". ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'' 36, no. 4: 435-458.

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{commons category-inline}}

{{Rulers of Ancient Israel}}
{{Book of Revelation}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jezebel| ]]
[[Category:840s BC deaths]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC executions]]
[[Category:9th-century BC deaths]]
[[Category:9th-century BC Phoenician people]]
[[Category:9th-century BC women]]
[[Category:Ancient princesses]]
[[Category:Biblical murderers]]
[[Category:Biblical murder victims]]
[[Category:Female murder victims]]
[[Category:Monarchs in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Idolatry]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[Category:Omrides]]
[[Category:People executed by defenestration]]
[[Category:People from Sidon]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Baal]]
[[Category:Massacres in the Bible]]
[[Category:Whore of Babylon]]
[[Category:Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Queen mothers]]
[[Category:Asian people whose existence is disputed]]
[[Category:Queens consort of Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:Asherah]]