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Vorlage:Atheism sidebar Vorlage:Irreligion sidebar Vorlage:Status of religious freedom State atheism is the incorporation of positive atheism or non-theism into political regimes.Vorlage:Sfn It may also refer to large scale secularization attempts by governments.[1] State atheism may refer to a government's anti-clericalism, which opposes religious institutional power and influence in all aspects of public and political life, including the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen.[2][3]Vorlage:Sfn

The majority of Marxist–Leninist states followed similar policies from 1917 onwards.[2][1][4][5][6][7][8] The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1991) and the Soviet Union (1922–1991) more broadly, had a long history of state atheism, whereby those seeking social success generally had to profess atheism and to stay away from houses of worship; this trend became especially militant during the middle Stalinist era from 1929 to 1939. In Central Europe, countries like Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Bulgaria experienced strong policies.[4] So did Eastern Germany and the Czech republic.[1] The Soviet Union attempted to suppress public religious expression over wide areas of its influence, including places such as Central Asia. Either currently or in their past, China[1][5], North Korea[8], Vietnam[9], Cambodia[6] and Cuba[7], are or were officially atheist.

In contrast, a secular state purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion.[10]Vorlage:Sfn In a review of 35 European states in 1980, only 5 states were considered 'secular' in the sense of religious neutrality, 9 were considered 'atheistic', and 21 states were considered 'religious'.[11]

Communist states

A communist state, in popular usage, is a state with a form of government characterized by one-party rule or dominant-party rule of a communist party and a professed allegiance to a Leninist or Marxist–Leninist communist ideology as the guiding principle of the state.Vorlage:Cn The founder and primary theorist of Marxism, the nineteenth-century German thinker Karl Marx, had an ambivalent attitude toward religion, viewing it primarily as "the opium of the people" that had been used by the ruling classes to give the working classes false hope for millennia, whilst at the same time recognizing it as a form of protest by the working classes against their poor economic conditions.[12] In the Marxist–Leninist interpretation of Marxist theory, developed primarily by Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, religion is seen as negative to human development, and communist states that follow a Marxist–Leninist variant are atheistic and explicitly antireligious.[13] Lenin states:

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Although Marx[14] and LeninVorlage:SfnmVorlage:Cnf were both atheists, several religious communist groups exist, including Christian communists.

Julian Baggini devotes a chapter of his book Atheism: A Very Short Introduction to discussion of 20th century political systems, including communism and political repression in the Soviet Union.[15] Baggini argues that "Soviet communism, with its active oppression of religion, is a distortion of original Marxist communism, which did not advocate oppression of the religious." Baggini goes on to argue that "Fundamentalism is a danger in any belief system" and that "Atheism's most authentic political expression... takes the form of state secularism, not state atheism."[15]Vorlage:Page number needed

Soviet Union

Datei:1922 Bezbozhnik magazine cover.jpg
USSR. 1922 issue of the Bezbozhnik (The Godless) magazine. By 1934, 28% of Eastern Orthodox churches, 42% of Muslim mosques and 52% of Jewish synagogues were shut down in the USSR.[16]

State atheism, (gosateizm, a syllabic abbreviation of "state" (gosudarstvo) and "atheism" (ateizm)), was a major goal of the official Soviet ideology.[17] To that end, the regime expropriated church property, publication of information against religious beliefs and the official promotion of anti-religious materials in the education system.Vorlage:Cn

After the Russian Civil War, the state used its resources to stop the implanting of religious beliefs in nonbelievers and remove "prerevolutionary remnants" that still existed.[17] The Bolsheviks were particularly hostile toward the Russian Orthodox Church (which supported the White Movement during the Russian Civil War) and saw it as a supporter of Tsarist autocracy.[18] During a process of collectivization of land, Orthodox priests distributed pamphlets declaring that the Soviet regime was the Antichrist coming to place "the Devil's mark" on the peasants, and encouraged them to resist the government.[18] Political repression was widespread in the Soviet Union, and while religious persecution was applied to most religions,[19] the regime's anti-religious campaigns were often directed against specific religions based on state interests, that varied over time.Vorlage:Cn The attitude in the Soviet Union toward religion varied from a total ban on some religions to official support of others.Vorlage:Cn

From the late 1920s to the late 1930s, such organizations as the League of Militant Atheists ridiculed all religions and harassed believers.[20] Anti-religious and atheistic propaganda was implemented into every portion of soviet life: in schools, communist organizations such as the Young Pioneer Organization, and the media.Vorlage:Cn Though Lenin originally introduced the Gregorian calendar to the Soviets, subsequent efforts to reorganise the week to improve worker productivity saw the introduction of the Soviet calendar, which had the side-effect that a "holiday will seldom fall on Sunday".[21]

