Erster Weltkrieg in Afrika

The African Theatre of World War I describes campaigns in north Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European domination and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South-West Africa and German East Africa which were fought by German Schutztruppe, local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Belgium and Portugal.^{[Note 1]}

Background

Strategic situation

German colonies in Africa had been acquired in the 1880s and were not well defended. They were also surrounded by territories controlled by Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal.Vorlage:Sfn Colonial military forces in Africa were relatively small, poorly equipped had been created to maintain internal order, rather than conduct military operations against other colonial forces. Most European warfare in Africa during the 19th century had been conducted against Africans for the enslavement of people and the conquest of territory. The Berlin Conference of 1884, had provided for European colonies in Africa to be neutral, if war broke out in Europe; in 1914 none of the European powers had plans to challenge their opponents for control of overseas colonies. News of the outbreak of war was met by an editorial in the East African Standard on 22 August, arguing that Europeans in Africa should not fight each other but instead collaborate to maintain the repression of the indigenous population.Vorlage:Sfn

In Britain, an Offensive sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence was appointed on 5 August and established a principle that command of the seas was to be ensured and that objectives were considered only if they could be attained with local forces and if the objective assisted the priority of maintaining British sea communications, as British army garrisons abroad were returned to Europe in an "Imperial Concentration". Attacks on German coaling stations and wireless stations were considered to be important to clear the seas of German commerce raiders. Objectives at Tsingtau in the Far East and Luderitz Bay, Windhoek, Duala and Dar-es-Salaam in Africa and a German wireless station in Togoland, next to the British colony of Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, were considered vulnerable to attack by local or allied forces.Vorlage:Sfn

North Africa

Zaian War, 1914–1921

The Zaian War was fought between France and the Zaian confederation of Berber tribes in Morocco between 1914 and 1921. Morocco had become a French protectorate in 1912 and the French army extended French influence eastwards through the Middle Atlas mountains towards French Algeria. The Zaians, led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani quickly lost the towns of Taza and Khénifra but managed to inflicted many casualties on the French, who responded by establishing groupes mobiles, combined arms formations that mixed regular and irregular infantry, cavalry and artillery. By 1914 the French had 80,000 troops in Morocco. wo thirds of the French troops were withdrawn from 1914–1915 for service in France and more than 600 French soldiers were killed at the Battle of El Herri on 13 November 1914. Lyautey the French governor, reorganised his forces and pursued a forward policy rather than passive defence. The French retained most of their territory despite intelligence and financial support provided by the Central Powers to the Zaian Confederation and raids which caused losses to the French when already short of manpower.Vorlage:Sfn

Sanussi campaign, 1915–1917

Coastal campaign, 1915–1916

On 6 November the German submarine U–35 torpedoed and sank a steamer HMS Tara in the Bay of Sollum. U-35 surfaced, sank the coastguard gun-boat Abbas and badly damaged Nur el Bahr with its deck gun. On 14 November the Sanussi attacked an Egyptian position at Sollum and on the night of 17 November a party of Sanussi fired into Sollum, as another party cut the coast telegraph line. Next night a monastery at Sidi Barrani, Vorlage:Convert beyond Sollum was occupied by 300 Muhafizia and on the night of 19 November a coastguard was killed. An Egyptian post was attacked Vorlage:Convert east of Sollum on 20 November. The British withdrew from Sollum to Mersa Matruh, Vorlage:Convert further east, which had better facilities for a base and the Western Frontier Force was created.Vorlage:Sfn^{[Note 2]}

On 11 December a British column sent to Duwwar Hussein was attacked along the Matruh–Sollum track and in the Affair of Wadi Senba, drove the Sanussi out of the wadi.Vorlage:Sfn The reconnaissance continued and on 13 December at Wadi Hasheifiat the British were attacked again and held up until artillery came into action in the afternoon and forced the Sanussi to retreat. The British returned to Matruh until 25 December and then made a night advance to surprise the Sanussi. At the Affair of Wadi Majid, the Sanussi were defeated but were able to withdraw to the west.Vorlage:Sfn Air reconnaissance found more Sanussi encampments in the vicinity of Matruh at Halazin, which was attacked on 23 January, in the Affair of Halazin. The Sanussi fell back skilfully and then attempted to envelop the British flanks. The British were pushed back on the flanks as the centre advanced and defeated the main body of Sanussi, who were again able to withdraw.Vorlage:Sfn

