China
People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: 义勇军进行曲 Yìyǒngjūn jìnxíngqǔ "March of the Volunteers" | |
 People's Republic of China | |
| Capital | Beijing 39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.917°N 116.383°E |
| Largest city by municipal population | Chongqing[1] |
| Largest city by urban population | Shanghai |
| Official languages | Standard Chinese (de facto)[2] |
| Simplified Chinese (Mainland) Traditional Chinese (Hong Kong, Macau) | |
| Ethnic groups (2020)[3] | |
| Demonym | Chinese |
| Government | Unitary communist state |
| Xi Jinping | |
• Premier | Li Qiang |
| Zhao Leji | |
| Wang Huning | |
| Han Zheng | |
| Legislature | National People's Congress[c] |
| Formation | |
| c. 2070 BCE | |
| 221 BCE | |
| 1 January 1912 | |
| 1 October 1949 | |
| 4 December 1982 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi)[d][7] (3rd/4th) |
• Water (%) | 2.8[4] |
| Population | |
• 2025 estimate |  1,404,890,000[e][8] (2nd) |
• Density | 146/km2 (378.1/sq mi) (83rd) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2026 estimate |
• Total |  $44.295 trillion[f][9] (1st) |
• Per capita | $31,596[9] (73rd) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2026 estimate |
• Total | $20.852 trillion[9] (2nd) |
• Per capita | $14,874[9] (74th) |
| Gini (2022) |  36.0[10]medium inequality |
| HDI (2023) | 0.797[11] high (78th) |
| Currency | Renminbi (元/¥)[g] (CNY) |
| Time zone | UTC+8 (CST) |
| Calling code | |
| ISO 3166 code | CN |
| Internet TLD | |
China,[h] officially the People's Republic of China (PRC),[i][12] is a country in East Asia. It is the second-most populous country after India, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion (17% of the world's population), across an area of 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), making it the third-largest country by area.[j] It is divided into 33 province-level divisions, including two special administrative regions. Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai is the most populous city by urban area. Its geography features the vast Central Plain, major rivers such as the Yangtze and Yellow River, deserts, subtropical and temperate forests, and mountain ranges such as the Himalayas.
The first humans in China arrived during the Paleolithic. By the 2nd millennium BCE, dynastic states had emerged. The 1st millennium BCE saw political turmoil and cultural growth. In 221 BCE, China was unified under the Qin and the succeeding Han dynasty, ushering in two millennia of imperial rule across periods of unity and division. Its achievements include widespread cultural influence, the Silk Road, and the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing, and the compass. After increased Western political, economic, and philosophical influence, the 1911 Revolution overthrew the empire and established the Republic of China (ROC). The Warlord Era and Chinese Civil War followed, interrupted by Japan's invasion. This ended in a Chinese victory in 1945. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proclaimed the People's Republic of China and forced the ROC's retreat to Taiwan. Both sides claim political legitimacy. CCP attempts to advance communism faltered through famine and political turmoil. The reform and opening up that began in 1978 moved China towards a market economy, spurring economic growth.
The PRC is a unitary communist state with the CCP as its sole ruling party. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and a member of many multilateral organizations. China is the world's largest manufacturer and makes up about one-fifth of the global economy. It is the second largest economy on Earth. International organizations rank China poorly in measures of democracy and human rights. Since the 2020s, it has been described as a superpower due to its large military, nuclear stockpile, and influence in geopolitics, science and technology, manufacturing, economics and culture.
Chinese art and culture has influenced much of Asia. Chinese characters are among the oldest writing systems on Earth, with a literary tradition dating back millennia to the Chinese classics. China is the birthplace of Confucianism and Daoism, which form the traditional three teachings of Chinese philosophy and folk religion alongside Buddhism. Chinese cuisine is diverse and highly regional, with rice as a staple in the south and wheat in the north. It has over 60 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Great Wall and Grand Canal. The Han, mostly speakers of Sinitic languages, are China's dominant ethnicity, although it is home to 55 recognized minorities, including the Hui, Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Zhuang.
