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Polnische Kultur im Zweiten Weltkrieg

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Datei:New European Order.jpg
Polish Operation N poster satirizing the Nazi German "New European Order". Center: butcher, Adolf Hitler. Behind him: captive European nations—France, Bulgaria, Holland, Yugoslavia, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Hungary, Norway.

During World War II, Polish culture was brutally suppressed by the occupying powers of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, both of whom were hostile to Poland's people and culture.[1][2] Policies aimed at cultural genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists, and the theft or destruction of innumerable cultural artifacts.[3] British historian Niall Ferguson writes that "the maltreatment of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another".[4]

Underground organizations and individuals saved much of Poland's most valuable cultural heritage, and Polish Underground State departments worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible. The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals helped some artists and their works survive. Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets, Polish underground cultural activities, including publications, concerts, live theater, education, and academic research, continued throughout the war.

Destruction of Polish culture

Vorlage:Culture of Poland sidebar

Under German occupation

Overall policy

Germany's policy towards the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war. Many German officials and military officers were initially given no clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions, but this changed rapidly.[5] Immediately after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi German government implemented the first stages (the "small plan") of Generalplan Ost.[6] The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the Inhabitants of the Former Polish Territories, from a Racial-Political Standpoint.[7] Slavic people living east of pre-war Germany were to be Germanized, enslaved or eradicated,[7] at a rate dependent on whether the Slavs lived in territories annexed by the German state or in the General Government.[5]

Much of Germany's policy on Polish culture was formulated in a meeting between the Governor of the General Government, Hans Frank, and the Nazi Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, at Łódź on 31 October 1939. Goebbels declared that "The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation",[5][8] and he and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted: no theaters, cinemas or cabarets; no access to radio or press; and no education.[5] Frank suggested that Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich, and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone.[5] During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed, as were theaters and many other cultural institutions. The only Polish-language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed, and Polish intellectuals began to be arrested.[5]

In March 1940, all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government's Department of People's Education and Propaganda (Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda), which was renamed a year later to the Chief Propaganda Department (Hauptabteilung Propaganda).[8] Further directives in the spring and early summer implemented various policies laid out by Frank and Goebbels the previous autumn.[9] One of the Department's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most "primitive" of cultural activities without the Department's prior approval.[5][8] Spectacles of "low quality", including those of an erotic or pornographic nature, were however an exception—those were to be popularized, to appease the population and to show the world the "real" Polish culture, as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves.[9] German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized "Polish" performances specifically designed to be boring or pornographic, and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities.[10] Polish-German cooperation in cultural matters, such as joint public performances, was prohibited.[11]

A compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940.[5] In October the printing of new Polish-language books was prohibited; existing titles were censored, and often confiscated and withdrawn.[5]

In 1941, German policy evolved further, calling for complete destruction of the Polish people, who were believed by the Nazis to be "subhuman" (Untermenschen). Within ten to twenty years, the Polish territories under German occupation were to be fully cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists.[7][12] The policy relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation (1943–44), in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front.[13] The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance.[14] Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination, such as the newly created museum to Chopin, which emphasized his invented German roots.[14] Restrictions on education, theater and music performances were eased.[14]

As the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state,[15] German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups, as between Poles and Jews, and between Poles and Ukrainians.[16][17] In Łódź the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and filmed them committing the act. Soon afterward, the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders, portraying them in propaganda releases as a "vengeful mob."[17] In another example of their policy, while the Germans destroyed Polish education, they were much more tolerant of the Ukrainian school system.[18] As the high-ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained, "We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian, he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely, the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole."[19]

Plunder

Germans looting the Zachęta Museum— Warsaw, summer 1944

In 1939, as the occupation regime was being established, the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property.[20][21] Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany, in execution of a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion.[22] The looting was supervised by experts of the SS-Ahnenerbe, Einsatzgruppen units that were responsible for art, and by experts of Haupttreuhandstelle Ost, responsible for more mundane objects.[21] Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of Veit Stoss and paintings by Raphael, Rembrandt, Leonardo da Vinci, Canaletto and Bacciarelli.[21][23] Most of the important art pieces had been "secured" by the Nazis within six months of September 1939; by the end of 1942, German officials estimated that "over 90%" of the art previously in Poland was in their possession.[21] Some art was shipped to German museums, such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz, while other art became the private property of Nazi officials.[21] Over 516,000 individual art pieces were taken, including 2,800 paintings by European painters; 11,000 works by Polish painters; 1,400 sculptures, 75,000 manuscripts, 25,000 maps, and 90,000 books (including over 20,000 printed before 1800); as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value.[22] Exotic animals were even taken from the zoos.[24]

Destruction

Portrait of a Young Man, ca. 1514. A possible Raphael self-portrait,[25] and if so, the most valuable single piece of art looted by the Nazis in Poland.[23] Formerly in the collection of the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków, its whereabouts remain unknown.

