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(http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/work/handy/index.shtml)

Charles Handy

These days practically every city in the world has a School or Institute of Management and if you want a good start to an executive career, then get yourself an MBA degree and become a Master of Business Administration.

Management has always been the invisible ingredient of success. The pyramids of Egypt and the Great Wall of China could not have been built without good management systems. Good ideas are wasted unless someone turns them into a workable activity or business, by management.

But the art of management still seems very elusive. Unlike the physical sciences, in management there seem to be no absolute laws. As new technologies arrive and people find new needs, managers have to adapt and experiment to stay in business.

That's where the gurus come in. Their role is to interpret and spread around what seems to be working, helping managers to cope in a world that changes fast.

The twelve significant gurus we'll be looking at often use common sense, but they see the sense before it becomes common and that's what can give companies and their managers the competitive edge. The insights and methods of the gurus can make a big difference to the way we manage our organisations.

The next episode looks at the work of Charles Handy.

Further reading: Charles Handy, 'Understanding Organizations', London 1976 Penguin Charles Handy, 'The Age of Unreason', London 1989 Business Books Charles Handy, 'The Empty Raincoat', London 1994 Hutchinson

In 1974 I made the earliest attempt to describe the different cultures or types of organizations. Every organization, I felt, is a different mix of the same four basic cultures which I represented with names of Greek Gods:

• Zeus Culture, after the powerful head of the gods, an organization dominated by the personality and power of one person, often the founder or owner.

• Apollo Culture, after the God of harmony and order, dominated by rules and procedures.

• Athena Culture, after the warrior goddess, the symbol of the project organization, the culture that dominates consultancies, advertising agencies and, increasingly, all innovative businesses.

• Dionysius Culture, in which the individual has the freedom to develop his or her own ideas in the way they want - an artists' studio, perhaps, or a university.

I started out wanting to make organizations more efficient but soon I began to worry about another problem: organizations were shrinking in their numbers and concentrating on fewer and younger full-time employees, by outsourcing or subcontracting.

Half of the working population, I suggested, would not be full-time employees by the year 2000. These people would have to develop 'portfolio' lives, a mix of different bits and pieces of work, some for money, some for fun, some for free. By the end of the century, my prediction had come true in Britain and much of Northern Europe.

The next episode looks at the work of Peter Drucker.

Peter Drucker

Peter Drucker is thought of around the world as the seminal thinker, writer, and lecturer on the contemporary organization.

Drucker was born in 1909 in Vienna, Austria and was educated there and in England. He took his doctorate in public and international law while working as a newspaper reporter in Frankfurt, Germany.

He then worked as an economist for an international bank in London.

Drucker went to the United States in 1937. He began his teaching career as professor of politics and philosophy at Bennington College and for more than twenty years he was professor of management at the Graduate Business School of New York University.

The recipient of many awards and honorary degrees, Peter Drucker has, since 1971, been Clarke Professor of Social Sciences at Claremont Graduate University. Its Graduate Management School was named after him in 1984.

He is Honorary Chairman of the Peter F. Drucker Foundation for Nonprofit Management.

Drucker is the author of more than thirty books which deal with society, economics, politics and management. He has also written a novel, an autobiography and a book on Japanese painting.

He is married and has four children and six grandchildren.

Bibliography: 'Concept of the Corporation', New York 1946 John Day 'The New Society', London 1951 Heinemann 'The Practice of Management', New York 1954 Harper & Row 'Managing for Results', London 1964 Heinemann 'The Effective Executive', New York 1967 Harper & Row 'The Age of Discontinuity', London 1969 Heinemann 'Managing in Turbulent Times', New York 1980 Harper & Row 'Adventures of a Bystander', New York 1998 John Wiley

Peter Drucker's first great contribution was to focus on management as a discipline in its own right.

In 'The Concept of the Corporation', Drucker explained, for the first time, how and why decentralization worked. Drucker said decentralization was good because it created small groups where people felt that their contribution was important.

In'The Effective Executive' Drucker says the purpose of a business is to create a customer and a manager's main tasks are:

- to set objectives - to organize - to motivate and communicate - to measure results - to develop people

What Drucker wanted was a workplace where workers were trusted to get on with the job without too much supervision, where they knew what they needed to do and were clear about how it would be measured and how they would be rewarded. It was management by results rather than management by supervision.