Etymology
The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word चिन Cīna, used in ancient India.[14] Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture from the 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE, including the Mahabharata and the Laws of Manu. In 1655, the missionary Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) or the prior state of Qin.[15] This remains a common etymology, although Indian sources precedes the dynasty.[15][16] Another possible source is the ancient Guizhou polity of Yelang, known as ʐina in Loloish languages.[15]
The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó).[12] The shorter form is "China" (中国; Zhōngguó), from zhōng ('central' or 'middle') and guó ('state'), a term first used for the demesne of the Western Zhou dynasty.[k][17][18] The names of ruling imperial dynasties were typically used to refer to the region and state, with Zhongguo vague and uncommon. In the 1800s, Zhongguo was officially adopted as the name of the country by the Qing dynasty.[18] China is sometimes referred to as mainland China or "the Mainland" when distinguishing it from the Republic of China on Taiwan or the PRC's Special Administrative Regions.[19]
History
Prehistory
Evidence of early humans such as Homo erectus in China dates to the Paleolithic, around 1.7 million years ago, with unconfirmed sites as old as 2 million years ago. Modern Homo sapiens are attested from around 50,000 years ago.[20] Following the end of the Last Glacial Period, in about 8,000 BCE, pottery-making Neolithic cultures emerged. By the 6000s BCE, sedentary agricultural societies had spread across the lower Yellow River basin.[21][22] These societies became increasingly complex, urbanized, and stratified,[23] but many experienced a population collapse in the late 2000s BCE for unclear reasons.[24]
Ancient China
After 2000 BCE, a Bronze Age culture emerged in the Central Plain, dubbed the Erlitou culture after its main site. Erlitou has been controversially identified with the Xia, the traditionally-accepted first dynasty, but no written records exist to confirm this.[25][26][27] The Shang dynasty purportedly succeeded the Xia around 1600 BCE, with its early stages tentatively identified with an expansionist state known archaeologically as the Erligang culture.[28] The historicity of the Late Shang is attested through divinational writings in the oracle bone script. These are the earliest known form of writing in China and the ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[29][30]
The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou c. 1046 BCE. The Zhou ruled over a vast and loose confederation of vassal states across central China gradually weakened by regional lords.[31] Centralized authority finally collapsed in 771 BCE, giving way to constant regional warfare. During the Eastern Zhou, a multitude of small aristocratic Spring and Autumn period polities evolved into seven territorial Warring States over the following centuries.[32][33] Literary and philosophical developments of this period include the emergence of various schools of thought, such as Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, and Legalism, alongside Chinese classics like the Analects and the Tao Te Ching.[32][34]
Imperial China
Classical period
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In the 220s BCE, Qin rapidly conquered the other warring states. In 221, its ruler Qin Shi Huang proclaimed himself the first emperor (皇帝; Huángdì) and founded the Qin dynasty.[35][36] He led an autocratic Legalist state organized in a system of commanderies and counties. The dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after his death.[37][38]
Following widespread revolts, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, sponsoring a cultural identity and the namesake of the modern Han Chinese.[39][40] The Han expanded the empire's territory, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China became the largest economy of the ancient world.[41] Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, the Qin's institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.[42]
After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, after which Wei was overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war, and the Five Barbarians then rebelled and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Tuoba clan of the Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei. In the south, the Jin were succeeded by various other dynasties. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 589.[43][44]
Medieval period
The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, labor conscription and a failed war in Korea provoked widespread unrest and the dynasty's fall.[45][46] Under the succeeding Tang, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.[47] The Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road,[48] which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa,[49] and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan rebellion in the 8th century.[50] The Tang produced what many scholars regard as the apogee of classical Chinese poetry, with works that remained canonical across the Sinosphere,[51] while the cosmopolitan character of Chang'an reflected the Tang's international integration[52]
In 907, the Tang disintegrated when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and the Liao dynasty. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent navy.[53]
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The Song dynasty saw the first systematic military application of gunpowder, including fire arrows and proto-firearms such as the fire lance, as well as the adoption of the magnetic compass for maritime navigation.[54] Movable type printing, invented around 1040, dramatically accelerated the diffusion of knowledge across East Asia.[55] The Song period has been characterized by some historians as an antecedent to the Industrial Revolution: iron production reached high levels, the rigid Tang-era ward system gave way to open commercial streets and night markets, and cities such as Bianjing (Kaifeng) and Lin'an (Hangzhou) each surpassed one million inhabitants.[56] The maritime Silk Road expanded significantly, with the ports of Quanzhou and Guangzhou becoming among the busiest in the contemporary world, connecting China to Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the Persian Gulf.[57]
Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts,.[58] and the reinterpretation of classical thought through Neo-Confucianism[59] in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[60] In 1127, the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty overran the northern Song. The Song remnants retreated south and reestabslished the dynasty at Jiankang.[61]
Late Imperial period
The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with the campaigns against Western Xia by Genghis Khan,[62] who later invaded Jin territories.[63] In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[64] A peasant leader overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa.[65]
The Ming moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing. The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea and the Manchu led to an exhausted treasury.[66] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty then seized control of Beijing, which became the new Qing capital.[67]
The transition from Ming to Qing cost 25 million lives, but the Qing restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts.[68] After the Southern Ming fell in 1662, a series of further conquests added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.[69] Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the Northern Song period (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).[70] By the High Qing era, China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world.[71] The centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, causing some social and technological stagnation.[72][73]
In the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with the Western powers forced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British Empire under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed the unequal treaties.[74] The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion in southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.[75] The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in China's loss of influence in Korea and the cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan.[76] Emigration from China increased in the 19th century. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[77] The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored the late Qing reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 ended the Qing dynasty.[78] Puyi, the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912.[79]
Republic of China
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established.[80] After an abortive attempt to restore the monarchy by president Yuan Shikai,[81] China was left politically fragmented. The Beijing government was virtually powerless and regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[82][83] During this period, China participated in World War I and saw the May Fourth Movement.[84]
In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek reunified most the country through the Northern Expedition[85][86] and moved the nation's capital to Nanjing.[87][88] The Kuomintang's United Front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) broke down in 1927 after Chiang violently suppressed the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War.[89] CCP forces made the Long March and relocated to Yan'an in Shaanxi.