In February 1916, the Western Frontier Force was reinforced and a British column was sent west along the coast to re-capture Sollum. Air reconnaissance discovered a Sanussi encampment at Agagia, which was attacked in the Action of Agagia on 26 February. The Sanussi were defeated and then intercepted by the Dorset Yeomanry as they withdrew; the Yeomanry charged across open ground swept by machine-gun and rifle fire. The British lost half their horses and 58 of 184 men but prevented the Sanussi from slipping away. Jaafar Pasha the commander of the Sanussi forces on the coast was captured and Sollum was re-occupied by British forces on 14 March 1916, which concluded the coastal campaign.Vorlage:Sfn

Band of Oases campaign, 1916–1917

On 11 February 1916 the Sanussi and Sayyid Ahmed ash-Sharif occupied the oasis at Bahariya, which was then bombed by British aircraft. The oasis at Farafra was occupied at the same time and then the Sanussi moved on to the oasis at Dakhla on 27 February. The British responded by forming the Southern Force at Beni Suef. Egyptian officials at Kharga were withdrawn and the oasis was occupied by the Sanussi, until they withdrew without being attacked. The British reoccupied the oasis on 15 April and began to extend the light railway terminus at Kharga to the Moghara Oasis. The mainly Australian Imperial Camel Corps patrolled on camels and in light Ford cars and cut off the Sanussi from the Nile Valley. Preparations to attack the oasis at Bahariya were detected by the Sanussi garrison, which withdrew to Siwa in early October. The Southern Force attacked the Sanussi in the Affairs in the Dakhla Oasis (17–22 October, after which the Sanussi retreated to their base at Siwa.Vorlage:Sfn

In January 1917, a British column including the Light Armoured Car Brigade with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and three Light Car Patrols, was dispatched to Siwa. On 3 February the armoured cars surprised and engaged the Sanussi at Girba, who retreated overnight. Siwa was entered on 4 February without opposition but a British ambush party at the Munassib Pass was foiled, when the escarpment was found to be too steep for the armoured cars. The light cars managed to descend the escarpment and captured a convoy on 4 February. Next day the Sanussi from Girba were intercepted but managed to establish a post the cars were unable to reach and then warned the rest of the Sanussi The British force returned to Matruh on 8 February and Sayyid Ahmed withdrew to Jaghbub. Negotiations between Sayed Idris and the Anglo-Italians which had begun in late January, were galvanised by news of the Sanussi defeat at Siwa. At Akramah on 12 April, Idris accepted the British terms and those of Italy on 14 April.Vorlage:Sfn

Darfur Expedition, 1916

On 1 March 1916 hostilities began between the Sudanese government and the Sultan of Darfur.Vorlage:Sfn The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition was conducted, to forestall an imagined invasion of Sudan and Egypt by the Darfurian leader, Sultan Ali Dinar, which was believed to have been synchronised with a Sanussi advance into Egypt from the west.Vorlage:Sfn The Sirdar ("commander") of the Egyptian Army, organised a force of Vorlage:Circa men at Rahad, a railhead Vorlage:Convert east of the Darfur frontier. On 16 March, the force crossed the frontier mounted in lorries from a forward base established at Nahud, Vorlage:Convert from the border, with the support of four aircraft. By May the force was close to the Darfur capital of El Fasher. At the Affair of Beringia on 22 May, the Fur Army was defeated and the Anglo-Egyptian force captured the capital the next day. Dinar and 2,000 followers had left before their arrival and as they moved south, were bombed from the air.Vorlage:Sfn

French troops in Chad who had returned from the Kamerun Campaign, prevented a Darfurian withdrawal westwards. Dinar withdrew into the Marra mountains Vorlage:Convert south of El Fasher and sent envoys to discuss terms but the British believed he prevaricating and ended the talks on 1 August. Internal dissension reduced the force with Dinar to Vorlage:Circa men and Anglo-Egyptian outposts were pushed out from El Fasher to the west and south-west, after the August rains. A skirmish took place at Dibbis on 13 October and Dinar opened negotiations but was again suspected of bad faith. Dinar fled south-west to Gyuba and a small force was sent in pursuit. At dawn on 6 November the Anglo-Egyptians attacked in the Affair of Gyuba and Dinar's remaining followers scattered. The body of the Sultan was found Vorlage:Convert from the camp.Vorlage:Sfn After the expedition, Darfur was incorporated into Sudan.Vorlage:Sfn