Many places of learning and culture—universities, schools, libraries, museums, theaters and cinemas—were either closed or designated as "Nur für Deutsche" (Only for Germans). Twenty-five museums and many other institutions were destroyed during the war.[22] According to one estimate, by war's end 43% of the infrastructure of Poland's educational and research institutions and 14% of its museums had been destroyed.[26] According to another, of pre-war Poland's 175 museums, only 105 survived the war, of which only 33 were able to reopen.[27] Of the 603 pre-war scientific institutions, about half were totally destroyed, and only a few survived the war relatively intact.[28]

Many university professors as well as teachers, lawyers, artists, writers and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed or sent to concentration camps (in operations such as AB-Aktion, which produced the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau[29] and the massacre of Lwów professors[30]).[20] During World War II, Poland lost 39% to 45% of its physicians and dentists, 26% to 57% of its lawyers, 15% to 30% of its teachers, 30% to 40% of its scientists and university professors, and 18% to 28% of its clergy.[2][31] The reasoning behind this was perhaps best set out by a Nazi gauleiter: "In my district, [any Pole who] shows signs of intelligence will be shot."[20]

To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles, German officials decreed that Polish children's schooling should be restricted to a few years of elementary education. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler wrote in a memorandum of May 1940: "The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic, nothing above the number 500; how to write one's name; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable."[20][32] Hans Frank echoed him: "The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert."[2] The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories outside the General Government that had been annexed to the Third Reich.[33] The specific policy varied from territory to territory, but in general there was no Polish-language education at all in those territories; German policy was the crash Germanization of the populace.[33][34][35] Polish teachers were dismissed, and some were invited to attend "orientation" meetings with the new administration, where they were summarily arrested and some were even executed on the spot.[33] Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools, while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers, usually on German-run farms; speaking Polish brought severe punishment.[33] It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15.[35] In the eastern territories not included in the General Government (Bezirk Bialystok, Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine) many primary schools were closed, and most education was conducted in non-Polish languages such as Ukrainian, Belorussian and Lithuanian.[33] In the Bezirk Bialystok region, for example, 86% of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation, and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93%.[33]

Photo of earliest, 1829 portrait of Chopin, by Mieroszewski. Destroyed in Warsaw, September 1939.

The state of Polish primary schools was relatively the best in the General Government,[33] though by the end of 1940 only 30% of prewar schools were operational, and only 28% of prewar Polish children attended them.[36] A German police memorandum of August 1943 describes the situation as follows: Vorlage:Quote

In the General Government, the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system, with the number and competencies of Polish staff being steadily reduced.[34] All universities and most secondary schools were closed, if not immediately after the invasion then by mid-1940.[7][34][37] By late 1940, no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school were left in operation, with their levels lowered to elementary trade and technical training needed for the Nazi economy.[33][36] Primary schooling was to last for seven years, but the classes in the last two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week.[36] There was no money for heating of schools in the winter.[38] Classes and schools were to be merged, Polish teachers dismissed, and the resulting savings used to sponsor creation of schools for German minority children or to create barracks for German troops.[36][38] No new Polish teachers were to be trained.[36] The educational curriculum was censored; subjects such as literature, history or geography were removed.[33][34][39] Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed.[33][39] New educational aims for Poles included convincing them about their hopeless national fate, and teaching them submission and respect for Germans. This was accomplished by deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools, police inspections of student belongings, mass arrests of students and teachers, and the use of students as forced laborers, often by transporting them to Germany as a seasonal workforce.[33]

Queen Bona's 16th-century royal casket, looted and destroyed by the Germans in 1939

The Germans were particularly active in destroying Jewish culture; almost all of the synagogues in Poland were destroyed.[40] All over occupied Poland sales of Jewish literature were banned.[41]