In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded the rest of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), eventually a theater of World War II. This led to the Second United Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[90] The Republic of China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.[91][92]
After the surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. Taiwan was handed over to ROC control; however, the validity of this handover is controversial.[93] In 1946, the country resumed a state of civil war between the CCP and the Kuomintang that lasted more than three years.[94] Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but war halted constitutional implementation.[93]
People's Republic of China
By 1949, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the ROC government retreated to Taiwan. On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the People's Republic of China.[95] The following year, the PRC captured Hainan and commenced the annexation of Tibet.[96][97] The CCP consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants.[98] Though the PRC initially allied with the Soviet Union, the relations between the two states deteriorated.[99] The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.[100] The Great Leap Forward, a massive industrialization project, resulted in the Great Chinese Famine between 1959 and 1961, causing an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths.[101][102] In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.[103] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976.[104]
The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and started the reform and opening up, instituting large-scale political and economic reforms to transition away from planned economy.[105][106] In 1989, a period of relative liberalization came to an end with the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.[107] British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau were returned to China in the 1990s as special administrative regions.[108]
China maintained its high rate of economic growth and became the world's second-largest economy.[109] However, the growth also severely impacted its resources and environment,[110][111] and caused major social displacement.[112][113] Xi Jinping rose to power in 2012 and launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown[114] that prosecuted more than 2 million officials.[115] During his tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms.[116]
Geography
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north and west to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges in the west separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long, bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.
China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of the Yangtze (Jiangnan) and Yellow rivers. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 miles), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[117] China's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 miles) in the Turpan Depression.[118] Despite spanning the equivalent of five geographical time zones (from UTC+5 to UTC+9), China uses a single national time zone, China Standard Time (UTC+8).[119][120]
Climate
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[121]
The expansion of China's deserts, particularly the Gobi, has posed a persistent threat.[123] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which spread across East Asia. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's foreign relations. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[124] In order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), electricity generation from coal without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.[125]
Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.[126] In 2021, 12% of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland.[127]
Biodiversity
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[128] lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.[129]
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals,[130] 1,221 species of birds,[131] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[132] and 333 species of amphibians.[133] Wildlife in China is pressured by the large human population. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching.[134] Endangered wildlife is legally protected. As of 2019, China has over 2,750 nature reserves, covering 15% of China's total land area.[135] Most wild animal species have been eliminated from the agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.[136][137]
China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[138] and hosts various forest types. It gained 100,000 hectares (390 sq mi) of forestland per year between 2015 and 2025.[139] Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north, supporting mammals such as moose and Asian black bear, along with many bird species.[140] The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. Higher montane stands of juniper and yew instead feature rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[140] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi.[141]
Environment
In the early 21st century, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to rapid industrialization.[142][143] Environmental regulations are fairly stringent, although poorly enforced and often disregarded.[144] China has the second-highest death toll from air pollution, with approximately 1 million deaths as of 2016.[145][146] Although China ranks as the highest CO2 emitting country, it only emits 8 tons of CO2 per capita, significantly lower than many other developed countries.[147] Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest.[147]
China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s.[148] In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060.[149] According to government surveys, its forest coverage grew from 10% of the overall territory in 1949 to 25% in 2024.[150] In 2024, the government graded 90.4% of China's national surface water suitable for human consumption.[151]
China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $546 billion invested in 2022.[152]Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years.[153] In 2025, 54.4% of China's electricity came from coal, while 42% came from clean energy sources.[154] Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets.[155][156]
Political geography
China is the second-largest country by land area after Russia, and the third- or fourth-largest by total area.[l] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[157] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi)[13] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi).[5][4]
China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi). Its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi), from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[4] China borders 14 nations on land, and has several maritime neighbors.[158]
China resolved the demarcation of its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.[159][160][161] China currently has disputed borders with India[162] and Bhutan.[163] It is involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, and the entirety of South China Sea Islands.[164][165]
Politics
The People's Republic of China is a communist state under the absolute leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP is officially guided by socialism with Chinese characteristics, which it describes as Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.[166][167]
The PRC officially characterizes itself as a "whole-process people's democracy" organized around the Leninist principle of democratic centralism.[168] However, it is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a dictatorship,[169][170] with very heavy restrictions in many civil areas, notably against freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, free formation of social organizations, freedom of religion and freedom of the Internet.[171] Other sources suggest that terming China as "authoritarian" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in the Chinese governmental system.[172]