Within about a year of the revolution, the state expropriated all church property, including the churches themselves, and in the period from 1922 to 1926, 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and more than 1,200 priests were killed (a much greater number was subjected to persecution).[19] Most seminaries were closed, and publication of religious writing was banned.[19] The Russian Orthodox Church, which had 54,000 parishes before World War I, was reduced to 500 by 1940.[19] A meeting of the Antireligious Commission of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) that occurred on 23 May 1929 estimated the portion of believers in the USSR at 80 percent, though this percentage may be understated to prove the successfulness of the struggle with religion.[22]

Despite the Soviet Union's attempts to eliminate religion,[17][23][24] other former USSR and anti-religious nations, such as Armenia,[25] Kazakhstan,[26] Uzbekistan,[27] Turkmenistan,[28] Kyrgyzstan,[29] Tajikistan,[30] Belarus,[31][32] Moldova,[33] and Georgia[34] have high religious populations.[35]Vorlage:Original research inline Professor Niels Christian Nielsen of philosophy and religious thought of Rice University has written that the post-Soviet population in areas which were formerly predominantly Orthodox are now "nearly illiterate regarding religion", almost completely lacking the intellectual or philosophical aspects of their faith and having almost no knowledge of other faiths.[36]

Today in the Russian Federation, approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians, amounting to 70% of the population, although the Church claims a membership of 80 million.[37][38][39] According to the CIA Factbook, however, only 17% to 22% of the population is now Christian.[40] According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.[41] In Ukraine, 96.1% of the Ukrainian population is Christian.[42] In Lithuania, the only Catholic-majority country which was once a Soviet republic,[43] a 2005 report stated that 79% of Lithuanians belonged to the Roman Catholic Church.[44]

Albania

Marxist–Leninist authorities in Albania claimed that religion was foreign to Albania and used this to justify their policy of state atheism and suppression of religion. This nationalism was also used to justify the communist stance of state atheism from 1967 to 1991.[45] The Agrarian Reform Law of August 1945 nationalized most property of religious institutions, including the estates of mosques, monasteries, orders, and dioceses. Many clergy and believers were tried and some were executed. All foreign Roman Catholic priests, monks, and nuns were expelled in 1946.[46]

Religious communities or branches that had their headquarters outside the country, such as the Jesuit and Franciscan orders, were henceforth ordered to terminate their activities in Albania. Religious institutions were forbidden to have anything to do with the education of the young, because that had been made the exclusive province of the state. All religious communities were prohibited from owning real estate and operating philanthropic and welfare institutions and hospitals. Although there were tactical variations in Enver Hoxha's approach to each of the major denominations, his overarching objective was the eventual destruction of all organized religion in Albania. Between 1945 and 1953, the number of priests was reduced drastically and the number of Roman Catholic churches was decreased from 253 to 100, and all Catholics were stigmatized as fascists.[46]

The campaign against religion peaked in the 1960s. Beginning in February 1967 the Albanian authorities launched a campaign to eliminate religious life in Albania. Despite complaints, even by APL members, all churches, mosques, monasteries, and other religious institutions were either closed down or converted into warehouses, gymnasiums, or workshops by the end of 1967.[47] By May 1967, religious institutions had been forced to relinquish all 2,169 churches, mosques, cloisters, and shrines in Albania, many of which were converted into cultural centers for young people. As the literary monthly Nendori reported the event, the youth had thus "created the first atheist nation in the world."[46]

Clerics were publicly vilified and humiliated, their vestments were taken and desecrated. More than 200 clerics of various faiths were imprisoned, others were forced to seek work in either industry or agriculture, and some were executed or starved to death. The cloister of the Franciscan order in Shkodër was set on fire, which resulted in the death of four elderly monks.[46]

Article 37 of the Albanian Constitution of 1976 stipulated, "The state recognizes no religion, and supports atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people.",[48][2] and the penal code of 1977 imposed prison sentences of three to ten years for "religious propaganda and the production, distribution, or storage of religious literature."Vorlage:Citation needed A new decree that in effect targeted Albanians with Muslim and Christian names, stipulating that citizens whose names did not conform to "the political, ideological, or moral standards of the state" were to change them.Vorlage:Citation needed It was also decreed that towns and villages with religious names must be renamed.Vorlage:Citation needed Hoxha's brutal antireligious campaign succeeded in eradicating formal worship, but some Albanians continued to practice their faith clandestinely, risking severe punishment.Vorlage:Citation needed Individuals caught with Bibles, Qurans, icons, or other religious objects faced long prison sentences. Religious weddings were prohibited.Vorlage:Citation needed