Polish literature faced a similar fate in the territories annexed by Germany, where the sale of Polish books was forbidden.[41] Polish books were publicly destroyed, not only those found in libraries but also those confiscated from private homes.[42] The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943; even Polish prayer books were confiscated.[43] Soon after the occupation started, most libraries were closed; in Kraków, about 80% of the libraries were quickly closed, and the remaining few had their collections decimated by censors.[8] The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections, including the Sejm and Senate Library, the Przedziecki Estate Library, the Zamoyski Estate Library, the Central Military Library, and the Rapperswil Collection.[20][44] The last remaining Polish public library in German-occupied territories, in Warsaw, was closed in 1941.[43] During the war Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes, or 30% of their collections.[45] More then 80% of the losses occurred not because of fighting, but because of deliberate purges.[46] Overall, it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state-owned libraries and institutions perished during the war.[26]

Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated.[9] The war against the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places.[47] Those who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and beaten. Germanization of all names was prevalent.[2] Many treasures of Polish culture, such as memorials, plaques, and monuments to Polish national heroes (e.g., the Adam Mickiewicz Monument in Kraków) were willfully destroyed.[43][48] For example, in Toruń (Thorn), all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down.[27] At least several dozen monuments were destroyed throughout occupied Poland.[27] The Nazis even planned to level entire cities.[2][32][43]

Censorship, control and propaganda

Wehrmacht soldiers destroying Polish government insignia in Gdynia, September 1939

Publication of any regular Polish-language book, literary study or scholarly paper was prohibited.[20][43] In 1940, several German controlled printing houses started operating in occupied Poland, publishing items such as Polish-German dictionaries, or antisemitic and anti-Communist novels.[49] One of the aims of German propaganda was to rewrite Polish history: studies were published and exhibitions were held claiming that Polish lands were in reality Germanic; that famous Poles, including Nicolaus Copernicus, Veit Stoss and Chopin, were ethnic Germans.[27][50][51]

Censorship at first targeted books considered to be "serious", which included scientific and educational texts as well as those considered to be promoting Polish patriotism; only fiction lacking any anti-German overtones was allowed.[8] Banned literature included maps, atlases, and English and French language publications including dictionaries.[9] Several non-public indexes of prohibited books were created, and over 1,500 Polish writers were declared "dangerous to the German state and culture".[8][41][45] The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Stanisław Wyspiański, Bolesław Prus, Stefan Żeromski, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Władysław Reymont, Stanisław Wyspiański, Julian Tuwim, Kornel Makuszyński, Leopold Staff, Eliza Orzeszkowa, and Maria Konopnicka;[45] mere possession of such books was made illegal and punishable by imprisonment. The door-to-door sale of books was banned,[8] and bookstores—which required a license to operate[8]—were either emptied or closed.[41]

Poles were forbidden to own radio sets under the penalty of death.[52] The press was reduced from over 2,000 publications to a few dozen, all censored by the Germans.[48][52] All pre-war newspapers were closed, and the few that were published throughout the occupation were new creations under total German control; such a total destruction of press was unprecedented in contemporary history.[53] The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press published by the German occupation administration.[43] Cinemas, now under the control of the German propaganda machine, had much of its programming changed to Nazi German movies, preceded by propaganda newsreels.[8][54] The few Polish films allowed to be shown (about 20% of the total programming) were edited, for example by removing references to Polish national symbols, as well as Jewish actors and producers.[8] Several propaganda films were shot in Polish,[8] although no Polish films were shown after 1943.[8] As any profit from the cinemas was officially directed to German war production, attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground; one of the most famous slogans of the underground was tylko świnie siedzą w kinie (only swines sit in the cinemas).[8] A similar situation faced the theaters, which were ordered not to show any "serious" shows.[8] Several propaganda performances were designed for the theatrical stage.[55] Theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground, and actors were discouraged from performing in them, being labeled collaborators if they did not comply.[8] Ironically, the restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos, as German propaganda wanted to confuse the ghetto inhabitants, and prevent them from realizing their eventual fate.[56]

Music was the least restricted, probably because Hans Frank considered himself a music fan and ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital, Kraków.[8] Many music performances were allowed in cafes and churches.[8] The Polish underground boycotted only the propagandist operas.[8] Visual artists, such as painters and sculptors, had to register with the German government; their work was tolerated by the underground unless it conveyed propagandist themes.[8] Closed museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that often conveyed propaganda messages.[8]

The overall purpose and goals of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases. Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre-war Poland,[16] before later being directed at fostering anti-Soviet, antisemitic and pro-German attitudes.[16]