Chinese Communist Party
The CCP is the founding and sole ruling party of the PRC. According to the CCP constitution, the party's highest body is its National Congress, held every five years.[173] The National Congress elects the Central Committee, which convenes yearly as the highest party organ between congresses. The Central Committee then elects the party's Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee (PSC) and the general secretary (party leader), the top national leadership.[173] The Politburo usually gathers once a month, while the smaller Politburo Standing Committee is thought to meet weekly.[174] The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as the paramount leader of China.[175] The current general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012.[176] The National Congress also elects the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the supreme disciplinary organ.[177]
The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.[178] The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.[178] The appointment of CCP cadres and the leadership of all major state-owned enterprises is managed by the party's Organization Department.[174][179]: 140 The CCP maintains committees in the each level of government.[180] By law, the CCP leads over all major sectors of the country, including politics, military, society, economy, education, culture, diplomacy, ideology, law, national security, and propaganda and media.[181]
Government
The National People's Congress (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, as the supreme organ of state power holds the unified powers of the state,[182] creating a system where all state organs including the presidency, the State Council, the State Central Military Commission, the Supreme People's Court, the Supreme People's Procuratorate, and the National Supervisory Commission are subject to its oversight through democratic centralism. However, observers often describe it as a "rubber stamp" body.[183] The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee, elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.[183] Its elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.[168][184] The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with eight minor parties having representation in the body while observing CCP leadership.[185]
The NPC elects the president, the ceremonial state representative. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader and supreme commander of the armed forces. The premier is the head of government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the PSC. The premier presides over the State Council, composed of four vice premiers, several state councillors, and the heads of ministries and commissions.[167] The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that formally leads China's united front system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP.[186]
The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.[187]: 7 Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.[188]: 14 Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.[189]: 71 The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.[189]: 71
Administrative divisions
The PRC is constitutionally a unitary state divided into 23 provinces,[m] five autonomous regions (each with a designated minority group), four direct-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.[190] The PRC regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province, and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province, though all these territories are governed by the Republic of China (ROC).[191][192] These divisions are grouped into six statistical regions: North, East, Southwestern, South Central, Northwestern, and Northeast China.[193]
| Type | List |
|---|---|
| Provinces |
|
|
Taiwan (台湾省), governed by the Republic of China | |
| Autonomous regions |
|
| Direct-administered municipalities | |
| Special administrative regions |
Foreign relations
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nations member-states and maintains embassies in 174, the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.[194] China is of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[195] It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the G20,[196] the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,[197] the BRICS,[198] the East Asia Summit,[199] and the APEC.[200] China is widely described as either a potential or established superpower,[201][202][203] due to its influence in the fields of geopolitics, technology, manufacturing, economics and culture.[204][205][206]
Chinese foreign policy is officially based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, which emphasizes non-interventionism and encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[207][208]: 86 Per its policy of non-alignment, China maintains no military alliances except its defense treaty with North Korea.[209] Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.[210] The PRC officially maintains the one China principle: the view that there is only one sovereign state with the name "China"—represented by the PRC—and that Taiwan is an integral part of China.[211]
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China's relations with Japan are marked by both deep economic ties as well as tensions over Taiwan and security.[212][213] China has a close political, economic and military relationship with Russia,[214][215][216] China's relationship with the United States is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.[217] China has close political and economic relations with African nations.[218][219][220] It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union.[221] China is increasing its influence in Central Asia[222] and South Pacific.[223] The country has strong trade ties with ASEAN countries[224] and major South American economies,[225][226] In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a large global infrastructure initiative.[227]
Military
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The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the main armed forces of China, under the direct control of the CCP.[228] It consists of four services: the Ground Force, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Rocket Force. It also has four arms: the Aerospace Force, the Cyberspace Force, the Information Support Force, and the Joint Logistics Support Force.[229] Its 2 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world's third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,[103] and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.[230]
The PLA is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.[231] China's official military budget for 2025 totaled US$246 billion (1.78 trillion yuan), the second-largest in the world. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates that its real 2025 expenditure was US$336 billion, 12% of global military spending and 1.7% of the country's GDP.[232] The PLA, the People's Armed Police and the Militia are commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC). The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA, who maintains absolute control over the military per the chairman responsibility system.[233]
Human rights