Parents were afraid to pass on their faith, for fear that their children would tell others. Officials tried to entrap practicing Christians and Muslims during religious fasts, such as Lent and Ramadan, by distributing dairy products and other forbidden foods in school and at work, and then publicly denouncing those who refused the food. Those clergy who conducted secret services were incarcerated.[46] Catholic priest Shtjefen Kurti was executed for secretly baptizing a child in Shkodër in 1972.[49]

The article was interpreted by Danes as violating The United Nations Charter (chapter 9, article 55) which declares that religious freedom is an inalienable human right. The first time that the question came before the United Nations' Commission on Human Rights at Geneva was as late as 7 March 1983. A delegation from Denmark got its protest over Albania's violation of religious liberty placed on the agenda of the thirty-ninth meeting of the commission, item 25, reading, "Implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination based on Religion or Belief.", and on 20 July 1984 a member of the Danish Parliament inserted an article into one of Denmark's major newspapers protesting the violation of religious freedom in Albania.Vorlage:Citation needed

The 1998 Constitution of Albania defined the country as a parliamentary republic, and established personal and political rights and freedoms, including protection against coercion in matters of religious belief.[50][51] Albania is a member state of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,[50] and the 2011 census found that 58.79% of Albanians adhere to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. The majority of Albanian Muslims are secular Sunnis along with a significant Bektashi Shia minority. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the 2nd largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups.[52] In 2011, Albania's population was estimated to be 56.7% Muslim, 10% Roman Catholic, 6.8% Orthodox, 2.5% atheist, 2.1% Bektashi (a Sufi order), 5.7% other, 16.2% unspecified[53] Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of 39% of Albanians, and Albania is ranked the thirteenth least religious country in the world.[54]Vorlage:Failed verification The U.S. state department reports that in 2013, "There were no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice."[51]

Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge

Khmer Rouge bullet holes left at Angkor Wat temple

The Khmer Rouge actively persecuted Buddhists during their reign from 1975 to 1979.[55] Buddhist institutions and temples were destroyed and Buddhist monks and teachers were killed in large numbers.[56] A third of the nation's monasteries were destroyed along with numerous holy texts and items of high artistic quality. 25,000 Buddhist monks were massacred by the regime,[57] which was officially an atheist state.[6] The persecution was undertaken because Pol Pot believed that Buddhism was "a decadent affectation". He sought to eliminate Buddhism's 1,500-year-old mark on Cambodia.[57]

Religion was also banned.Vorlage:Not in citation given According to Ben Kiernan, "the Khmer Rouge repressed Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism, but its fiercest extermination campaign was directed against the ethnic Cham Muslim minority."Vorlage:Sfn

China

China has adopted a policy of official state atheism.[58][59][5] Art. 36 of the Chinese constitution guarantees freedom of religion but limits the right to practice religion to state sanctioned organisations. The government has promoted atheism throughout the country. In April 2016, the General Secretary, Xi Jinping, stated that members of the Communist Party of China must be "unyielding Marxist atheists" while in the same month, a government-sanctioned demolition work crew drove a bulldozer over two Chinese Christians who protested the demolition of their church by refusing to step aside.[60]

Traditionally, a large segment of the Chinese population took part in Chinese folk religions[61] and Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism had played a significant role in the everyday lives of ordinary people.[62][63][64] After the 1949 Chinese Revolution, China began a period of rule by the Communist Party of China.[65][66] For much of its early history, that government maintained under Marxist thought that religion would ultimately disappear, and characterized it as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism.Vorlage:Citation needed

During the Cultural Revolution, student vigilantes known as Red Guards converted religious buildings for secular use or destroyed them. This attitude, however, relaxed considerably in the late 1970s, with the reform and opening up period. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guaranteed freedom of religion with a number of restrictions. Since then, there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples that were destroyed in the Cultural Revolution.Vorlage:Citation needed

The Communist Party has said that religious belief and membership are incompatible.[67] However, the state is not allowed to force ordinary citizens to become atheists.[68] China's five officially sanctioned religious organizations are the Buddhist Association of China, Chinese Taoist Association, Islamic Association of China, Three-Self Patriotic Movement and Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association. These groups are afforded a degree of protection, but are subject to restrictions and controls under the State Administration for Religious Affairs. Unregistered religious groups face varying degrees of harassment.[69] The constitution permits what is called "normal religious activities," so long as they do not involve the use of religion to "engage in activities that disrupt social order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious organizations and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign dominance."[68]