In the 'Age of Discontinuity' Drucker focused on the changes in society and how the role of the manager would change too. The main changes he examined were:

- the arrival of 'knowledge industries' employing specialised workers - the move to a global economy - the move towards privatization.

Finally, Drucker started examining non-profit organizations which he called the 'social sector'. These organizations, says Drucker, are better than government in solving the social problems of competitive capitalism.

In the next talk, Charles Handy discusses another man who puts people first - Tom Peters.

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Tom Peters

Tom Peters was born in 1942 in Baltimore, USA. He studied engineering at Cornell University and is a graduate of Stanford (M.B.A., Ph.D.).

He served on active duty in the U.S. Navy in Vietnam and Washington from 1966 to 1970, was a senior White House drug abuse advisor in 1973-74 and worked at McKinsey & Co. from 1974 to 1981, becoming a partner in 1977. He left the firm to work independently prior to the publication of 'In Search of Excellence'.

What distinguishes Peters is that he is not tied to a particular perspective. If there is a consistent strand through his work, Peters believes it is 'a bias for action'. Forget the theorising, get on with the job.

He gives over 100 lectures a year and travels so much that he called his first horse Frequent Flyer.

When Tom is not in an airplane, he divides his time between Silicon Valley (Palo Alto) and Vermont, where he and his wife Susan Sargent live on a farm.

Bibliography: 'In Search of Excellence' (with R. Waterman), New York 1982 Harper Row 'A Passion for Excellence'(with N. Austin), London 1985 Collins 'Thriving on chaos', London 1988 Macmillan 'Liberation Management', New York 1992 Alfred Knopf 'The Tom Peters Seminar', New York 1994 Vintage Books 'The Pursuit of WOW!', New York 1994 Vintage Books 'The Circle of Innovation', London 1997 Hodder & Stoughton

Tom Peters is not a philosopher or a social historian like Peter Drucker. He no longer has any all-embracing theories of the world of organisations nor any formulas for change but he gets under the skin of an organisation.

His first big book, 'In Search Of Excellence' came out in 1982 and made Tom a fashionable guru. The book looked at 43 successful companies and analysed the reasons for their success over twenty years. Peters and Waterman came up with:

eight characteristics of excellence:

• they were do-ers
• they understood their clients' needs
• they were independent and innovative
• they believed in productivity through people
• they were hands-on and value-driven
• they only did what they did best
• had a simple form and lean staff
• and had a tight-loose structure

and

seven checkpoints for analysis, the Seven S Framework:

Strategy, Structure and Systems, the so-called hard S's and Staff, Style, Shared Values and Skills, the so-called soft S's

The trouble was that the 43 excellent companies did not stay excellent for long. Many, including the star of the book, the computer company IBM, faltered soon after. Peters apologised in his later books.

The whole world of work, he realised, was changing. Ninety per cent of jobs, were likely to be completely transformed or eliminated in the next ten to twenty years and each of us would have to take control of our own destiny and look after ourselves. Peters predicted that women would be more and more important to organisations because they were better at the softer S factors in Peters' S Framework.

Kenichi Ohmae

Business in Japan Japan, Tokyo Stock Exchange Episode 7: Kenichi Ohmae - biography

Kenichi Ohmae is a business consultant, social reformer, author and journalist, adviser to governments and business entrepreneur, he has a doctorate in nuclear engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology - and is a motor cycling enthusiast. For a period of twenty-three years, Dr. Ohmae was a partner in McKinsey & Company, Inc., the international management consulting firm.

Kenichi Ohmae is Japanese and lives in Tokyo but he is instinctively global.

He has written over one hundred books, many of them on Japanese public policy issues. Only half a dozen or so have made their mark in the West but these have been hugely influential, not least in explaining Japan to the rest of the world.

He now resides in Tokyo with his wife, Jeannette, and two sons, who share his spare-time interest in music, sailing, marshal arts, motorcycles, and scuba diving.

Bibliography: 'The Mind of the Strategist, New York, McGraw Hill, 1982 'The Bordeless World', London, William Collins, 1990 'The Evolving Global Economy', Boston, MA, Harvard B.S.P, 1995 'The End of the Nation State', London, HarperCollins, 1995 /*/*/ Kenichi Ohmae made his mark twenty years ago with his book on corporate strategy. It is still a collection of good sense and clear advice, even though some of the examples may now seem a bit dated.

