Golden Age of India: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Periods in which the Indian subcontinent flourished}} |
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| ⚫ | Certain time periods have been named "[[Golden age (metaphor)|golden ages]]" where development in the [[Indian subcontinent]] flourished.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC The Mughal World], p. 386, Abraham Eraly, Penguin Books</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa] p. 29, Andrea L. Stanton, SAGE</ref> |
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{{Main|Ancient India}} |
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[[File:India 250 BC.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maurya Empire]] under king [[Ashoka]], c.250 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924022983567/page/n23/mode/1up|title=Historical atlas of India, for the use of high schools, colleges and private students|last=Joppen|first=Charles|date=|publisher=London; New York: Longmans, Green|others=Cornell University Library|pages=map 2}}</ref>]] |
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The [[Maurya Empire]] (321–185 BC) was the largest and one of the most powerful empires to exist in the history of the Indian subcontinent. This era was accompanied by high levels of cultural development and economic prosperity. The empire saw significant advancements in the fields of literature, science, art, and architecture. Important works like the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' were written and expanded in this period.{{sfn|Olivelle|2013|pp=30-31}} The earlier development of the [[Brahmi script]] and [[Prakrit]] languages took place during this period, and these later formed the bases of other languages. This era also saw the emergence of scholars like [[Pingala|Acharya Pingal]] and [[Patanjali]], who made great advancements in the fields of mathematics, poetry, and yoga.<ref name=plofker55>{{cite book|first=Kim|last=Plofker|author-link=Kim Plofker|title=Mathematics in India|title-link= Mathematics in India (book) |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DHvThPNp9yMC&pg=PA55 55–56] |year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12067-6}}</ref> The Maurya Empire was notable for its efficient administrative system, which included a large network of officials and bureaucrats as well as a sophisticated system of taxation and a well-organized army.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Maurya Empire: The History and Legacy of Ancient India's Greatest Empire |publisher=Charles River Editors |year=2017}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa] p. 29, Andrea L. Stanton, SAGE</ref> |
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According to estimates given by historians, during the Maurya era, the Indian subcontinent generated close to one third of [[World economy|global GDP]], which would be the highest the region would ever contribute.<ref>{{cite book |author=Angus Maddison |title=Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-922721-1 |page=69}}</ref> |
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==Classical era== |
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===Gupta Empire=== |
===Gupta Empire=== |
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| ⚫ | The period between the 4th and 6th centuries [[Common Era|CE]] is known as the Golden Age of India because of the considerable achievements that in the fields of [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[science]], [[religion]] and [[philosophy]] during the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs], p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref> The [[decimal]] numeral system, including the concept of [[0|zero]], was invented in India during this period.<ref>{{cite web|title=THE GUPTA EMPIRE OF INDIA 320-720|url=http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm}}</ref> The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gupta Art: A Study from Aesthetic and Canonical Norms|page=7-17|publisher=Galaxy Publications|author=Padma Sudhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India in Pictures|author=Lee Engfer|year=2002|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|isbn=9780822503712|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/indiainpictures0000engf}}</ref> The Golden Age of India came to an end when the [[Hunas]] invaded the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. The gross domestic product (GDP) of ancient India was estimated to be 32% and 28% of the global GDP in 1 AD and 1000 AD respectively. Also, during the first millennium of common era the Indian population comprised around 30.3% and 27.15% of the total world population.<ref>{{cite book|title= Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History|publisher= Oxford University Press|author=Angus Maddison|year=2007|isbn= 978-0-19-922721-1|page=69}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Middle kingdoms of India}} |
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==Medieval India== |
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| ⚫ | The period between the 4th and 6th centuries [[Common Era|CE]] is known as the Golden Age of India because of the considerable achievements that |
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[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola I]] c. 1030 CE.]] |
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[[South India]] in the 10th and 11th century CE under the imperial [[Cholas]] is considered as another Golden Age.<ref>{{cite book|title=The First Spring Part 1: Life in the Golden Age of India|quote=The period of the 'imperial' Cholas was the golden age of South India.|page=102|publisher=Penguin UK|year=2014|isbn=9789351186458}}</ref> The period saw extensive achievements in [[architecture]], [[Tamil literature]], sculpture and bronze working, maritime conquests and trade. During Cholas the major South East Asian countries practiced Hinduism, Chola’s influence was as far as Vietnam. Chola GDP constituted the world's largest GDP at that time. |
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[[File:Tughlaq dynasty 1321 - 1398 ad.PNG|150px|thumb|Territory under Tughlaq dynasty of [[Delhi Sultanate]], 1330-1335 AD]] |
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[[File:Mughal-empire-map.jpg|275px|thumb|Mughal Empire under [[Aurangzeb]] in early 18th century.]] |
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In the 13th and early 14th century CE under the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and in the 16th and 17th century CE under the [[Mughal Empire]] are considered Golden Ages, both economically and culturally.<ref>{{cite book|title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765|publisher=Penguin|year=2020|isbn=0141985399}}</ref> The periods saw extensive achievements in [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], [[Indo-Persian culture]], monuments, mosques, calligraphy, conquests, manufacturing and trade. During the Mughal era, the GDP of India in 1600 was estimated at 22% of the world economy, the second largest in the world, behind only Ming China but larger than Europe. By 1700, the GDP of Mughal India had risen to 24% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both Qing China and Western Europe. The Mughal empire was producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until the 18th century.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2003). Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics. OECD Publishing. pp. 256–. ISBN 978-92-64-10414-3.</ref> |