Article 36 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China of 1982 specifies that:

Vorlage:Blockquote

Most people report no organized religious affiliation; however, people with a belief in folk traditions and spiritual beliefs, such as ancestor veneration and feng shui, along with informal ties to local temples and unofficial house churches number in the hundreds of millions. The United States Department of State, in its annual report on International Religious Freedom,[70] provides statistics about organized religions. In 2007 it reported the following (citing the Government's 1997 report on Religious Freedom and 2005 White Paper on religion):[71]

  • Buddhists 8%.
  • Taoists, unknown as a percentage partly because it is fused along with Confucianism and Buddhism.
  • Muslims, 1%, with more than 20,000 Imams. Other estimates state at least 1%.
  • Christians, Protestants at least 2%. Catholics, about 1%.

Statistics relating to Buddhism and religious Taoism are to some degree incomparable with statistics for Islam and Christianity. This is due to the traditional Chinese belief system which blends Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, so that a person who follows a traditional belief system would not necessarily identify him- or herself as exclusively Buddhist or Taoist, despite attending Buddhist or Taoist places of worship. According to Peter Ng, Professor of the Department of Religion at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Vorlage:As of, 95% of Chinese were religious in some way if religion is considered to include traditional folk practices such as burning incense for gods or ancestors at life-cycle or seasonal festivals, fortune telling and related customary practices.[72][73]

The U.S. State Department has designated China as a "country of particular concern" since 1999,[74][75] in part, due to the scenario of Uighur Muslims and Tibetan Buddhists. Freedom House classifies Tibet and Xinjiang as regions of particular repression of religion, due to concerns of separatist activity.[76][77][78][79][80] Heiner Bielefeldt, the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief says that China's actions against the Uighurs are "a major problem".[81] The Chinese government has protested the report, saying the country has "ample" religious freedom.[82]

Cuba

Until 1992,[83] Cuba was officially an atheist state.[7][84]

In August 1960, several bishops signed a joint pastoral letter condemning communism and declaring it incompatible with Catholicism, and calling on Catholics to reject it.[85] Fidel Castro gave a four-hour long speech the next day, condemning priests who serve "great wealth" and using fears of Falangist influence in order to attack Spanish born priests, declaring "There is no doubt that Franco has a sizeable group of fascist priests in Cuba."Vorlage:Citation needed

Originally more tolerant of religion, the Cuban government began arresting many believers and shutting down religious schools after the Bay of Pigs invasion. Its prisons were being filled with clergy since the 1960s.[86] In 1961 The Cuban government confiscated Catholic schools, including the Jesuit school that Fidel Castro had attended. In 1965 it exiled two hundred priests.[87]

In 1976 the Constitution of Cuba added a clause stating that the "socialist state...bases its activity on, and educates the people in, the scientific materialist concept of the universe".Vorlage:Citation needed In 1992, the Dissolution of the Soviet Union led the country to declare itself a secular state,[88][89] and Catholic groups have worked to advance the Cuban thaw.Vorlage:Citation needed In January 1998, Pope John Paul II paid a historic visit to the island, invited by the Cuban government and the Catholic Church in Cuba.Vorlage:Citation needed The pope criticized the US embargo during his visit.[90] Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba in 2012 and Pope Francis visited Cuba in 2015.[91][92][93][94] The Cuban government continued hostile actions against religious groups; in 2015 alone, the Castro régime ordered the closure or demolition of over 100 Pentecostal, Methodist, and Baptist parishes.[95]

East Germany

Though Article 39 of the GDR constitution of 1968 guarantees religious freedom, state policy was oriented towards the promotion of atheism.[96] Eastern Germany practiced heavy secularization. [1] The German Democratic Republic (GDR) generated antireligous regulations and promoted atheism for decades which impacted the growth of citizens affiliating with no religion from 7.6% in 1950 to 60% in 1986.[97] It was in the 1950s that scientific atheism became official state policy[98] when Soviet authorities were setting up a communist government. Vorlage:As of the area of the former German Democratic Republic was the least religious region in the world.[99][100][101][102]

North Korea

Although the North Korean constitution states that freedom of religion is permitted,[103] free religious activities do not exist in North Korea, because the government sponsors religious groups only to create an illusion of religious freedom.[104][105][106] The North Korean government's Juche ideology has been described as "state-sanctioned atheism".[8] After 1,500 churches were destroyed during the rule of Kim Il Sung from 1948 to 1994, three churches were built in Pyongyang to deflect human rights criticism.[104]