Under Soviet occupation

Fourth Partition of Poland, 1939–41—result of the Nazi-Soviet Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

After the Soviet invasion of Poland following the corresponding German invasion that marked the start of World War II in 1939, the Soviet Union annexed eastern parts (so-called "Kresy") of the Second Polish Republic, totaling Vorlage:Convert and a population of 13.299 million.[57] Hitler and Stalin shared the goal to obliterate the political and cultural life of the Polish people forever, so that Poland would "cease to exist not merely as a place, but also as an idea".[4]

The Soviet authorities regarded service to the pre-war Polish state as a "crime against revolution"[58] and "counter-revolutionary activity",[59] and arrested large numbers of Polish intelligentsia, politicians, civil servants, and academics, as well as ordinary people suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule. Over a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia.[60] Many were sent to Gulags, the Soviet concentration camps, for years or decades; others died, including over 20,000 Polish officers who perished in the infamous Katyn massacres.[61]

The Soviets quickly introduced Sovietization policies in the annexed lands, including compulsory collectivization of the whole region. They quickly began confiscating, nationalising, and redistributing all private and state-owned Polish property.[62] In the process of Sovietization, they ruthlessly broke up political parties and public associations, and imprisoned or executed their leaders as "enemies of the people".[63] On February 10, 1940, the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against the so-called anti-Soviet elements of occupied Poland. Those targeted by the Soviets included people frequently traveling abroad, those involved in overseas correspondence, Esperantists, philatelists, Red Cross workers, refugees, smugglers, priests and members of religious congregations, the nobility, landowners, wealthy merchants, bankers, industrialists, and hotel and restaurant owners. Stalin, like Hitler, wanted to decapitate the Polish society.[64]

Soviet-inspired caricatures published in Polish in Lwów, September 1940, excoriating Polish "enemies of the state"—businessmen, army officers, aristocrats

Soviet authorities sought to remove all traces of Polish history of the area now under their control by crash Sovietization, and by eliminating almost anything with connections to the Polish state or even to Polish culture in general.[61] Polish monuments were torn down. All institutions of the dismantled Polish state, including Lwów University, were closed and then reopened, mostly with new Russian directors.[61] Soviet communist ideology became paramount in all teaching. Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities, and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian. Polish-language books were burned even in the primary schools.[61] Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools for ideological reasons, and many were arrested. Classes were held in Belorussian, Ukrainian and Lithuanian, with a new pro-Soviet curriculum.[33] Most scholars believe that "In the Soviet occupation zone, conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans."[2] The best example to support this statement was the case of a large number of Polish Jews, who had fled to the East in September 1939. After months of living under Soviet rule, they wanted to be repatriated to the German zone of occupied Poland.[65]

Soviets also sought to recruit Polish left-wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate.[66][67][68] The Writer's Association of the Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów soon after the Soviet invasion; there was a Polish-language theatre and radio station;[66] cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized.[66][68] Those cultural activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities, who ensured that they portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light, and vilified the old Polish one.[66] The policy of supporting propaganda cultural activities in Polish language clashed with the Russification policies. The pro-Polish language policy was spurred in late spring 1940, after Hitler's armies had defeated France and the Soviet Union was left alone facing the Third Reich, and Stalin concluded that Poles could be useful in a confrontation with the Nazis. In the autumn of 1940, the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz's death was celebrated in Lwów.[69] A similar process, revealing the need for Polish language pro-Soviet propaganda, occurred again after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, when Stalin's created the Polish forces in the East, and later, when he decided to create the communist People's Republic of Poland.[66] Many writers collaborated with the Soviets by writing anti-Polish and pro-Soviet propaganda, amongst them, Jerzy Borejsza, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Kazimierz Brandys, Janina Broniewska, Władysław Broniewski, Jan Brzoza, Teodor Bujnicki, Leon Chwistek, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Halina Górska, Mieczysław Jastrun, Stefan Jędrychowski, Stanisław Jerzy Lec, Tadeusz Łopalewski, Juliusz Kleiner, Jan Kott, Jalu Kurek, Karol Kuryluk, Leopold Lewin, Anatol Mikułko, Jerzy Pański, Leon Pasternak, Julian Przyboś, Jerzy Putrament, Jerzy Rawicz, Adolf Rudnicki, Włodzimierz Słobodnik, Włodzimierz Sokorski, Elżbieta Szemplińska, Anatol Stern, Julian Stryjkowski, Lucjan Szenwald, Leopold Tyrmand, Aleksander Wat, Wanda Wasilewska, Stanisław Wasilewski, Adam Ważyk, Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer.[66][67][68] There were however writers who rejected the offer to join the new regime's propaganda machine, and published underground: Jadwiga Czechowiczówna, Jerzy Hordyński, Jadwiga Gamska-Łempicka, Herminia Naglerowa, Beata Obertyńska, Ostap Ortwin, Tadeusz Peiper, Teodor Parnicki, Juliusz Petry; notably, also, Władysław Broniewski after few months of collaborating with the Soviets joined the anti-Soviet opposition.[66][67][68][70]