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The situation of human rights in China has attracted significant criticism from Chinese dissidents and external observers, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty.[171][234] Since its inception, Freedom House has ranked China as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey,[171] while Amnesty International has documented significant human rights abuses.[234] Though the Chinese constitution outlines the "fundamental rights" of citizens, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state in practice.[235][236][237] Censorship of political speech and information is amongst the harshest in the world and is routinely used to prevent collective action.[238] The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability".[239] China uses a mass surveillance network as a means of social control.[170]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang by foreign human rights groups,[240][241][242] where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and religious persecution.[243][244] Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in persecution of Uyghurs in Xinjiang, with around one million Uyghurs and other ethnic and religion minorities being detained in internment camps aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs,[245] in what some external observers described as a genocide or crimes against humanity.[246][247][248] According to The New Yorker, political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities.[249] The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent in Hong Kong, especially after the passage of a national security law in 2020.[250]
In 2017 and 2020, the Pew Research Center ranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity.[251][252] China has limited protections regarding LGBT rights.[253] The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in conditions of forced labor. The state-imposed re-education through labor (laojiao) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped.[254] The much larger reform through labor (laogai) system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the Laogai Research Foundation estimated in 2008 that there were at least 1,422 of these facilities.[255]
Public views of government
Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[256] Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.[187]: 137 These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.[187] : 136 A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history.[257]
Economy
China had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past two millennia.[258][259] Since the reform and opening up in 1978, it developed into an influential and highly diversified economy.[259]
With a GDP of CN¥140 trillion in 2025,[260] China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP,[261] and the world's largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).[262] As of 2025[update], China accounts for around 17% of the global economy by nominal GDP.[263] China is one of the world's fastest-growing major economies,[264] with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 5% since the beginning of the reform and opening up in 1978.[265] According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $18.74 trillion by 2024.[266] It ranks 75th by nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country.[267] Of the world's 500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China.[268]
China officially calls its economic system as the socialist market economy, in which the market plays a decisive role in resource allocation under the macro-control of the socialist state.[269][270] The CCP posits that China is in the primary stage of socialism, the first stage of building a communist society, in a stage where there is private ownership.[271] Modern-day China is often described as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism, with both market forces and the state playing a major role in the economy.[272][273] China has numerous state-owned enterprises; the state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as infrastructure, telecommunications, finance, energy production and heavy industries.[274]: 20 The Chinese government issues five-year plans to guide the direction of the economy.[274]: 8 Private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 57 million private businesses recorded in 2025.[275] According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.[276]
Wealth
China accounted for 18.6% of the world's total wealth in 2022, second highest in the world after the U.S.[277] China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history[278][279] — between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million,[187]: 23 with the average standard of living multiplying by a factor of twenty-six.[280][281] Per capita incomes have risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; these incomes now roughly equal the world average.[280]
China's development is highly uneven; its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous than its rural and interior regions.[282] It has a high level of economic inequality,[283] which has increased quickly since the economic reforms.[284] Income inequality decreased in the 2010s,[285] and China's Gini coefficient was 0.37 in 2023.[10] Forbes estimated in 2026 that China ranks second, after the U.S., in total number of billionaires and total number of millionaires,[286][287] while Hurun Global Rich List estimated it ranked first in billionaires.[288]
Industry and services
China is the world's leading manufacturing power, accounting for 30% of global manufacturing.[289][290] It has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.[291][292] China is the world's leading producer of steel and rare earths,[293] the world's leading electronics industry manufacturer,[294] and the world's dominant shipbuilding manufacturer.[295] China has the world's largest market for automobiles,[296][297] having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2024.[298] The Chinese automotive industry is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world.[299] China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption, production and innovation,[300][301] as well as the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles.[302]
China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.[303] China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.[304] China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world[305] — Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen — that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020[update].[306] China has three out of the world's ten most competitive financial centers according to the 2026 Global Financial Centres Index—Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Shenzhen.[307] As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.[308]: 153 China has the world's largest banking sector. Its finance sector is dominated by state-owned institutions.[309]
Global economy
China has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 2001 and is the world's largest trading power.[310] By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.[311] The country has not run a trade deficit since 1993, with its trade surplus reaching a record $1.2 trillion in 2025.[312] China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of the maritime dry-bulk market.[313][314] China's foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024[update], making its reserves by far the world's largest.[315] In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.[316] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023.[317]
The Chinese government has promoted the internationalization of the renminbi in order to wean itself off its dependence on the U.S. dollar.[318] The renminbi is the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023[update].[319] However, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro and the U.S. Dollar in international trade volumes.[320] The Chinese government has also been cited for failing to crack down on the manufacturing and export of counterfeit goods.[321] In 2024, Harvard University's Economic Complexity Index ranked complexity of China's exports 10th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.[322]
Tourism
China received 82 million international visitors in 2025,[323] and in 2018 was the fourth-most-visited country in the world.[324] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6.5 billion travels within the country in 2025.[325] China hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (60) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations (first in the Asia-Pacific).