Successful business strategies, he says in "The Mind of the Strategist", do not come from rigorous analysis but from a thought process which is basically creative and intuitive rather than rational.

Having written what many people regarded as the bible of corporate strategy, Kenichi Ohmae moved on to the changing shape of the world of business.

His thinking on these issues has been nicely brought together in his latest book, which he has called 'The Invisible Continent'. The Invisible Continent is the world in which businesses now operate, which is like a new, just discovered continent.

In the Invisible Continent there are four Dimensions:

1) the Visible Dimension - physical things to buy and make

2) the Borderless World - inevitable globalization

3) the Cyber Dimension - the Internet, mobile phones

4) the Dimension of High Multiples - exaggerated values put on some stocks by the stock market

But Ohmae has bigger concerns on his mind than business. He worries about the governance of the new continent, about a new sort of Cold War, fought by businesses rather than governments, and about the education of our citizens for this new world.

In my next talk we will meet another strategy guru with a different but related agenda: Gary Hamel.

Read Kenichi Ohmae's biography

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Rosabeth Moss Kanter

siehe englische Version Übersetzung der Vita aus Charles Handy's BBC-Programm

Rosabeth Moss Kanter wurde von der London Times einmal als eine der 50 mächtigsten Frauen der Welt bezeichnet. Dennoch verfügt sie über nichts als Ideen.

Noch nicht einmal 60 Jahre alt, hat Kanter schon über einen langen Zeitraum Bücher mit tiefer Einsicht geschrieben. Ihr letztes könnte ihr bisher bestes gewesen sein. Sein Titel e-Volve.

Sie wurde zur Soziologin ausgebildet, und man merkt es ihr an. Sie betrachtet Organisationen als Gemeinschaften und Kulturen. Professor Kanter's derzeitige Forschung befasst sich mit der Entwicklung von neuen Führungsfähigkeiten für das digitale Zeitalter.

Sie leitet außerdem ein erfolgreiches Consulting-Unternehmen, Goodmeasure Inc., dessen Klientel einige der bekanntesten Unternehmen der Welt umfasst. Goodmeasure entwickelt derzeit Internet-basierte Versionen von Kanter's Führungs- und Änderungs-Werkzeugen, mit deren Hilfe diese weltweit verfügbar werden.

Bibliografie

• The Mind of the Strategist, New York, McGraw Hill, 1982
• The Bordeless World', London, William Collins, 1990
• The Evolving Global Economy', Boston, MA, Harvard B.S.P, 1995
• The End of the Nation State', London, HarperCollins, 1995
• E-Volve!', Harvard Business School Pr, 2001

Rosabeth goes into leading-edge corporations, learns from them and then serves up what she's learnt in nicely digestible messages for the rest of us.

Her early work looked at the communes of the 1960's and the social movement that brought them into existence, and the book she wrote about it, called "The Men and Women of the Corporation", had a big impact.

The new model organization, she notes, is lean, flat and athletic, rather than tall and authoritarian.

It's the job of the people at the top, Kanter says, to set the goals and values of the corporation, below them the middle layers design and manage the programmes and the systems, the forums and relationships that bind the whole together, while the project ideas and innovations hopefully bubble up from the bottom layers.

Her latest book e-Volve, draws together the best ideas of the best companies. The Internet, she says, could produce a great leap forward to a shared consciousness around the world and connect peoples everywhere. The best businesses in the digital world, she says, will be those that foster community internally and serve communities externally.

Rosabeth, of course, ends with a list of the qualities needed by business managers if they are to succeed in the new world of digital commerce:

• curiosity and imagination
• good communication skills, near and far
• cosmopolitan mindset, not confined to a single world view
• grasping complexity, finding the connections
• caring about feeding peoples' bodies and spirits

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Bill Gates

Bill Gates doesn't teach at any university - in fact he left without ever completing his first degree. He doesn't join the lecture circuit nor is he a prolific author. He has only ever written two books and very few articles.