Underground culture

Patrons

Datei:Gott mit uns - polish resistance poster, German-occupied Poland, 1943.jpg
Operation N poster, "Gott mit uns" (German: "God is with us"). Left: Hitler. Right: Himmler. Center: Christ.

Polish culture persisted through diverse underground activities—underground education, publications, even theater.[2][71] The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture (under Stanisław Lorentz), which, together with the Department of Labor and Social Welfare and the Department for the Elimination of the Effects of the War (under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski), became underground patrons of Polish culture.[72] These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting or destruction works of art in state and private collections (most notably, giant paintings of Jan Matejko that were hidden and secured throughout the war).[73] They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works, and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and publications and to support their families.[44] For example, they sponsored the underground publication (bibuła) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10,000 copies of a Polish primary-school primer, and commissioned artists to create pro-resistance artwork (which were then disseminated under activities like Action N).[44] Secret art exhibitions, theater performances and concerts were also occasionally sponsored.[44]

Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and members of the Polish aristocracy, who likewise took initiatives related to supporting artists and safeguarding Polish heritage (notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician, Janusz Radziwiłł).[44] Some private publishers, including Stefan Kamieński, Zbigniew Mitzner, and the Ossolineum publishing house, paid writers for books on the understanding that they would be delivered after the war.[72]

Education

Vorlage:Details In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools, resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large-scale underground educational activities. Most notably, the Secret Teaching Organization (Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska, TON) was created as early as in October 1939.[74][75] Other organizations were created locally; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON, working closely with the Underground's State Department of Culture and Education, which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech, creator of the TON.[75][76] Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues. By 1942, about 1,500,000 students took part in underground primary education; in 1944, its secondary school system covered 100,000 people, and university level courses were attended by about 10,000 students (for comparison, the pre-war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30,000 for the 1938/1939 year).[7][77][78] More than 90,000 secondary-school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6,000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government (centered around the cities of Warsaw, Kraków, Radom and Lublin).[79] Overall, in that period in the General Government, one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations; the number rose to about 70% for children old enough to attend secondary school.[80] It is estimated that in some rural areas, the educational coverage was actually improved (for example, because courses were organized by teachers escaped or deported from the cities).[80] Compared to pre-war classes, the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable, as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos; there was, however, underground Jewish education in the ghettos, often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON.[81] Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance.[82]

Polish Home Army medal for service in Operation Tempest

In Warsaw, there were over 70 underground schools, with 2,000 teachers and 21,000  students.[79] Underground Warsaw University educated 3,700 students, issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees.[83] Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3,000 students, issuing 186 engineering degrees, 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations.[84] Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees, employed over 100 professors and teachers, and served more than 1,000 students per year.[85] Throughout Poland, many other universities and institutions of higher education (of music, theater, arts, and others) continued their classes throughout the war.[86] Even some academic research was carried out (for example, by Władysław Tatarkiewicz, a leading Polish philosopher, and Zenon Klemensiewicz, a linguist).[43][87] Nearly 1,000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State, enabling them to continue their research.[88]

The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories. The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943, but lacked the manpower to put an end to it, probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance.[89] For the most part, closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans.[89][90] In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools, particularly rural ones, was difficult, due to lack of manpower, transportation, and the activities of the Polish resistance.[90] Some schools semi-openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities.[91] Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a "mortal enemy" of the German states, they could not all be disposed of immediately.[90] It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories, as it hindered the process of Germanization; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence in a concentration camp.[89]

Print

Datei:The Third Reich - polish resistance poster, German-occupied Poland, 1943.jpg
Der Klabautermann, 3 January 1943—an Operation N periodical for Germans. Left: Death. Center: Hitler. Right: Himmler.