Kaocen revolt, 1916–1917

Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen (1880–1919) the Amenokal ("Chief") of the Ikazkazan Tuareg confederation, had attacked French colonial forces from 1909. The Sanusiya leadership in the Fezzan oasis town of Kufra declared Jihad against the French colonialists in October 1914. The Sultan of Agadez convinced the French that the Tuareg confederations remained loyal and Kaocen's forces besieged the garrison on 17 December 1916. Kaocen, his brother Mokhtar Kodogo and Vorlage:Circa Tuareg raiders, armed with rifles and a field gun captured from the Italians in Libya, defeated several French relief columns. The Tuareg seized the main towns of the Aïr, including Ingall, Assodé and Aouderas Modern northern Niger came under rebel control for over three months. On 3 March 1917, a large French force from Zinder relieved the Agadez garrison and began to recapture the towns. Mass reprisals were taken against the town populations, especially against marabouts, though many were neither Tuareg or rebels. The French summarily killed 130 people in public in Agadez and Ingal. Kaocen fled north and was killed in 1919 by local forces in Mourzouk. Kaocen's brother was killed by the French in 1920 after a revolt he led amongst the Toubou and Fula in the Sultanate of Damagaram was defeated.Vorlage:Sfn

West Africa

Togoland campaign, 1914

The Togoland Campaign (9–26 August 1914) was a French and British invasion of the German colony of Togoland in west Africa (which became Togo and the Volta Region of Ghana after independence), during the First World War. The colony was invaded on 7 August 1914 by British forces from Gold Coast to the west and French forces from Dahomey to the east. German colonial forces withdrew from the capital Lomé and the the coastal province and then fought delaying actions on the route north to Kamina, where a new wireless station linked Berlin to Togoland, the Atlantic and south America. The main British and French force from the neighbouring colonies of Gold Coast and Dahomey, advanced from the coast up the road and railway, as smaller forces converged on Kamina from the north.Vorlage:Sfn

The German defenders were able to delay the invaders for several days at the battles of Bafilo, Agbeluvhoe and Chra but surrendered the colony on 26 August 1914.Vorlage:Sfn In 1916, Togoland was partitioned by the victors and in July 1922, British Togoland and French Togoland were created, as League of Nations mandates.Vorlage:Sfn The French acquisition consisted of Vorlage:Circa the colony, including the coast. The British received the smaller, less populated and less developed portion of Togoland to the west.Vorlage:Sfn The surrender of Togoland marked the beginning of the end for the German colonial empire.Vorlage:Sfn

Kamerun campaign, 1914–1916

By 25 August 1914, British forces in Nigeria had moved into Kamerun towards Mara in the far north, towards Garua in the center and towards Nsanakang in the south. British forces moving towards Garua under the command of Colonel MacLear were ordered to push to the German border post at Tepe near Garua. The first engagement between British and German troops in the campaign took place at the Battle of Tepe, eventually resulting in German withdrawal.Vorlage:Sfn In the far north British forces attempted to take the German fort at Mora but failed and began a siege which lasted until the end of the campaign.Vorlage:Sfn British forces in the south attacked Nsanakang and were defeated and almost completely destroyed by German counter-attacks at the Battle of Nsanakong.Vorlage:Sfn MacLear then pushed his forces further inland towards the German stronghold of Garua, but was repulsed in the First Battle of Garua on 31 August.Vorlage:Sfn

In 1915 the German forces, except for those at Mora and Garua, withdrew to the mountains near the new capital of Jaunde. In the spring the German forces delayed or repulsed Allied attacks and a force under Captain von Crailsheim from Garua, conducted an offensive into Nigeria and fought the Battle of Gurin.Vorlage:Sfn General Frederick Hugh Cunliffe began the Second Battle of Garua in June, which was a British victory.Vorlage:Sfn Allied units in northern Kamerun were freed to push into the interior, where the Germans were defeated at the Battle of Ngaundere on 29 June. Cunliffe advanced south to Jaunde but was held up by heavy rains and his force joined the Siege of Mora.Vorlage:Sfn When the weather improved, Cunliffe moved further south, captured a German fort at the Battle of Banjo on 6 November and occupied several towns by the end of the year.Vorlage:Sfn In December, the forces of Cunliffe and Dobell made contact and made ready to conduct an assault on Jaunde.Vorlage:Sfn In this year most of Neukamerun had been fully occupied by Belgian and French troops, who also began to prepare for an attack on Jaunde.Vorlage:Sfn