He got hooked on primitive computers at an early age, along with his friend Paul Allen. Then he and Paul stumbled across an advert for a small kit computer called the Altair 8800 and they started to write a programme for it, dreaming about what it would mean if everyone had their own affordable and easy-to-use computer.

Bill left his degree programme at Harvard to try to live that dream and between them, Bill Gates and Paul Allen created the world's first microcomputer software company. They called it Microsoft. It was 1975 and the world was about to change.

The US Government's anti trust action against Microsoft that started in 1998 confronted Gates with something new for him - unpopularity.

He has responded by giving up day-to-day control of his firm and giving more of his attention to the gigantic charitable foundation that he and his wife Melinda have set up. As he has said, when children are dying and starving in parts of the world, easier internet access seems almost beside the point.

Bibliography:

• The Road Ahead', 1995
• Business @ the Speed of Thought', 1999

Bill Gates is an outstanding example of another sort of guru, the guru who preaches more by deeds than by words. He revels in change and draws inspiration from a crisis.

His first book, 'The Road Ahead', was published in 1995. Gates famously ignored the Internet at first. The Internet and its implications dominate his second book, 'Business @ the Speed of Thought'.

But we can learn as much from Bill Gates by looking at what he does, as a manager and a leader, than by reading his books:

1. Concentrate your effort on a market with large potential but relatively few competitors
2. Get in early and big
3. Establish a proprietary position
4. Protect that position in every way possible
5. Aim for high gross margin
6. Make the customers an offer they can't refuse

Gates, with no previous experience, no MBA, and no mentors, set about creating a new sort of organization, what he called a knowledge company. The knowledge company's raw material is brainpower.

Vital to a knowledge company is what Gates calls the DNS - the Digital Nervous System, the e-mails and computer systems that allow everyone to learn everything they need to know.

Microsoft also has some very clear people policies, which give the company its extraordinary vitality. Gates summarizes them as five 'E's:

Enrichment Empowerment Emphasis on Performance Egalitarianism E-Mail

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Ricardo Semler

Ricardo Semler's company, Semco, manufactures pumps, high volume dishwashers, cooling units for air conditioners. It does all this in the difficult economic conditions of Brazil.

In his book 'Maverick', Ricardo describes how he took over as chief executive of the company from his father at the beginning of the eighties, when he himself was not yet twenty, straight out of Harvard.

He started out by doing things the traditional way, wielding the corporate axe to cut a failing organization into shape. He ran the company himself, from the top, with tight disciplines and controls. The stress he created was enormous.

Semler himself was being physically destroyed by the workaholic lifestyle he had to adopt. Something had to give. And it did! Semler's sickness forced him to make a dramatic change to his work patterns, more than that, he had to rethink his whole way of managing the business.

Ricardo has been voted Brazil's Leader of the Year and Latin American Businessman of the Year and has served as Vice President of the Federation of Industries of Brazil.

Bibliography:

• Managing Without Managers', Harvard Business Review, 1999
• Maverick', Warner Books, 1993
• Why My Former Employees Still Work for Me', Harvard Business R., 1994

Ricardo Semler, author and business manager, is celebrated as a role model of a Chief Executive who breaks all the traditional rules and succeeds, massively.

Semler eliminated what he called 'corporate oppression" from his company, Semco: time clocks, dress codes, security procedures, privileged office spaces and perks, they all went. There were to be no receptionists or secretaries.

He set up 'factory committees' to run the plants, in an attempt to get more worker involvement and Semler guaranteed that no-one could be fired while serving on the committees or for at least a year afterwards.

Ricardo then introduced profit-sharing schemes for all the workers. The thought that they could directly influence their own pay encouraged the committees to look for savings and to question any procedures or layers of management that didn't seem to add value.

Managers were hired and fired by their own employees. More than that, the units were now inventing new businesses for themselves. And so Semco grew, entirely due to the initiatives of its workers.

The workers have unrestricted access to all corporate records and are taught how to read financial reports; they set their own wages and their own production quotas.

When the number of people in a Semco unit hits the 100 to 200 mark it is split in two, like it or not.

Semler lists six principles that guide his always experimental company:

1. don't increase business size unnecessarily
2. never stop being a start-up
3. don't be a nanny to your workers
4. let talent find its place
5. make decisions quickly and openly
6. partner promiscuously, you can't do it all yourself.