Science and technology
Historical
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming dynasty.[326] Ancient and medieval Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[327][328] By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.[329] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars.[330]
After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Imperial Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[331] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the Four Modernizations,[332] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[333]
Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research[334] and is quickly catching up with the U.S. in R&D spending.[335][336] China officially spent around 2.8% of its GDP on R&D in 2025, totaling to around CN¥3.92 trillion ($569 billion).[337] China was ranked 10th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025,[338][339] a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.[340][341] Chinese supercomputers are ranked among the fastest in the world.[342][n] China is the world's largest industrial robotics producer and user in the world, accounting for 54% of the world's 2024 total demand,[343] and 43% of global production.[301] Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks.[344][345] China is also considered a world leader in artificial intelligence.[346][347]
China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).[348] Its academic publication apparatus became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016.[349][350][351] According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.[352][353][354] In 2022, China overtook the US in the Nature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals.[355][356]
Space program
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong 1, which made China the fifth country to do so independently,[357] and in 2003 became the third country to independently send humans into space. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese nationals—taikonauts—have journeyed into space.[358] The China National Space Administration (CNSA) has launched multiple unmaned lunar missions in the Chang'e program,[359][360] and in 2021 landed a spacecraft (Tianwen-1) on Mars.[361] The China Manned Space Agency completed its own modular space station, Tiangong, in 2022.[362][363] China plans to land humans on the Moon by 2030.[364]
Infrastructure
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,[365] China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has the largest high-speed rail network,[366] the most supertall skyscrapers,[367] the largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam),[368] the most extensive ultra-high-voltage transmission network and innovation infrastructure,[369][370] and a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites.[371]
Telecommunications
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.83 billion subscribers, as of 2025[update]. It has the largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.125 billion Internet users as of December 2025[update] — equivalent to around 80.1% of its population.[372] China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou,[373][374] following GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation satellite.[375]
China's Great Firewall serves as the world's most comprehensive Internet censorship system.[376] This has helped develop domestic internet services and companies, such as Tencent, Alibaba, Baidu, Douyin, Xiaohongshu, Bilibili and Weibo.[377]: 8 The Cyberspace Administration of China acts as the national internet regulator and censor.[378] China requires a real-name system for Internet services and online platforms.[379]
Transport
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Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[380] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite increasing automobile prevalence – as of 2023[update], there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.[381]
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China's railways, operated by the state-owned China Railway, are among the busiest in the world.[382] As of 2025[update], the country had 165,000 km (102,526 mi) of railways, the second-longest network in the world.[383] The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year's chunyun, the world's largest annual human migration.[384] China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2025, high speed rail in China had reached 50,400 kilometers (31,317 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world,[383] as well as the world's busiest.[385] Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.[386] As of December 2023[update], 55 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation.[387]
The civil aviation industry in China is mostly state-dominated.[388] Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades,[389] across approximately 259 airports.[390] It has over 2,000 river and sea ports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.[391] Of the fifty busiest container ports, 18 are located in China. The busiest port in the world is the Port of Shanghai.[392] China's inland waterways are the world's sixth-longest, totaling 27,700 km (17,212 mi).[393]
Water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution.[394] According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, 93% of rural households had access to basic sanitation in 2022 (up from 77% in 2015).[395] The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.[396]
Demographics
The 2020 Chinese census recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59, and 18.7% were over 60.[397] Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.[397] Since 2022, deaths have outpaced births.[398] In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to be 1.09, among the lowest in the world.[399] The National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.[400] In 2025, China recorded 7.92 million births, the lowest recorded birthrate since at least 1949.[398]
Population policies
Concerned about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.[401] The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[402] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[403] A three-child policy was announced in May 2021, due to population aging,[403] and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.[404]
The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[405][406] The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.[407] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population.[408] China maintains a restrictive immigration policy, with permanent residence granted to only around 12,000 foreigners as of 2023.[409]
Cities and urbanization
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 68% in 2025, according to Chinese government figures.[410][411][412] According to the United Nations, the country's urbanization rate is 83.7%, having peaked in absolute numbers in 2021.[413] China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[414] including 18 megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million).[415][416][417] Shanghai is China's most populous urban area[418][419] while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.[1] The cities of the Pearl River Delta form the world's largest urban area, at 86 million residents. The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[420] the figures below include only long-term residents.