German forces began to cross into the Spanish colony of Rio Muni on 23 December 1915 and with Allied forces pressing in on Jaunde from all sides, the German commander Carl Zimmermann ordered the remaining German units and civilians to escape into Rio Muni and by mid-February, Vorlage:Circa Schutztruppen and Vorlage:Circa civilians had reached Spanish territory.Vorlage:Sfn Vorlage:Sfn On 18 February the Siege of Mora ended with the surrender of the garrison.Vorlage:Sfn Most Kamerumians remained in Muni but the Germans eventually moved to Fernando Po and some were allowed by Spain to travel to the Netherlands to go home.Vorlage:Sfn Some Kamerunians including the paramount chief of the Beti people, moved to Madrid, where they lived as visiting nobility on German funds.Vorlage:Sfn

South-West Africa

German South-West Africa campaign, 1914–1915

An invasion of German South-West Africa from the south failed at the Battle of Sandfontein (25 September 1914), close to the border with the Cape Colony. German fusiliers inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops and the survivors returned to British territory.Vorlage:Sfn The Germans began an invasion of South Africa to forestall another invasion attempt and the Battle of Kakamas took place on 4 February 1915, between South African and German forces, a skirmish for control of two river fords over the Orange River. The South Africans prevented the Germans from gaining control of the fords and crossing the river.Vorlage:Sfn By February 1915, the South Africans were ready to occupy German territory. Botha put Smuts in command of the southern forces while he commanded the northern forces.Vorlage:Sfn Botha arrived at Swakopmund on 11 February and continued to build up his invasion force at Walfish Bay (or Walvis Bay), a South African enclave about halfway along the coast of German South West Africa. In March Botha began an advance from Swakopmund along the Swakop valley with its railway line and captured Otjimbingwe, Karibib, Friedrichsfelde, Wilhelmsthal and Okahandja and then entered Windhuk on 5 May 1915.Vorlage:Sfn

The Germans offered surrender terms, which were rejected by Botha and the war continued.Vorlage:Sfn On 12 May Botha declared martial law and divided his forces into four contingents, which cut off German forces in the interior from the coastal regions of Kunene and Kaokoveld and fanned out into the north-east. Lukin went along the railway line from Swakopmund to Tsumeb. The other two columns rapidly advanced on the right flank, Myburgh to Otavi junction and Manie Botha to Tsumeb and the terminus of the railway.Vorlage:Sfn German forces in the north-west fought the Battle of Otavi on 1 July but were defeated and surrendered at Khorab on 9 July 1915.Vorlage:Sfn In the south, Smuts landed at the South West African naval base at Luderitzbucht, then advanced inland and captured Keetmanshoop on 20 May. The South Africans linked with two columns which had advanced over the border from South Africa.Vorlage:Sfn Smuts advanced north along the railway line to Berseba and on 26 May, after two day's fighting captured Gibeon.Vorlage:Sfn Vorlage:Sfn The Germans in the south were forced to retreat northwards towards Windhuk and Botha's force. On 9 July the German forces in the south surrendered.Vorlage:Sfn

Maritz Rebellion

General Koos de la Rey, under the influence of Siener van Rensburg a "crazed seer", believed that the outbreak of war foreshadowed the return of the republic but was persuaded by Botha and Smuts on 13 August not to rebel and on 15 August told his supporters to disperse. At a congress on 26 August De la Rey claimed loyalty to South Africa, not Britain or Germany. The Commandant-General of the Union Defence Force, Brigadier-General Christiaan Frederick Beyers opposed the war and with the other rebels, resigned his commission on 15 September. General Koos de la Rey joined Beyers and on 15 September they visited Major JCG (Jan) Kemp in Potchefstroom, who had a large armoury and a force of 2,000 men, many of whom were thought to be sympathetic. The South African government believed it to be an attempt to instigate a rebellion, Beyers claimed that it was to discuss plans for a simultaneous resignation of leading army officers, similar to the Curragh incident in Britain.Vorlage:Sfn

During the afternoon De la Rey was mistakenly shot and killed by a policeman, at a road block set up to look for the Foster gang and many Afrikaners believed that De la Rey had been assassinated. After the funeral the rebels condemned the war but when Botha asked them to volunteer for military service in South-West Africa they accepted.Vorlage:Sfn Maritz, at the head of a commando of Union forces on the border of German South-West Africa, allied with the Germans on 7 October and issued a proclamation on behalf of a provisional government and declared war on the British on 9 October.Vorlage:Sfn Generals Beyers, De Wet, Maritz, Kemp and Bezuidenhout were to be the first leaders of a new South African Republic. Maritz occupied Keimoes in the Upington area. The Lydenburg commando under General De Wet took possession of the town of Heilbron, held up a train and captured government stores and ammunition.Vorlage:Sfn