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Michael E. Porter

In our next talk we meet someone very different. He has been called the world's most successful business academic. He is Michael Porter

Michael Porter is the fourth member of the Harvard Business School ever to be honoured with the title of University Professor in all of its 94 years.

His 1980 book 'Competitive Strategy', written in his early thirties, is now in its 53rd printing and has been translated into seventeen languages. It changed the way Chief Executive Officers thought about their firms and their industries and is still the bible of choice for any strategically-minded manager.

In 1985 Porter was named to President Ronald Reagan's Commission on Industrial Competitiveness. That appointment launched his study of national, state, and local competitiveness, findings that were first published in his book "The Competitive Advantage of Nations" in 1990.

This was followed years later by another big book, 'The Competitive Advantage of Nations', in which he applied his ideas to whole economies.

With his research group, Porter operates from a suite of offices tucked into a corner of Harvard Business School's main classroom building. At 53, his blond hair graying, he is no longer the wunderkind who, in his early thirties, changed the way CEOs thought about their companies and industries. Yet he's no less passionate about his pursuit - and no less certain of his ability.

Bibliography: 'Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors', 1980 'Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance', 1985 'The Competitive Advantage of Nations', 1990

Porter suggested that there were just three generic strategies for managers to choose from if they wanted to gain competitive advantage, something that he believed was the underlying purpose of every business.

You could make things as cheaply as possible and become the lowest cost producer in a market.

Alternatively you could offer something special or different which would allow you to command a premium price.

Or, thirdly, you could choose to be what he called a focused producer, looking to dominate in a niche market, so that others would find it too difficult to challenge you.

To help you choose which strategy to adopt, Porter says you need to decide which of five types of industry you are in:

fragmented emerging mature declining global

Then, he says, you need to examine the five forces of competition:

the threat of substitute products the threat of new entrants the bargaining power of suppliers the bargaining power of buyers the state of rivalry among existing companies

Always try to do things in ways that are hard for other companies to copy. Finding that unique position isn't always obvious, in the end, says Porter, it comes down to creativity and insight - and strong leadership, the willingness to make hard choices and to take a stand against the conventional wisdom of the industry.

In 'The Competitive Advantage of Nations', published in 1990, Porter moved his attention from the problems of competition in business to the issues of competing nations. Globalisation, it seems, does not mean that everything is the same everywhere. National differences still matter.

There are four factors, Porter suggested, that help to make a nation competitive:

tough domestic rivalry country resources country infrastructure (including the educational quality of its workforce) the cluster phenomenon

A cluster is a critical mass, in one geographical space, of similar businesses, all supported by their specialist suppliers and services that are tied to that industry. You can stay small, in other words, and still have the advantage of being big.

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Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden Turner

Trompenaars spent eight years with Shell, where he ended up working on a culture-related project, and then worked part-time for the company before founding the Center for International Business Studies.

The British academic Charles Hampden Turner is Trompenaars' long-term collaborator together they founded the Trompenaars-Hampden-Turner Group..

Their work is based around exhaustive and meticulous research. The book which first established Trompenaars' reputation was 'Riding the Waves of Culture' (1993).

Since then he and Hampden Turner have written 'Mastering the Infinite Game' looking at differences in Western and Eastern values and the '7 Cultures of Capitalism' (1995).

Most recently, the duo have produced 'Building Cross-Cultural Competence' which argues that foreign cultures are not arbitrarily or randomly different but mirror images of each other's values.

Bibliography:

'Riding the Waves of Culture', Nicholas Brearley, London, 1999 'Building Cross-Cultural Competence', John Wiley and Sons, 2000 '21 Leaders for the 21st Century', 2001

Back to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden Turner

For twenty years these two academics, a cross-cultural Anglo-Dutch partnership, have been interviewing managers around the world, giving them questionnaires to answer, conducting seminars and advising their companies.

Most of the management theory we know about has come from the Anglo-American culture, the one that most of these gurus belong to. This is a universalist culture, one that assumes that the rules that work for it will work universally. That might be a dangerous illusion. After all, we know that things work quite differently but equally well in other parts of the world.

Trompenaars and Hampden Turner discovered that North Americans and North Europeans were almost totally universalist in their responses. They would put the law first. Only 70 per cent of the French and the Japanese would do so, however, while, in Venezuela, two thirds would be particularist in their response.