There were over 1,000 underground newspapers;[92] among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland. In addition to publication of news (from intercepted Western radio transmissions), there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics, economics, education, and literature (for example, Sztuka i Naród).[14][93] The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43,000 copies; average volume of larger publication was 1,000–5,000 copies.[93] The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti-Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans.[94] Books were also sometimes printed.[14] Other items were printed as well, such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters, ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats.[94]

The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland.[95] Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze (Secret Military Publishing House) of Jerzy Rutkowski (subordinated to the Armia Krajowa) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world.[96][97] In addition to Polish titles, Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces (as part of Action N).[98] The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses (whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps).[99] The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków.[95] There, writers and editors faced similar dangers: for example, almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested, and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on May 27, 1944. (Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943.)[98] The underground press was supported by a large number of activists: in addition to the crews of the printing presses, there were scores of underground couriers distributing the publications; according to some statistics, these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans.[98]

Under German occupation, the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated, as they had little opportunity to publish their work. The Underground State's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals, enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication.[44] Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses; over 1,000 works were published underground over the course of the war.[100] Literary discussions were held, and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included, among others, Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Leslaw Bartelski, Tadeusz Borowski, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Maria Dąbrowska, Tadeusz Gajcy, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz, future Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz, Zofia Nałkowska, Jan Parandowski, Leopold Staff, Kazimierz Wyka, and Jerzy Zawiejski.[100] Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner-of-war camps (Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński, Stefan Flukowski, Leon Kruczkowski, Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała), the ghettos, and even from inside the concentration camps (Jan Maria Gisges, Halina Gołczowa, Zofia Górska (Romanowiczowa), Tadeusz Hołuj, Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki).[101] Many writers did not survive the war, among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Wacław Berent, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Tadeusz Gajcy, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski, Stefan Kiedrzyński, Janusz Korczak, Halina Krahelska, Tadeusz Hollender, Witold Hulewicz, Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski, Włodzimierz Pietrzak, Leon Pomirowski, Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz.[100]

Polish Underground State Information Bulletin, 15 July 1943, reports death of Gen. Sikorski and orders a national day of mourning

Visual arts and music

With the censorship of Polish theater (and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry),[102] underground theaters were created, primarily in Warsaw and Kraków, with shows presented in various underground venues.[56][71][103] Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theatrical Council.[103] Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war, even in the Gestapo's Pawiak prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz; underground acting schools were also created.[103] Underground actors, many of whom officially worked mundane jobs, included Karol Adwentowicz, Elżbieta Barszczewska, Henryk Borowski, Wojciech Brydziński, Władysław Hańcza, Stefan Jaracz, Tadeusz Kantor, Mieczysław Kotlarczyk, Bohdan Korzeniowski, Jan Kreczmar, Adam Mularczyk, Andrzej Pronaszko, Leon Schiller, Arnold Szyfman, Stanisława Umińska, Edmund Wierciński, Maria Wiercińska, Karol Wojtyła (who later became Pope John Paul II), Marian Wyrzykowski, Jerzy Zawiejski and others.[103] Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos[56][104][105] and in the camps for Polish war prisoners.[106]

Polish music, including orchestras, also went underground.[107] Top Polish musicians and directors (Adam Didur, Zbigniew Drzewicki, Jan Ekier, Barbara Kostrzewska, Zygmunt Latoszewski, Jerzy Lefeld, Witold Lutosławski, Andrzej Panufnik, Piotr Perkowski, Edmund Rudnicki, Eugenia Umińska, Jerzy Waldorff, Kazimierz Wiłkomirski, Maria Wiłkomirska, Bolesław Woytowicz, Mira Zimińska) performed in restaurants, cafes, and private homes, with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while evading German patrols.[107] Patriotic songs were written,[14] such as Siekiera, motyka, the most popular song of occupied Warsaw.[107] Patriotic puppet shows were staged.[14] Jewish musicians (e.g. Władysław Szpilman) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps.[108] Although many of them died, some survived abroad, like Alexandre Tansman in the United States, and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union. Vorlage:Fixbunching

Datei:Warsaw Uprising poster - Każdy Pocisk Jeden Niemiec.jpg
Warsaw Uprising poster: "One bullet—one German"