By the end of the week De Wet had a force of 3,000 men and Beyers had gathered Vorlage:Circa more in the Magaliesberg. General Louis Botha had Vorlage:Circa pro-government troops.Vorlage:Sfn The government declared martial law on 12 October and loyalists under General Louis Botha and Jan Smuts repressed the uprising.Vorlage:Sfn Maritz was defeated on 24 October and took refuge with the Germans, the Beyers commando was dispersed at Commissioners Drift on 28 October, after which Beyers joined forces with Kemp and then was drowned in the Vaal River on 8 December.Vorlage:Sfn De Wet was captured in Bechuanaland on 2 December and Kemp, having crossed the Kalahari desert and lost 300 of 800 men and most of their horses on the Vorlage:Convert journey, joined Maritz in German South-West Africa and attacked across the Orange river on 22 December. Maritz advanced south again on 13 January 1915 and attacked Upington on 24 January and most of the rebels surrendered on 30 January.Vorlage:Sfn

German invasion of Angola, 1914–1915

The campaign in southern Portuguese West Africa (modern-day Angola) took place from October 1914 – July 1915. Portuguese forces in southern Angola were reinforced by a military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel Alves Roçadas, which arrived at Moçâmedes on 1 October 1914. After the loss of the wireless transmitter at Kamina in Togoland, German forces in South-West Africa could not communicate easily and until July 1915 the Germans did not know if Germany and Portugal were at war (war was declared by Germany on 9 March 1916.). On 19 October 1914, an incident occurred in which fifteen Germans entered Angola without permission and were arrested at fort Naulila and in a mêlée three Germans were killed by Portuguese troops. On 31 October, German troops armed with machine-guns launched a surprise attack, which became known as the Cuangar Massacre on the small Portuguese outpost at Cuangar and killed eight soldiers and a civilian.Vorlage:Sfn

On 18 December a German force of 500 men under the command of Major Victor Franke attacked Portuguese forces at Naulila. A German shell detonated the munitions magazine at Forte Roçadas and the Portuguese were forced to withdraw from the Ovambo region toHumbe, with 69 dead, 76 wounded, and 79 troops taken prisoner. The Germans lost 12 soldiers killed and 30 wounded.Vorlage:Sfn Local cililians collected Portuguese weapons and rose against the colonial regime. On 7 July 1915, Portuguese forces under the command of General Pereira d'Eça reoccupied the Humbe region and conducted a reign of terror against the population.Vorlage:Sfn The Germans retired to the south with the northern border secure during the uprising in Ovambo, which distracted Portuguese forces from operations further south. Two days later German forces in South West Africa surrendered, ending the South-West Africa Campaign.Vorlage:Sfn

East Africa

East African campaign, 1914–1915

Military operations, 1914–1915

On the outbreak of war there were 2,760 Schutztruppen and 2,319 men in the King's African Rifles in East Africa.Vorlage:Sfn On 5 August 1914, British troops from the Uganda Protectorate attacked German outposts near Lake Victoria and on 8 August Anmerkung: HMS – manchmal auch mit Satzzeichen geschrieben als H.M.S. – ist ein Akronym bzw. Abkürzung für „His Majesty's Ship“ oder „Her Majesty's Ship“ (englisch „Seiner bzw. Ihrer Majestät Schiff“) und ist seit 1789 das offizielle Namenspräfix, welches alle Kriegsschiffe im Dienst der britischen Marine führen. and Anmerkung: HMS – manchmal auch mit Satzzeichen geschrieben als H.M.S. – ist ein Akronym bzw. Abkürzung für „His Majesty's Ship“ oder „Her Majesty's Ship“ (englisch „Seiner bzw. Ihrer Majestät Schiff“) und ist seit 1789 das offizielle Namenspräfix, welches alle Kriegsschiffe im Dienst der britischen Marine führen. bombarded Dar es Salaam.Vorlage:Sfn On 15 August, German forces in the Neu Moshi region captured Taveta on the British side of Kilimanjaro.Vorlage:Sfn In September, the Germans raided deeper into British East Africa and Uganda and operations were conducted on Lake Victoria by a German boat armed with a QF 1 pounder pom-pom gun. The British armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers Vorlage:SS, Vorlage:SS, Winifred and Sybil and regained command of Lake Victoria, when two of the British boats trapped the tug, which was then scuttled by the crew. The Germans later raised the tug, salvaged the gun and used the boat as a transport.Vorlage:Sfn