Universalist countries take contracts very seriously and they employ lots of lawyers to make sure that the contract is kept. Particularist countries think that the relationship is more important than the contract and that a good deal requires no written contract - the particular people and the particular situation matter more than the universal rules.

Trompenaars and Hampden Turner have detailed their conclusions in a string of books, amongst which are 'Building Cross-Cultural Competence' and '21 Leaders for the 21st Century'.

The answer to the dilemma, say Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, is to reconcile the opposites, to recognize that the cultures need each other.

This is our last episode. Hopefully the twelve gurus you've met in this Handy Guide will help you find your own way in the world.

Read Fons Trompenaar and Charles Hampden Turner's biography

Organisationsstruktur

Als Organisationsstruktur bezeichnet man sowohl das Beziehungsnetz zwischen den Elementen einer Organisation. Dabei ist die Organisation keinesfalls auf menschliche Organisationen begrenzt; Wolfs- und Löwenrudel sind nach Aufgaben und hierarchisch hochorganisiert, und bestimmte, als Einzelorganismen wahrgenommene Lebewesen, die Quallen, sind tatsächlich nichts anderes als Kolonien von arbeitsteilig hochorganisierten Polypen.

Bezogen auf menschliche Die grafische Beschreibung dieses Beziehungsnetzes heißt Organigramm. Organisationsstrukturen entstehen aus Arbeits- und Aufgabenteilung, d.h. es gibt Organisationsstrukturen seit der Urzeit.

Der ursprüngliche Sinn lag in der Gliederung von Organisationen in Verantwortungsbereiche. Mit der Industriellen Revolution und der Entwicklung der Organisationstheorie wurden auch die Strukturen untersucht und beschrieben.

Ansätze zur Untersuchung Ursprünglich wurden mit Organisationsstrukturen Unterordnungssysteme beschrieben. Diese hierarchische Gliederung wird als vertikale Gliederung bezeichnet und beschreibt die formalen Machtverhältnisse. Die arbeitsteilige Gliederung von (nahezu) gleichberechtigt nebeneinander liegenden Elemente nennt man horizontale Gliederung.

Max Weber Funktionale Gliederung Regionale Gliederung

Deskriptive vs. Generative Kulturansätze

In der Arbeit von Karl E. Weick stecken für die Unternehmenskultur zwei wesentliche Erkenntnisse. Folgt man Weick's Gedankengängen der Sinnerzeugung, dann ist das der Prozess der Unternehmenskultur erzeugt. Während also Schein, Johnson usw. beschreiben was Kulturen sind (deskriptiv), erklärt Weick's Sinnerzeugung, wie Kultur gemacht wird (generativ). Er öffnet damit auch die Wege, die zum Verändern von Kultur. Seine sieben Merkmale für die Sinnerzeugung generieren die Kultur nicht nur ständig neu, sie sind auch die Ansatzpunkte für die kulturverändernde Initiative. Seine von James G. March übernommene Idee der Kopplung erklärt zudem wie und warum sich eine Kultur Änderungsbestrebungen "zur Wehr setzt" und warum der Prozess nicht völlig steuerbar ist.

Starke Kulturen (s.o.) sind in der generativen Beschreibung Weicks in der Lage, konstante Ergebnisse der gemeinschaftlichen Sinnerzeugung über die Organisation verteilt zu erreichen. Das lässt auf eine enge Kopplung schließen, und ein Kommunikationsverhalten, dass den sinnerzeugenden Prozess nachhaltig über die Organisation verteilt.

Sieben Merkmale für die Sinnerzeugung in Organisationen. Sinnerzeugung...