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==Late Middle Ages and early modern era== |
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{{Main|Mughal Empire}} |
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[[File:Joppen1907India1700a.jpg|thumb|Map of the [[Mughal Empire]] at its greatest extent, under [[Aurangzeb]] C.1707<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924022983567/page/n30/mode/1up|title=Historical atlas of India, for the use of high schools, colleges and private students|last=Joppen|first=Charles|date=|publisher=London; New York: Longmans, Green|others=Cornell University Library|pages=map 13}}</ref>]] |
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The Mughal Empire has often been called the last golden age of India.<ref>{{Citation |title=Emperor Shah Jahan and Building Up the Mughal Empire, 1628–58/66 |date=2016 |work=A Short History of the Mughal Empire |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755604913.ch-008 |access-date=2024-06-28 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-84885-872-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Malieckal |first=Bindu |title=As Good as Gold |date=2009 |work=The English Renaissance, Orientalism, and the Idea of Asia |pages=131–159 |editor-last=Johanyak |editor-first=Debra |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230106222_7 |access-date=2024-06-28 |place=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |doi=10.1057/9780230106222_7 |isbn=978-0-230-10622-2 |editor2-last=Lim |editor2-first=Walter S. H.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It was founded in 1526 by [[Babur]] of the [[Barlas]] clan, after his victories at the [[First Battle of Panipat]] and the [[Battle of Khanwa]], against the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Rajputana|Rajput Confederation]], respectively.<ref name="JP">{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqd1RAAACAAJ&q=rajasthan%20hooja |title=A History of Rajasthan |publisher=Rupa |year=2006 |isbn=9788129115010 |page=454 |quote=From Baburs memoirs we learn that Sanga's success against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz and other forces at Bayana, severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Baburs troops encamped near Sikri.}}</ref><ref name="Berndl">{{Cite book |last=Berndl |first=Klaus |title=National Geographic Visual History of the World |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5 |pages=318–320}}</ref> Over the following centuries, under [[Akbar]], [[Jahangir]], and [[Shah Jahan]], the Mughal Empire would grow in area and power and dominate the [[Indian subcontinent]], reaching its maximum extent under [[Aurangzeb]]. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of Aurangzeb,<ref name="Stein2010-1">{{citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |page=159 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |author-link=Burton Stein}} Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."</ref><ref name="Richards1995-3">{{citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PAxv |page=xv |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}} Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."</ref> following which it gradually converted from a centralised autocracy into a collection of autonomous vassal states who accepted the nominal suzerainty of the emperor. The empire was formally dissolved by the [[British Raj]] after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. |
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The Mughals adopted and standardised the [[rupee]] (''rupiya'', or silver) and [[Dam (Indian coin)|dam]] (copper) currencies introduced by [[Sur Empire|Sur]] emperor [[Sher Shah Suri]] during his brief rule.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Picture of original Mughal ''rupiya'' introduced by Sher Shah Suri |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=5 October 2002 |access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> |
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A major sector of the Mughal economy was agriculture.<ref name="Schmidt2015">{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Karl J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-47681-8 |pages=100–}}</ref> A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and [[barley]], and non-food [[cash crop]]s such as cotton, [[Indigofera tinctoria|indigo]], and [[opium]]. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow [[maize]] and [[tobacco]], imported from the Americas.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> The Mughal administration emphasised [[agrarian reform]], started by Sher Shah Suri, the work of which [[Akbar]] adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance, exemplified by the common use of the [[seed drill]] among Indian peasants,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pagaza |first1=Ignacio |title=Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth |last2=Argyriades |first2=Demetrios |publisher=IOS Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-58603-958-5 |page=129}}</ref> and built [[irrigation]] systems across the empire, which produced much higher [[crop yield]]s and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> |
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Manufacturing was also a significant contributor to the Mughal economy; the empire produced about 25% of the world's industrial output until the end of the 18th century.<ref name="Williamson-1">[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]] & David Clingingsmith, [http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329075904/http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf|date=29 March 2017}}, Global Economic History Network, [[London School of Economics]]</ref> [[Manufactured goods]] and cash crops were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, [[shipbuilding]], and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, [[yarn]]s, [[Thread (yarn)|thread]], silk, [[jute]] products, [[metalware]], and foods such as sugar, oils, and butter<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> The Mughal Empire also took advantage of the demand for Indian products in Europe, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and [[saltpeter]] (for use in [[munitions]]).<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> [[1650–1700 in Western European fashion|European fashion]], for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, India accounted for 95% of [[East India Company|British imports]] from Asia, and [[Bengal Subah]] province alone accounted for 40% of [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch imports]] from Asia.<ref name="Prakash2">[[Om Prakash (historian)|Om Prakash]], "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal]", ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', edited by [[John J. McCusker]], vol. 1, Macmillan Reference US, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref> |