Vorlage:Fixbunching

Vorlage:Fixbunching Visual arts were also practiced underground. Cafes, restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums; some were closed, with their owners, staff and patrons harassed, arrested or even executed.[109] Polish underground artists included Eryk Lipiński, Stanisław Miedza-Tomaszewski, Stanisław Ostoja-Chrostowski, and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko.[109] Some artists worked directly for the Underground State, forging money and documents,[110][111] and creating anti-Nazi art (satirical posters and caricatures) or Polish patriotic symbols (for example kotwica). These works were reprinted on underground presses, and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti.[109] Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa's Bureau of Information and Propaganda. In 1944 three giant (6 m, or 20 ft) puppets, caricatures of Hitler and Mussolini, were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw.[109] Some artists recorded the life and death in occupied Poland; despite German bans on Poles using cameras, photographs and even films were taken.[102] Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station, underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems.[102] Underground postage stamps were designed and issued.[109] Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities, underground sport clubs were created; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw, Kraków and Poznań, although these were usually dispersed by the Germans.[109] All of these activities were supported by the Underground State's Department of Culture.[107]

Warsaw Uprising

During the Warsaw Uprising (August–October 1944), people in Polish-controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day-to-day life of their free country. Cultural life was vibrant, among both soldiers and civilian population, with theaters, cinemas, post offices, newspapers and similar activities available.[112] The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising, with prizes being weaponry (most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance).[101] Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz, the Home Army's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over Vorlage:Convert of film documenting the struggle.[113] Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1,000 photographs before he died; Sylwester Braun some 3,000, of which 1,520 survive; Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1,000. Vorlage:Listen

Culture in exile

Polish artists also worked abroad, outside occupied Europe. Arkady Fiedler wrote about the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron, based in Britain, and Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy. Other writers working abroad included Jan Lechoń, Antoni Słonimski, Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim.[114] There were artists performing for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East. Among musicians performing for Polish II Corps in a Polska Parada cabaret were Henryk Wars and Irena Anders.[115] The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino (The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino), composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944.[116] There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West.[106][117] Several Polish painters, mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps, kept working throughout the war, they included Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski, Adam Kossowski, Marian Kratochwil, Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp.[118]

Influence on postwar culture

Vorlage:Seealso The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may ironically have strengthened it instead. Norman Davies wrote in God's Playground: "In 1945, as a prize for untold sacrifices, the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before."[119] Similarly, close knit underground classes, from primary schools to universities, were renowned for their high quality, due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers.[120] The resulting culture was, however, different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons. The destruction of Poland's Jewish community, Poland's postwar territorial changes, and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities. The multicultural nation was no more.[121]

Datei:Rozstrzelanie V - execution V - Wróblewski.jpg
Rozstrzelanie V (Execution by Firing Squad, V) by Andrzej Wróblewski, portraying one of the horrors of the German occupation

The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the "Generation of Columbuses". The term denotes an entire generation of Poles, born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918, whose adolescence was marked by World War II. In their art, they "discovered a new Poland"–one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland.[122][123][124]

Over the years, nearly three-quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity.[125] Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered around events of the war. Books by Tadeusz Borowski, Adolf Rudnicki, Henryk Grynberg, Miron Białoszewski, Hanna Krall and others; films, including those by Andrzej Wajda (A Generation, Kanał, Ashes and Diamonds, Lotna, A Love in Germany, Korczak, Katyń); TV series (Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life); music (Powstanie Warszawskie); and even comic books–all of these diverse works have reflected those times. Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996: "Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation. Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV, on radio and in the print media. The theme remains an important element in literature and learning, in film, theater and the fine arts. Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it. Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly".[125]