The North Korean government promotes the cult of personality of Kim Jong-il and Kim Il-sung, described as a political religion, as well as the Juche ideology, based on Korean ultranationalism, which calls on people to "avoid spiritual deference to outside influences", which was interpreted as including religion originating outside of Korea.[107][68]

North Korea has been designated a "country of particular concern" by the U.S. State Department since 2001 due to its religious freedom violations.[108][109] Cardinal Nicolas Cheong Jin-suk has said that, "There's no knowledge of priests surviving persecution that came in the late forties, when 166 priests and religious were killed or kidnapped," which includes the Roman Catholic bishop of Pyongyang, Francis Hong Yong-ho.[110] In November 2013, the repression against religious people led to the public execution of 80 people, some of them for possessing Bibles.[107][108][111]

Mongolia

In the Mongolian People's Republic, after the invasion by Japanese troops of 1936, the Soviet Union deployed its troops in 1937, undertaking an offensive against the Buddhist religion. In parallel, a Soviet-style purge campaign was launched in the Communist Party and the Mongolian army. The Mongol leader at that time was Khorloogiin Choibalsan, follower of Joseph Stalin, who emulated many of the policies that Stalin developed in the Soviet Union. The purges succeeded in virtually eliminating Lamaism and cost an estimated thirty to thirty-five thousand lives.Vorlage:Citation needed

Vietnam

Officially, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is an atheist state as declared by its communist government.Vorlage:Sfn Art. 24 of the constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam recognizes religious freedom.[112]

Non-Communist states

Revolutionary Mexico

Vorlage:See also

Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as originally enacted were anticlerical and restricted religious freedoms.[113] At first the anticlerical provisions were seldom enforced, but when President Plutarco Elías Calles took office in 1924, he enforced the provisions strictly.[113] Calles' Mexico has been characterized as an atheist state[114] and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico.[115]

All religions had their properties expropriated, and these became part of government wealth. There was an expulsion of foreign clergy and the seizure of Church properties.[116] Article 27 prohibited any future acquisition of such property by the churches, and prohibited religious corporations and ministers from establishing or directing primary schools.[116] This second prohibition was sometimes interpreted to mean that the Church could not give religious instruction to children within the churches on Sundays, seen as destroying the ability of Catholics to be educated in their own religion.[117]

The Constitution of 1917 also forbade the existence of monastic orders (article 5) and any religious activity outside of church buildings (now owned by the government), and mandated that such religious activity would be overseen by the government (article 24).[116]

On June 14, 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the Calles Law.[118] His anti-Catholic actions included outlawing religious orders, depriving the Church of property rights and depriving the clergy of civil liberties, including their right to a trial by jury (in cases involving anti-clerical laws) and the right to vote.[118][119] Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vocal atheism.[120] He was also a Freemason.[121] Regarding this period, recent President Vicente Fox stated, "After 1917, Mexico was led by anti-Catholic Freemasons who tried to evoke the anticlerical spirit of popular indigenous President Benito Juárez of the 1880s. But the military dictators of the 1920s were a more savage lot than Juarez."[122]

Cristeros hanged in Jalisco.

Due to the strict enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic states, especially Jalisco, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Colima and Michoacán, began to oppose him, and this opposition led to the Cristero War from 1926 to 1929, which was characterized by brutal atrocities on both sides. Some Cristeros applied terrorist tactics, while the Mexican government persecuted the clergy, killing suspected Cristeros and supporters and often retaliating against innocent individuals.[123] On May 28, 1926, Calles was awarded a medal of merit from the head of Mexico's Scottish rite of Freemasonry for his actions against the Catholics.[124]

A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow.[125] Calles, however, did not abide by the terms of the truce – in violation of its terms, he had approximately 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros shot, frequently in their homes in front of their spouses and children.[125] Particularly offensive to Catholics after the supposed truce was Calles' insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, suppressing all Catholic education and introducing "socialist" education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth.".[126] The persecution continued as Calles maintained control under his Maximato and did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a believing Catholic, took office.[126] This attempt to indoctrinate the youth in atheism was begun in 1934 by amending Article 3 to the Mexican Constitution to eradicate religion by mandating "socialist education", which "in addition to removing all religious doctrine" would "combat fanaticism and prejudices", "build[ing] in the youth a rational and exact concept of the universe and of social life".[113] In 1946 this "socialist education" was removed from the constitution and the document returned to the less egregious generalized secular education. The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed.[126] Where there were 4,500 priests operating within the country before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, and assassination.[126][127] By 1935, 17 states had no priest at all.[128]