The British command planed an operation to suppress German raiding and to capture the northern region of the German colony. Indian Expeditionary Force B of 8,000 troops in two brigades would land at Tanga on 2 November 1914 to capture the city and take control the Indian Ocean terminus of the Usambara Railway. Near Kilimanjaro, Indian Expeditionary Force C of 4,000 men in one brigade, would advance from British East Africa on Neu-Moshi on 3 November, to the western terminus of the railway. After capturing Tanga, Force B would rapidly move north-west to join Force C and mop up the remaining Germans. Although outnumbered 8:1 at Tanga and 4:1 at Longido, the Schutztruppe under Lettow-Vorbeck defeated the British offensive. In the British Official History, C. Hordern wrote that the operation was "... one the most notable failures in British military history".Vorlage:Sfn

Chilembwe uprising, 1915

The uprising was led by John Chilembwe, a millenarian Christian minister, against colonial oppressions of forced labour, discrimination and new demands on the population caused by the outbreak of World War I. Chilembwe rejected cooperation with Europeans in their war, when they withheld property and civil rights from Africans.Vorlage:Sfn The revolt began in the evening of 23 January 1915, when rebels attacked a plantation and killed three colonists. In another attack early in the morning of 24 January in Blantyre several weapons were captured.Vorlage:Sfn News of the insurrection was received by the colonial government on 24 January, which mobilized the settler militia and military forces. Government forces attacked Mbombwe on 25 January and were repulsed. The rebels later attacked a nearby Christian mission and during the night, the rebels fled from Mbombwe hoping to reach safety in neighbouring Portuguese East Africa. On 26 January government forces took Mbombwe unopposed and Chilembwe was later killed by a government patrol, near the East African border. In the aftermath of the rebellion, more than 40 rebels were killed and 300 people were imprisoned.Vorlage:Sfn

Naval operations, 1914–1916

Battle of the Rufiji Delta

A light cruiser Vorlage:SMS of the Imperial German Navy was in the Indian Ocean when war was declared. Königsberg sank the cruiser HMS Pegasus in Zanzibar harbour and then retired into the Rufiji River delta.Vorlage:Sfn After being cornered by warships of the British Cape Squadron, two monitors Anmerkung: HMS – manchmal auch mit Satzzeichen geschrieben als H.M.S. – ist ein Akronym bzw. Abkürzung für „His Majesty's Ship“ oder „Her Majesty's Ship“ (englisch „Seiner bzw. Ihrer Majestät Schiff“) und ist seit 1789 das offizielle Namenspräfix, welches alle Kriegsschiffe im Dienst der britischen Marine führen. and Anmerkung: HMS – manchmal auch mit Satzzeichen geschrieben als H.M.S. – ist ein Akronym bzw. Abkürzung für „His Majesty's Ship“ oder „Her Majesty's Ship“ (englisch „Seiner bzw. Ihrer Majestät Schiff“) und ist seit 1789 das offizielle Namenspräfix, welches alle Kriegsschiffe im Dienst der britischen Marine führen. armed with Vorlage:Convert guns, were towed to the Rufiji from Malta by the Red Sea and arrived in June 1915. With extra armour and covered by a bombardment from the fleet, the monitors ran the gauntlet of fire from Königsberg. Four aircraft based at Mafia Island observed the fall of shells, during a long-range duel with Königsberg, which had assistance from shore-based spotters. On 10 July, Mersey was hit and the monitors failed to hit the Königsberguntil next day, when the monitors disabled KönigsbergPflichtangabe Text für Zitat im Zitat fehlts armament and then reduced it to a wreck. At around 2:00 p.m. The captain had the ship scuttled with a torpedo.Vorlage:Sfn The British salvaged six Vorlage:Convert from the Pegasus, which became known as the Peggy guns and the crew of Königsberg salvaged the Vorlage:Convert main battery guns of their ship and joined the Schutztruppe.Vorlage:Sfn