1. basiert auf der Konstruktion des Selbst, weil die Eigenwahrnehmung immer wieder neu erzeugt wird.
2. ist retrospektiv, ein nicht enden wollender Prozess der Vergangenheitsverarbeitung
3. produziert eine rationale Umgebung, weil Menschen Sinn ihrer eigenen Welt erzeugen. Indem sie das tun, erzeugen sie auch gleichzeitig einen Teil dieser Welt, produzieren also rekursive Realität. Ein Produzent, der sich selbst als Monopolist betrachtet verhindert durch die Selbstwahrnehmung die Wahrnehmung von möglichen Konkurrenzprodukten (diese sind irrational).
4. ist sozial, weil sie aus dem Zusammenspiel der Menschen einer Organisation entsteht.
5. ist kontinuierlich, da sie nie anfängt oder endet, immer im Fluß.
6. konzentriert sich auf Hinweise und wird aus Hinweisen erzeugt, d.h. dass von vertrauten Referenzpunkten ausgegangen wird. Die Kontrolle über diese Referenzpunkte ist eine Machtquelle, weil die Sinnerzeugung anderer von den Referenzpunkten abhängt.
7. wird von mehr von Plausibilität als von Genauigkeit getrieben, da Menschen nach dem handeln, was ihnen plausibel erscheint, unabhängig davon, ob man es messen kann.

Allen Organisationen gemeinsam ist die Behandlung von unsicheren, uneinheitlichen und sich verändernden Informationen. Trotz der Fassade von Rationalität, befinden sich Organisationen in einer permanenten Prozess von Subjektivität, Raten und Zufälligkeit. Weick gibt Managern zehn Ratschläge, wie sie anbetrachts obiger Ausführungen, besser managen.

1. Verfallen Sie angesichts von Unordnung nicht in Panik – es ist besser etwas Unordnung zuzulassen und die Information aufzunehmen anstatt sie herauszufiltern und zu übersehen.
2. Unternehmen Sie nichts sofort – Alles was Sie tun hat Auswirkungen jenseits der beabsichtigten, auch indirekte und langsame Wirkungne.
3. Chaotische Aktivität ist besser als ordentliche Inaktivität – Sinnerzeugung entsteht aus der Aktivität, keine Aktivität erzeugt somit auch nicht viel Sinn.
4. Die wichtigste Entscheidung ist oft die unscheinbarste – Entscheidung darüber, was erhaltenswert in Ordnern, Dateien oder sonstwo vorgehalten wird sind die Grundlage für zukünftige Aktivitäten. Solche Entscheidungen erscheinen unwichtig, aber sie erhalten eine Vergangenheit aus der wir die Gegenwart und die Zukunft konstruieren.
5. Es gibt keine Lösung – Es gibt keine einfachen Antworten, kaum etwas ist richtig oder falsch. Lernen Sie zu improvisieren und ein tolerables Niveau an Vernunft zu erhalten.
6. Vermeiden Sie Nutzen-Denken – Gute Anpassung Heute reduziert die Optionen für die Zukunft. Die starke Konzentration auf Nutzen Jetzt kann den zukünftigen Nutzen völlig unmöglich machen. Es ist besser, eine gewisse Unordnung im System zu behalten und so Optionen für die Zukunft zu haben.
7. Die Landkarte ist nicht das Land – Wenn eine Manager die Vergangenheit anaylsieren, erzeugen sie eine Erfahungs-Landkarte. Projiziert man diese Landkarte auf die Zukunft, egal wie stark die Landkarte die Wahrheit auch vereinfacht, dann ist sie eine Richtschnur die mehrfach durchdacht wurde und damit der beste verfügbare Wegweiser.
8. Planen Sie den Organisationsplan neu – Lassen Sie sich nicht von der konventionellen Darstellung der Organisation einfangen. Formulieren Sie neu, schreiben sie um und ersetzen beispielsweise die Titel mit der Wirkung, die die Personen auf Sie haben.
9. Visualisieren Sie ihre Organisation als evolutionäres System – Betrachten Sie was sich entwickelt, was sie tun können und was getan werden könnte. Betrachten Sie auch, was nicht getan werden kann und was Sie nicht können.
10. Machen Sie sich selbst kompliziert – Überlegen Sie unterschiedliche Ursachen, alternative Lösungen, neue Situationen, kompliziertere Lösungen und genießen sie es!

Referenzen

Mission und Vision

Christopher Bartlett

Batchelors Degree 1964 University of Queensland, Australia Marketing Manager für Alcoa in Australien Consultant mit McKinsey and Company in London General Manager für ein Tochterunternehmen von Baxter Laboratories in Frankreich Masters und Ph.D. von der Harvard University (1971 and 1979)

Thomas D. Casserly, Jr. Professor of Business Administration, Emeritus, at Harvard Business School.