See also

Citations

Vorlage:Reflist

References

Vorlage:Refbegin

  • Vorlage:Pl icon Władysław Anders: Bez ostatniego rozdziału. Test, Lublin 1995, ISBN 83-7038-168-5, S. 540.
  • Cornis-Pope, Marcel, John Neubauer, History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004, ISBN 9027234523
  • Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0198201710
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Norman Davies: [[God's Playground|God's Playground: A History of Poland]] (vol. 2). Columbia University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-231-12819-3.
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Marian Marek Drozdowski, Andrzej Zahorski Historia Warszawy, Jeden Świat, 2004, ISBN 8389632047
  • Ferguson, Niall, The War of the World, Penguin Press, New York, 2006
  • Gustaw Herling-Grudziński: A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp during World War II. Penguin Books, 1996, ISBN 0-14-025184-7, S. 284.
  • Gilbert, Shirli. Music in the Holocaust: Confronting Life in the Nazi Ghettos and Camps, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199277974
  • Haltof, Marek. Polish National Cinema, Berghahn Books, 2002, ISBN 1571812768,
  • Hempel, Andrew. Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History, Hippocrene Books, 2003, ISBN 0781810043
  • Hubka, Thomas C. Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community, UPNE, 2003, ISBN 1584652160
  • Kisling, Vernon N. Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens, CRC Press, 2001, ISBN 084932100X
  • Klimaszewski, Bolesław. An Outline History of Polish Culture, Interpress, 1984, ISBN 8322320361,
  • Knuth, Rebecca, Libricide:The Regime-Sponsored Destruction of Books and Libraries in the Twentieth Century, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 027598088X
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Stefan Korboński: Polskie państwo podziemne: przewodnik po Podziemiu z lat 1939-1945. Wydawnictwo Nasza Przyszłość, Bydgoszcz.
  • Krauski, Josef. Education as Resistance: The Polish Experience of Schooling During the War, in Roy Lowe, Education and the Second World War: Studies in Schooling and Social Change, Falmer Press, 1992, ISBN 0750700548
  • Kremer, S. Lillian. Holocaust literature: an encyclopedia of writers and their work, Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 0415929849
  • Lerski, Jerzy Jan, Piotr Wróbel, Richard J. Kozicki, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, ISBN 0313260079
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Vorlage:Citation
  • Vorlage:Citation
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Vorlage:Citation
  • Tadeusz Piotrowski: Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947. McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3, Polish Collaboration, S. 11 (google.com).
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Salmonowicz, Stanisław. Polskie Państwo Podziemne (Polish Underground State), Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa, 1994, ISBN 83-02-05500-X
  • Schabas, William. Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0521787904
  • Sterling, Eric. John K. Roth, Life in the Ghettos During the Holocaust, Syracuse University Press, 2005, ISBN 0815608039,
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Szarota, Tomasz. Okupowanej Warszawy dzień powszedni, Czytelnik, 1988, ISBN 8307012244, p. 323
  • Vorlage:Pl icon Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta, Bonusiak, Włodzimierz; Ciesielski, Stanisław Jan; Mańkowski, Zygmunt; Iwanow, Mikołaj (eds.): Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-1941 (Sovietization of education in eastern Lesser Poland during the Soviet occupation 1939-1941). Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego, Kielce 1997, ISBN 978-83-7133-100-8 (polnisch).

Vorlage:Refend

Further reading

  • Andrzej Mężyńskia, Paszkiewicz, Urszula; Bieńkowska, Barbara: Straty bibliotek w czasie II wojny światowej w granicach Polski z 1945 roku. Wstępny raport o stanie wiedzy (Losses of Libraries During World War II within the Polish Borders of 1945. An Introductory Report on the State of Knowledge). Wydawnictwo Reklama, Warsaw 1994, ISBN 83-902167-0-1 (polnisch).
  • Adam Ordęga, Terlecki, Tymon: Straty kultury polskiej, 1939–1944 (Losses of Polish Culture, 1939–1944). Książnica Polska, Glasgow 1945 (polnisch).
  • Antoni Symonowicz, Nazi Campaign against Polish Culture, in Roman Nurowski, ed., 1939-1945 War Losses in Poland (Poznan: Wydaw- nictwo Zachodnie), 1960
  • Jan P. Pruszynski, Poland: The War Losses, Cultural Heritage, and Cultural Legitimacy,, in Elizabeth Simpson (ed.), The Spoils of War: World War II and Its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property, Harry N. Abrams: New York, 1997, ISBN 0810944693
Commons: Poland during World War II – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien

Vorlage:PUS footer

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  118. ↑ Vorlage:Pl icon Mirosław Adam Supruniuk, Malarstwo polskie w Wielkiej Brytanii - prace i dokumenty, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika, last accessed 5 May 2009
  119. ↑ Davies, 2005, Google Print, p. 174
  120. ↑ Salmonowicz, pp. 211, 221
  121. ↑ Haltof, Google Print, p. 223
  122. ↑ Cornis-Pope, Neubauer, Google Print, p. 146
  123. ↑ Klimaszewski, Google Print, p. 343
  124. ↑ Haltof, Google Print, p. 76
  125. ↑ a b Krzysztof Ruchniewicz, The memory of World War II in Poland, Eurozine, 2007-09-05. Retrieved on March 26, 2008.
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