Lake Tanganyika expedition

The Germans had maintained control of the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and two unarmed motor boats. In 1915, two British motor boats, HMS Mimi and Toutou each armed with a 3-pounder and a Maxim gun, were transported Vorlage:Convert by land to the British shore of Lake Tanganyika. The British captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renamed it Anmerkung: HMS – manchmal auch mit Satzzeichen geschrieben als H.M.S. – ist ein Akronym bzw. Abkürzung für „His Majesty's Ship“ oder „Her Majesty's Ship“ (englisch „Seiner bzw. Ihrer Majestät Schiff“) und ist seit 1789 das offizielle Namenspräfix, welches alle Kriegsschiffe im Dienst der britischen Marine führen. and with two Belgian ships, under the command of Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, attacked and sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. The MV Liemba and the Wami, an unarmed motor boat, were the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916 the Wami was intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned.Vorlage:Sfn Lettow-Vorbeck had the Königsberg gun removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front.Vorlage:Sfn Graf von Götzen was scuttled in mid-July after the Belgians made bombing attacks by floatplanes loaned by the British before Belgian colonial troops advancing on Kigoma could capture it; Graf von Götzen was refloated and used by the British.Vorlage:Sfn ^{[Note 3]}

East African campaign, 1916–1918

Military operations, 1916

General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent from England to take command of the operations in East Africa but he contracted pneumonia during the voyage and was replaced by General Smuts.Vorlage:Sfn Reinforcements and local recruitment had increased the British force to 13,000 South Africans British and Rhodesians and 7,000 Indian and African troops, from a ration strength of 73,300 men which included the Carrier Corps of African civilians. Belgian troops and a larger but ineffective group of Portuguese military units based in Mozambique were also available. During the previous 1915, Lettow-Vorbeck had increased the German force to 13,800 men.Vorlage:Sfn

The main attack was from the north from British East Africa, as troops from the Belgian Congo advanced from the west in two columns, over Lake Victoria on the British troop ships Vorlage:SS and Vorlage:SS and into the Rift Valley. Another contingent advanced over Lake Nyasa (now Lake Malawi) from the south-east. Lettow-Vorbeck evaded the British, whose troops suffered greatly from disease along the march. The 9th South African Infantry began the operation in February with 1,135 men and by October it was reduced to 116 fit troops, mostly by disease.Vorlage:Sfn The Germans avoided battle and by September 1916, the German Central Railway from the coast at Dar es Salaam to Ujiji had been taken over by the British.Vorlage:Sfn As the German forces had been restricted to the southern part of German East Africa, Smuts began to replace South African, Rhodesian and Indian troops with the King's African Rifles and by 1917 more than half the British Army in East Africa was African. The King's African Rifles was enlarged and by November 1918 had 35,424 men. Smuts left in January 1917 to join the Imperial War Cabinet at London.Vorlage:Sfn

Belgian-Congolese campaign, 1916

The Belgian Force Publique of 12,417 men formed three groups, each with 7,000–8,000 porters, yet expected to live off the land. The 1915 harvest had been exhausted and the 1916 harvest had not matured; Belgian requisitions alienated the local civilians. On 5 April, the Belgians offered an armistice to the Germans and then on 12 April commenced hostilities.Vorlage:Sfn The Force Publique advanced between Kigali and Nyanza under the command of General Charles Tombeur, Colonel Molitor and Colonel Olsen and captured Kigali on 6 May.Vorlage:Sfn The Germans in Burundi were forced back and by 6 June the Belgians had occupied Burundi and Rwanda. The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then advanced towards Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. The Allies moved in three columns and took Biharamulo, Mwanza, Karema, Kigoma and Ujiji. Tabora was captured unopposed on 19 September.Vorlage:Sfn To forestall Belgian claims on the German colony, Smuts ordered Belgian forces back to Congo, leaving them as occupiers only in Rwanda and Burundi. The British were obliged to recall Belgian troops in 1917 and after this the Allies coordinated campaign plans.Vorlage:Sfn

Military operations, 1917–1918

Major-General J.L. van Deventer began an offensive in July 1917, which by early autumn had pushed the Germans Vorlage:Convert to the south.Vorlage:Sfn From 15–19 October 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck and the British fought a mutually costly battle at Mahiwa, with 519 German casualties and 2,700 British casualties.Vorlage:Sfn After the news of the battle reached Germany, Lettow-Vorbeck was promoted to Generalmajor.Vorlage:Sfn^{[Note 4]} British units forced the Schutztruppe further south and on 23 November, Lettow-Vorbeck crossed into Portuguese Mozambique to plunder supplies from Portuguese garrisons. The Germans marched through Mozambique in caravans of troops, carriers, wives and children for nine months. Lettow-Vorbeck divided the force into three groups, one detachment of 1,000 men under Hauptmann Theodor Tafel, was forced to surrender after running out of food and ammunition, when Lettow and Tafel were unaware they were only one day’s march apart.Vorlage:Sfn The Germans returned to German East Africa and then crossed into Northern Rhodesia in August 1918. On 13 November two days after the Armistice was signed in France, the German Army took Kasama unopposed. The next day at the Chambezi River, Lettow-Vorbeck was handed a telegram announcing the signing of the armistice and he agreed to a cease-fire. Lettow-Vorbeck marched his army to Abercorn and formally surrendered on 23 November 1918.Vorlage:Sfn^{[Note 5]}