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The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was [[textile manufacturing]], particularly cotton, which included the production of [[piece goods]], [[calico]]s, and [[muslin]]s.<ref name="Parthasarathi2">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |page=2 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref> By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.<ref name="Jeffrey G. Williamson 2011 912">{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey G. Williamson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiDslL0o-hUC&pg=PA91 |title=Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-262-29518-5 |page=91 |author-link=Jeffrey G. Williamson}}</ref> The most important centre of cotton production was Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of [[Dhaka]].<ref name="Eaton2">Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 ''The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760'', p. 202], [[University of California Press]]</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|group=note}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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===Works cited=== |
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* {{cite book |last=Dhere |first=Ramchandra |year=2011 |title=Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research |publisher=Oxford University Press, 2011 |isbn=9780199777648 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=The History of India |year=2011 |publisher= Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-201-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=S. |author-link=Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan |last2=Moore |first2=C. A. |year=1957 |title=A Source Book in Indian Philosophy |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-691-01958-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh}} Princeton paperback 12th printing, 1989. |
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* {{Cite book |last=Sewell |first=Robert |title=A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2011 |isbn=978-8120601253 |location=New Delhi |language=English}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |year=1989 |title=The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpxeaYQbGDMC&pg=PA1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-26693-2}} |
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* {{citation | last=Olivelle | first = Patrick | author-link=Patrick Olivelle | title = King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra | year=2013 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford UK | isbn = 978-0199891825| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6MlgU0oQb4sC|access-date=2016-02-20}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* [https://www.thoughtco.com/geography-and-history-of-india-1435046 "Geography and History of India"] on [[Dotdash Meredith|ThoughtCo.]] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081204045434/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2422/stories/20071116504306400.htm |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081204045434/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2422/stories/20071116504306400.htm Frontline Article on Gupta period Art] |
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[[Category:Ancient India]] |
[[Category:Ancient India]] |
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[[Category:Golden ages (metaphor)|India]] |
[[Category:Golden ages (metaphor)|India]] |
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[[Category:Historical eras]] |
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{{India-hist-stub}} |
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Revision as of 12:22, 8 November 2025
Certain time periods have been named "golden ages" where development in the Indian subcontinent flourished.[1][2]
Ancient India
Gupta Empire
The period between the 4th and 6th centuries CE is known as the Golden Age of India because of the considerable achievements that in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, science, religion and philosophy during the Gupta Empire.[3] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[4] The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[5][6] The Golden Age of India came to an end when the Hunas invaded the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. The gross domestic product (GDP) of ancient India was estimated to be 32% and 28% of the global GDP in 1 AD and 1000 AD respectively. Also, during the first millennium of common era the Indian population comprised around 30.3% and 27.15% of the total world population.[7]
Medieval India
Chola Empire
South India in the 10th and 11th century CE under the imperial Cholas is considered as another Golden Age.[8] The period saw extensive achievements in architecture, Tamil literature, sculpture and bronze working, maritime conquests and trade. During Cholas the major South East Asian countries practiced Hinduism, Chola’s influence was as far as Vietnam. Chola GDP constituted the world's largest GDP at that time.
Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire
In the 13th and early 14th century CE under the Delhi Sultanate and in the 16th and 17th century CE under the Mughal Empire are considered Golden Ages, both economically and culturally.[9] The periods saw extensive achievements in Indo-Islamic architecture, Indo-Persian culture, monuments, mosques, calligraphy, conquests, manufacturing and trade. During the Mughal era, the GDP of India in 1600 was estimated at 22% of the world economy, the second largest in the world, behind only Ming China but larger than Europe. By 1700, the GDP of Mughal India had risen to 24% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both Qing China and Western Europe. The Mughal empire was producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until the 18th century.[10]
References
- ^ The Mughal World, p. 386, Abraham Eraly, Penguin Books
- ^ Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa p. 29, Andrea L. Stanton, SAGE
- ^ Building Bridges Among the BRICs, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014
- ^ "THE GUPTA EMPIRE OF INDIA 320-720".
- ^ Padma Sudhi. Gupta Art: A Study from Aesthetic and Canonical Norms. Galaxy Publications. p. 7-17.
- ^ Lee Engfer (2002). India in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 9780822503712.
- ^ Angus Maddison (2007). Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1.
- ^ The First Spring Part 1: Life in the Golden Age of India. Penguin UK. 2014. p. 102. ISBN 9789351186458.
The period of the 'imperial' Cholas was the golden age of South India.
- ^ India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765. Penguin. 2020. ISBN 0141985399.
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2003). Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics. OECD Publishing. pp. 256–. ISBN 978-92-64-10414-3.
External links
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