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Shanghai | SH | 24,281,400 | 11 | Hong Kong | HK | 7,448,900 | ||
| 2 | Beijing | BJ | 19,164,000 | 12 | Zhengzhou | HA | 7,179,400 | ||
| 3 | Guangzhou | GD | 13,858,700 | 13 | Nanjing | JS | 6,823,500 | ||
| 4 | Shenzhen | GD | 13,438,800 | 14 | Xi'an | SN | 6,642,100 | ||
| 5 | Tianjin | TJ | 11,744,400 | 15 | Jinan | SD | 6,409,600 | ||
| 6 | Chongqing | CQ | 11,488,000 | 16 | Shenyang | LN | 5,900,000 | ||
| 7 | Dongguan | GD | 9,752,500 | 17 | Qingdao | SD | 5,501,400 | ||
| 8 | Chengdu | SC | 8,875,600 | 18 | Harbin | HL | 5,054,500 | ||
| 9 | Wuhan | HB | 8,652,900 | 19 | Hefei | AH | 4,750,100 | ||
| 10 | Hangzhou | ZJ | 8,109,000 | 20 | Changchun | JL | 4,730,900 | ||
- ^ Population of Hong Kong as of 2018 estimate[422]
- ^ The data of Chongqing in the list is the data of "Metropolitan Developed Economic Area", which contains two parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan Area". The "City proper" are consist of 9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan'an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area" are consist of 12 districts: Fuling, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700.[423] Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600.
Ethnic groups
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups. The largest of these are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population.[397] The Han – the world's largest ethnic group[424] – outnumber other ethnicities in most of the country.[425][426][427] Compared with the 2010, the Han population increased by 4.93%, while the combined population of national minorities increased 10.26%.[397] The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.[428]
Languages
There are as many as 284 living languages in China.[429] The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin, spoken by 80% of the population,[430][431] and other varieties of Chinese language.[432] Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, are spoken across the southwestern plateaus. Other ethnic minority languages in southwestern China are from the Tai-Kadai, Hmong–Mien, and Austroasiatic families. Across northeastern and northwestern China, ethnic groups speak Tungusic , Mongolic, and Turkic languages.[433] Korean is spoken along the border with North Korea.[434] Taiwanese indigenous peoples traditionally speak Austronesian languages.[435]
Standard Chinese, a variety based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, is the national language of China and holds de facto official status.[2] It is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds.[436] In the autonomous regions, other languages may also serve this role, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang.[437]
Religion
[438][439][440][441]
■ Chinese folk religion (including Confucianism, Taoism, and groups of Chinese Buddhism)
■ Buddhism
■ Islam
■Minority indigenous religions
■ Mongolian folk religion
■ Northeast China folk religion
Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[182] The government of the country is officially atheist, and the CCP requires its members to be atheist.[442] Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the CCP's United Front Work Department.[443]
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Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three doctrines" of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have historically shaped Chinese culture,[444][445] enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional religion which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,[446] consists in allegiance to the shen, who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.[447] In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government rehabilitated folk cults, formally recognizing them as "folk beliefs" as opposed to religions,[448] and often reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" civil religion.[449]
Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions.[444] In 2023, according to surveys done by Pew Research Center, 93% of respondents were formally unaffiliated with any religion. However, many participate in various religious practices and ceremonies, often from multiple different faiths.[450] A variety of organized salvationist movements have emerged since the Song period.[451] There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism[452] and Islam.[453]
Education
Compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, together lasting from ages 6 to 15.[456] The gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[457] In 2024, about 92% of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.8% of senior secondary school graduates enrolled in higher education.[458]
China has the largest education system in the world,[459] with about 287 million students and 18.85 million full-time teachers in over 470,300 schools in 2024.[458] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$960 billion in 2020.[460][461] China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,[462] to 97% of the population over the age of 15 in 2020.[463]
As of 2024[update], China has over 3,167 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.[464][465] As of 2025[update], China had the world's highest number of top universities.[466][467][468]
Health
The National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.[469] After the beginning of the reform and opening up in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality.[470] China is a major producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals.[471]
As of the mid-2020s, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 79 years,[472] and the infant mortality rate is 4 per 1,000.[473] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[o] Rates of stunted growth declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 4.5% in 2024.[476][477] Chinese mental health services are inadequate.[478] China's large population and dense cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as SARS in 2003.[479] The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan.[480][481]
Culture
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia.[482] For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations.[483] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, promoting calligraphy, poetry and painting.[484] With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a revival.[485][486]
Art
Architecture
Chinese architecture has developed over millennia in China, influencing architecture across East Asia,[487][488][489] and to a lesser extant, South and Southeast Asia.[490][491] Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies).[492]
Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages.[493]
Literature
Chinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty.[494] The classical texts of China encompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects.[495] Among the most significant early works are the Four Books and Five Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed over millennia. Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, part of the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore.[496] The Ming era saw a boom of Chinese classical fiction, as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels.[497] Along with wuxia (martial arts) fictions,[498] it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Chinese sphere of influence.[499]
In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens.[500] Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and xungen literature emerged after the Cultural Revolution.[501]
Music
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Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing and Cantonese opera.[502] Chinese pop includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese hip-hop has become popular.[503]
Fashion
Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.[504] The contemporary hanfu movement seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.[505] China Fashion Week is the country's only national-level fashion festival.[506]
Media
The mass media of China primarily consists of television, newspapers, radio, and magazines. State media outlets operate under the control of the CCP. The CCP's Publicity Department acts as the main enforcer of media censorship and control in China.[174] The largest media organizations are the People's Daily, Xinhua News Agency, and the China Media Group.[507] Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[508]
Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905.[509] China has had the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016;[510] China became the largest cinema market in 2020,[511][512] and domestic movies dominate the market.[513] In 2025, the video game market of China was the world's largest by revenue.[514]
Cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines.[515] Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients.[516] Rice is a staple food in the south and northeast, while wheat products such as noodles are staples in the north. Soybean products such as tofu and soy milk are a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about 60% of the country's total meat consumption.[517] Pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine is served at halal-certified restaurants in various regions[518] while vegetarian Buddhist cuisine is commonly found at restaurants near shrines and temples.[519][520]
Sports
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures. There is evidence that archery was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay and the ball game cuju originate in China's early dynasties,[521][522] and many traditional sports retain popularity today. Physical fitness is culturally emphasized, with morning exercises such as qigong and tai chi widely practiced.[523]
Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China, represented by the Chinese Basketball Association.[524] China's professional football league, known as Chinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia.[525] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker.[526] China has the world's largest esports market.[527] China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics,[528] the 2022 Winter Olympics.[529] and the Asian Games of 1990, 2010, and 2023.[530]
See also
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Notes
- ^ The paramount leader of China holds the titles of General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, President of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission
- ^ Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
- ^ While not an upper house of the legislature, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference exists as an advisory body. However, much of the parliamentary functions are held by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress when ordinary congress is not in session.
- ^ UN figure for mainland China, which excludes Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.[5] It also excludes the Trans-Karakoram Tract (5,180 km2 (2,000 sq mi)), Aksai Chin (38,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi)) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[6]
- ^ Excluding residents of Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and foreigners living in the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities
- ^ GDP figures exclude Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.
- ^ The Hong Kong dollar is used in Hong Kong and Macau, while the Macanese pataca is used in Macau only.
- ^ Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó
- ^ Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
- ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of total areas. See list of countries and dependencies by area for information. The following two primary sources represent the range of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas.
- The Encyclopædia Britannica lists China as the third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) with a total area of 9,572,900 km2.[6]
- The CIA World Factbook lists China as the fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km2.[4]
- ^ An early use is on the ritual bronze vessel He zun, where it apparently refers to only the Shang's immediate demesne conquered by the Zhou.[17]
- ^ According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
- ^ The People's Republic of China claims the islands of Taiwan and Penghu, which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. Taiwan Province; along with Kinmen and Matsu Islands as part of Fujian Province. These are controlled by the Taipei-based Republic of China (ROC). See § Administrative divisions for more details.
- ^ Some of the chips used were not domestically developed until Sunway TaihuLight in 2016. China has not submitted newer entries to TOP500 amid tensions with the United States.
- ^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,[474] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[475]
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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
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Further reading
External links
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Government
General information
- Country profile – China at BBC News
- China, People's Republic of (archived 2012) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Maps
Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
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