Makonbe uprising, 1917

In March 1917 the Makonbe people achieved a measure of social unity and rebelled against the Portuguese colonialists in Zambezia province of Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique) and defeated the colonial regime; Vorlage:Circa rebels besieged the Portuguese in Tete. The British refused to lend troops to the Portuguese but 10,000–15,000 Ngoni people were recruited, on the promise of loot, women and children. Through terrorism and slavery, the Portuguese quashed the rebellion by the end of the year. Repercussions of the rising continued as British administrators in Northern Rhodesia in 1918 struggled to compensate local civilians for war service, particularly during the famine of 1917–1918 famine and the Colonial Office banned the coercion of local civilians into British service in the colony, which stranded British troops.Vorlage:Sfn

Aftermath

Analysis

The war marked the end of the German colonial empire; during the war the Entente powers posed as crusaders for liberalism and enlightenment but little evidence exists that it was seen as such by Africans. Many African soldiers fought on both sides, with a loyalty to military professionalism rather than nationalism and porters had mainly been attracted by pay or had been coerced. The war had been the final period of the Scramble for Africa; control and annexation of territory had been the principal war aim of the Europeans and the main achievement of Lettow-Vorbeck, had been to thwart some of the ambitions of the South African colonialists.Vorlage:Sfn In the post-war settlements, Germany's colonies were divided between Britain, Belgium, Portugal and South Africa. The former German colonies had gained independence by the 1960s except for South West Africa (Namibia) which gained independence from South Africa in 1990.Vorlage:Sfn

Casualties

The British Official Historian of the campaigns in "Togo and the Cameroons", F. J. Moberly recorded 927 British casualties, 906 French casualties, the invaliding of 494 out of 807 Europeans and 1,322 out of 11,596 African soldiers. Civilian porters were brought from Allied colonies and of Vorlage:Circa 574 were killed or died of disease and 8,219 were invalided as they could be "more easily replaced than soldiers.". Of 10,000–15,000 locally recruited civilians no records were kept. Franco-Belgian troops under the command of General Aymerich had 1,685 killed and 117 soldiers died of disease.Vorlage:Sfn In 2001 Strachan recorded British losses in the East African campaign as 3,443 killed in action, 6,558 died of disease and Vorlage:Circa deaths among African porters. In South-West Africa, Strachan recorded 113 South Africans killed in action and 153 died of disease or accidents. German casualties were 1,188 of whom 103 were killed and 890 were taken prisoner.Vorlage:Sfn In 2007 Paice recorded Vorlage:Circa casualties in the East African campaign, of whom 11,189 died, 9% of the 126,972 troops in the campaign. By 1917 the conscription of Vorlage:Circa as carriers, had depopulated many districts and Vorlage:Circa had died, among them 20% of the British Carrier Corps in East Africa.Vorlage:Sfn A Colonial Office official wrote that the East African campaign had not become a scandal only ".... because the people who suffered most were the carriers - and after all, who cares about native carriers?"Vorlage:Sfn

In the German colonies, no records of the number of people conscripted or casualties were kept but in the German Official History, Ludwig Boell (1951) wrote ".... of the loss of levies, carriers and boys Vorlage:Sic [we could] make no overall count due to the absence of detailed sickness records."Vorlage:Sfn Paice noted a 1989 estimate of 350,000 casualties and a death rate of 1:7 people. Carriers impressed by the Germans were rarely paid and food and cattle were stolen from civilians; a famine caused by the consequent food shortage and poor rains in 1917, led to another 300,000 civilian deaths in Ruanda, Urundi and German East Africa.Vorlage:Sfn The impressment of farm labour in British East Africa, the failure of the rains at the end of 1917 and early 1918 led to famine and in September Spanish flu reached sub-Saharan Africa. In British East Africa 160,000–200,000 people died, in South Africa there were 250,000–350,000 deaths and in German East Africa 10–20 % of the population died of famine and disease. All together, Vorlage:Circa died in the epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa.Vorlage:Sfn

Notes

Vorlage:Reflist

Footnotes