Leistungen

Gemeinsam mit Sumantra Ghoshalan der Erforschung international agierender Unternehmungen und der Multinational, Global, International-Gliederung und den Erkenntnissen, die die Idee zum transnationalen Unternehmen.

Since joining the faculty of Harvard Business School in 1979, his interests have focused on the strategic and organizational challenges confronting managers in multinational corporations and on the organizational and managerial impact of transformational change. He served as faculty chair of the International Senior Management Program from 1990 through 1993, and as area head of the School's General Management Unit from 1995 to 1997. He was faculty chairman of HBS's international executive program, Program for Global Leadership, from 1998 to 2002.

He has published eight books, including (co-authored with Sumantra Ghoshal) Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution, reissued by Harvard Business School Press in a new edition in 1998 and named by the Financial Times as one of the 50 most influential business books of the century; and The Individualized Corporation, published by HarperBusiness in 1997, winner of the Igor Ansoff Award for the best new work in strategic management and named one of the Best Business Books for the Millennium by Strategy + Business magazine. Both books have been translated into more than ten languages. He has authored or co-authored over 50 chapters or articles which have appeared in journals such as Harvard Business Review, Sloan Management Review, Strategic Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, and Journal of International Business Studies. He has also researched and written over 100 case studies and teaching notes.

Professor Bartlett maintains ongoing research interests in the organization and management of multinational enterprise and in the impact of radical corporate transformation on management roles and responsibilities. Currently, he is building on these research streams as he examines the management implications of the growth of human resources and intellectual capital as strategic assets.

He has been elected by his academic colleagues as a Fellow of both the Academy of Management and the Academy of International Business. In 2001, the International Management Division of the Academy of Management made him the recipient of its Distinguished Scholar Award. In addition to his academic responsibilities, he maintains ongoing consulting and board relationships with several large corporations, particularly in areas relating to his current research.

Beziehungsmatrix

Unter einer Beziehungsmatrix (engl. relationship matrix) versteht man ein Analyseinstrument zur soziologischen Beurteilung von Beziehungen. Die Matrix stellt die 1:1-Beziehungen von Personen dar und kann nach unterschiedlichen Kriterien ausgefertigt werden.

Beispiel

Die Verwendung von Beziehungsmatrizes ist nicht auf die Soziologie beschränkt. In Konfliktsituationen kann es hilfreich sein, das politisch/soziale Umfeld zu beurteilen. In diesem Fall dient eine Beziehungsmatrix der Identifikation von potentiellen Gegnern oder Verbündeten.

Person	Andreas	Magdalena	Peter
Andreas		Tante/Neffe	angespannt
Magdalena	Neffe/Tante		indifferent
Peter	angespannt

Ergänzungen zu Macht

Innerhalb der Organisationstheorie definiert Henry Mintzberg Macht in Organisationen als

„Macht ist die Fähigkeit organisatorische Ergebnisse zu bewirken oder zu beeinflussen
Power is the capacity to effect (or affect) organisational outcomes“

– Henry Mintzberg

Diese eingeschränkte Definition kann sehr wohl auch bei der Betrachtung andere Bereiche hilfreich sein. Allgemeiner formulierten daher Mallory, Segal-Horn und Lovitt

„...die Fähigkeit von A, B dazu zu bringen etwas zu tun, was er ansonsten nicht getan hätte.
...the ability of A to get B to do something they would otherwise not have done.“

– Mallory, Segal-Horn & Lovitt

Diese Definitionen von Macht reichen aus, um im Organisationskontext die Quellen von Macht zu identifizieren. Nach Morgen gibt es die folgenden Machtquellen:

• Formale Autorität
• Verfügungsgewalt über beschränkt vorhandene Ressourcen
• Organisationsstrukturen und -prozeduren
• Kontrolle über den Entscheidungsprozess
• Verfügungsgewalt über Wissen und Information
• Boundary Management
• die Fähigkeit Unsicherheit zu verarbeiten [Ability to manage uncertainty]
• Verfügungsgewalt über Technologie
• Allianzen und informale Netzwerke
• countervailing power
• Symbolism and the management of meaning
• Gender power

nach denen jeder Stakeholder auf verschiedene Art und Weise Macht in einer Organisation ausüben kann.