Human rights

Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is designed to protect the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. In 1993, the UN's human rights committee declared that article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights "protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief."[129] The committee further stated that "the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views." Signatories to the convention are barred from "the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers" to recant their beliefs or convert.[107] Despite this, Vorlage:As of minority religions were still being persecuted in many parts of the world.[130][131]

Theodore Roosevelt condemned the Kishinev pogrom in 1903, establishing a history of U.S. presidents commenting on the internal religious liberty of foreign countries.[132] In Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 State of the Union address, he outlined Four Freedoms, including Freedom of worship, that would be foundation for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and future U.S. diplomatic efforts.[132] Jimmy Carter asked Deng Xiaoping to improve religious freedom in China, and Ronald Reagan told US Embassy staff in Moscow to help Jews harassed by the Soviet authorities.[132][133] Bill Clinton established the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom with the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998, in order to use diplomacy to promote religious liberty in repressive states.[134]

See also

Vorlage:Columns-list

Notes

Vorlage:Reflist

References

Vorlage:Religion and politics Vorlage:Religious persecution Vorlage:Irreligion Vorlage:Belief systems Vorlage:Portal bar

  1. ↑ a b c d e Frank Pasquale, Barry Kosman: Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-874507-5, 29. Atheism and the Secularization Thesis, S. 461–462: „As we look elsewhere around the world, the dynamics of secularization and religionization are even more complex. The largest-scale experiments in secularization — state atheisms — have had mixed outcomes. In the former Soviet Union, as in China, Communist 'scientific: 'militant', or 'practical' atheism has unquestionably had some secularizing effect overall. But the story—or history—does not end there. As the former Soviet countries illustrate, long-term effects of the experiment are uneven. It took hold more profoundly in, for example, eastern Germany or the Czech Republic than in Poland. Armenia, Lithuania, Azerbaijan, or Uzbekistan, among others (Froese 2004; see Irena Borowik, Branko Ana& and Radoslaw Tyrala's 'Central and Eastern Europe).“
  2. ↑ a b c Jeroen Temperman: State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law : Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill Academic/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9, S. 140–141: „Before the end of the Cold War, many Communist States did not shy away from being openly hostile to religion. In most instances, communist ideology translated unperturbedly into state atheism, which, in turn, triggered measures aimed at the eradication of religion. As much was acknowledged by some Communist Constitutions. The 1976 Constitution of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, for instance, was firmly based on a Marxist dismissal of religion as the opiate of the masses. It provided: "The state recognizes no religion of any kind and supports and develops the atheist view so as to ingrain in to the people the scientific and materialistic world-view."“
  3. ↑ Leni Franken, Patrick Loobuyck: Religious Education in a Plural, Secularised Society. A Paradigm Shift. Waxmann Verlag, 2011, ISBN 978-3-8309-7543-4, S. 152 (englisch): “In this model, atheism is a state doctrine. Instead, it is regarded as an official state policy, aiming to eradicate all sympathy for religious ideas, and the idea that God exists in particular. The adherents of political atheism make a plea for an atheist state that has to foster atheist convictions in its citizenry.”
  4. ↑ a b Irena Borowik, Branko Ancic, Radoslaw Tyrala: Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-874507-5, 39.Central And Eastern Europe, S. 626: „There have been only a few comparative analyses of atheism carried out in the CEE region. One of the few attempts of this kind is that undertaken by Sinita Zrinkak (see 2004). Comparing different types of generational responses to atheism in several CEE countries, on the basis of studies carried out in these countries and based on data from the EVS, he distinguishes three groups of countries in the region. The first group comprises countries in which state atheism had the most severe consequences... This group includes such countries as Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Bulgaria.“
  5. ↑ a b c Jack David Eller: Introducing Anthropology of Religion: Culture to the Ultimate. Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-1-138-02491-5, S. 254: „After the communist revolution of 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted a policy of official state atheism. Based on Marxist thinking that religion is class exploitation and false consciousness, the communist regime suppressed religion, "re-educated" believers and religious leaders, and destroyed religious buildings or converted them to non-religious uses.“
  6. ↑ a b c Catherine Wessinger: Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases. Syracuse University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-8156-2809-5, S. 282 (englisch): “Democratic Kampuchea was officially an atheist state, and the persecution of religion by the Khmer Rouge was matched in severity only by the persecution of religion in the communist states of Albania and North Korea, so there were not any direct historical continuities of Buddhism into the Democratic Kampuchea era.”
  7. ↑ a b c Freeing God's Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights. Rowman & Littlefield: „Cuba is the only country in the Americas that has attempted to impose state atheism, and since the 1960s onward its jails have been filled with pastors and other believers.“
  8. ↑ a b c Hertzke (2006):44
  9. ↑ Referenzfehler: Ungültiges <ref>-Tag; kein Text angegeben für Einzelnachweis mit dem Namen Guides2015.
  10. ↑ Jeroen Temperman: State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law : Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill Academic/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9, S. 140: „Although the historical underlying incentives that accompanied the establishment of a secular state may have been characterized by criticism of certain religious doctrines or practices, presently a state of secularity in itself does not necessarily reflect value judgements about religion. In other words, state secularism does not come down to an official rejection of religion. State secularism denotes an intention on the part of the state to not affiliate itself with religion, to not consider itself a priori bound by religious principles (unless they are reformulated into secular state laws) and to not seek to justify its actions by invoking religion. Such a state of secularity denotes official impartiality in matters of religion rather than official irreligiosity. By contrast, secularism as a philosophical notion can indeed be construed as an ideological defense of the secular cause, which might include criticism of or scepticism towards religion. Thus, states that are 'ideologically secular' and that declare secular world-views the official state doctrine give evidence, explicitly or by implication, of judgements about the value of religion within society. Most versions of state communism, for instance, embrace Marxist criticism of religion.“
  11. ↑ John Madeley: European Liberal Democracy and the Principle of State Religious Neutrality. In: West European Politics. 26. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, Januar 2003, S. 1–22, doi:10.1080/01402380412331300177: „As Table 2 indicates along its horizontal dimension, according to the attributions based on these criteria, in 1980, out of 35 European territories listed, only five could be coded as secular in the sense that the ‘State is secular, promoting neither religion nor irreligion’ and nine were deemed Atheistic. On the other hand, 21 states or governments were found to be committed in one way or another to the support of religion and/or religious institutions.“
  12. ↑ Raines, John. 2002. "Introduction". Marx on Religion (Marx, Karl). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Page 05-06.
  13. ↑ V. I. Lenin: About the attitude of the working party toward the religion. In: Collected works, v. 17, p.41. Abgerufen am 9. September 2006.
  14. ↑ Vorlage:HarvnbVorlage:Cnf; Vorlage:HarvnbVorlage:Cnf; Vorlage:HarvnbVorlage:Cnf.
  15. ↑ a b Julian Baggini: Atheism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford, 2003, ISBN 978-0-19-280424-2, S. 82–90 (google.com).
  16. ↑ Religions attacked in the USSR. Archiviert vom Original am 23. Oktober 2007; abgerufen am 22. Juli 2005. (Beyond the Pale)
  17. ↑ a b c David Kowalewski: Protest for Religious Rights in the USSR: Characteristics and Consequences. In: Russian Review. 39. Jahrgang, Nr. 4. Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Editors and Board of Trustees of the Russian Review, 1980, ISSN 0036-0341, S. 426–441, doi:10.2307/128810, JSTOR:128810.
  18. ↑ a b Sheila Fitzpatrick: Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization. Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-19-510459-2, S. 33 (google.com).
  19. ↑ a b c d Country Studies: Russia-The Russian Orthodox Church U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed Apr. 3, 2008
  20. ↑ Richard Overy (2006), The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, p. 271 Vorlage:ISBN
  21. ↑ Staggerers Unstaggered, Time magazine, December 7, 1931. Abgerufen am 2. Oktober 2007 
  22. ↑ Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer: Religion and Politics in Russia: A Reader. M.E. Sharpe, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7656-2415-4, 6–7 (google.com).
  23. ↑ Sabrina Petra Ramet, Ed., Religious Policy in the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press (1993). P 4
  24. ↑ John Anderson, Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet Union and Successor States, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp 3
  25. ↑ The Armenian Apostolic Church (World Council of Churches).
  26. ↑ International Religious Freedom Report 2009 – Kazakhstan U.S. Department of State. 2009-10-26. Retrieved on 2009-11-05.
  27. ↑ Uzbekistan. State.gov, 16. Oktober 2009, abgerufen am 2. Mai 2010.
  28. ↑ The World Factbook. In: cia.gov.
  29. ↑ Kyrgyzstan. State.gov, abgerufen am 17. April 2010.
  30. ↑ Background Note: Tajikistan. State.gov, abgerufen am 2. Oktober 2009.
  31. ↑ Belarus Religion Stats: NationMaster.com. In: nationmaster.com.
  32. ↑ The World Factbook. In: cia.gov.
  33. ↑ Moldova Religion Stats. In: nationmaster.com.
  34. ↑ Georgia Religion Stats. In: nationmaster.com.
  35. ↑ Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population. Pew Research Center, Oktober 2009, archiviert vom Original am 10. Oktober 2009; abgerufen am 8. Oktober 2009.
  36. ↑ Nielsen, Niels Christian, Jr., Christianity After Communism, p. 77-78, Westview Press 1998
  37. ↑ Jeremy Page: The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church In: The Times, 5. August 2005. Abgerufen am 24. Mai 2010 
  38. ↑ Russia. In: U.S. Department of State.
  39. ↑ Russia. Abgerufen am 8. April 2008.
  40. ↑ Cole, Ethan Gorbachev Dispels 'Closet Christian' Rumors; Says He is Atheist Christian Post, Mar. 24, 2008
  41. ↑ ? (Originaltitel: ru:Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше). religare.ru, 6. Juni 2007, abgerufen am 27. Dezember 2007 (russisch).
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  43. ↑ Brad Olsen: Sacred Places Europe: 108 Destinations. CCC Publishing, 2007, ISBN 978-1-888729-12-2, S. 148 (google.com).
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  45. ↑ Representations of Place: Albania, Derek R. Hall, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 165, No. 2, The Changing Meaning of Place in Post-Socialist Eastern Europe: Commodification, Perception and Environment (Jul., 1999), pp. 161–172, Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) "the perception that religion symbolized foreign (Italian, Greek and Turkish) predation was used to justify the communists' stance of state atheism (1967-1991)."
  46. ↑ a b c d e Albania - Hoxha's Antireligious Campaign. In: country-data.com.
  47. ↑ Albania - The Cultural and Ideological Revolution. In: country-data.com.
  48. ↑ C. Education, Science, Culture, The Albanian Constitution of 1976.
  49. ↑ Sinishta, G., 1976. The Fulfilled Promise: A Documentary Account of Religious Persecution in Albania. Albanian Catholic Information Center, Santa Clara.
  50. ↑ a b The Religion-State Relationship and the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Comparative Textual Analysis of the Constitutions of Majority Muslim Countries and Other OIC Members. U.S. COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, 2012;.
  51. ↑ a b ALBANIA 2013 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT. U.S. Department of State;
  52. ↑ Archived copy. Archiviert vom Original am 26. März 2017; abgerufen am 26. März 2017.
  53. ↑ The World Factbook: Albania. Central Intelligence Agency, abgerufen am 21. Juni 2013.
  54. ↑ Gallup Global Reports. Gallup.com, abgerufen am 25. März 2013.
  55. ↑ Chronology, 1994-2004 - Cambodian Genocide Program - Yale University. Abgerufen am 8. August 2015.
  56. ↑ Nie: Remembering the deaths of 1.7-million Cambodians. Sptimes.com, abgerufen am 27. September 2015.
  57. ↑ a b Philip Shenon, Phnom Penh Journal; Lord Buddha Returns, With Artists His Soldiers New York Times - January 2, 1992
  58. ↑ Gerda Wielander: Christian Values in Communist China. Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-1-317-97604-2, S. 1 (englisch).
  59. ↑ China announces "civilizing" atheism drive in Tibet. BBC, 1999, abgerufen am 3. September 2017 (englisch).
  60. ↑ Charlie Campbell: China's Leader Xi Jinping Reminds Party Members to Be 'Unyielding Marxist Atheists'. Time, 25. April 2016, abgerufen am 3. September 2017.
  61. ↑ Ping Xiong, Freedom of Religion in China Under the Current Legal Framework and Foreign Religious Bodies, 2013 BYU L. Rev. 605 (2014) Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2013/iss3/9
  62. ↑ Arvind Sharma: Problematizing Religious Freedom. Springer Science & Business Media, 2011, ISBN 978-90-481-8993-9, S. 201 (google.com).
  63. ↑ Kenneth Chen: Chinese Communist Attitudes Towards Buddhism in Chinese History. In: The China Quarterly. 22. Jahrgang, 1965, ISSN 0305-7410, S. 14, doi:10.1017/S0305741000048682: „In the journal Hsien-tai Fo-hsueh (Modern Buddhism), September 1959, there appeared a long article entitled "Lun Tsung-chiao Hsin-yang Tzu-yu" ("A Discussion Concerning Freedom of Religious Belief"), by Ya Han-chang, which was originally published in the official Communist ideological journal Hung Ch'i (Red Flag), 1959, No. 14. Appearing as it did in Red Flag it is justifiable to conclude that the views expressed in it represented the accepted Communist attitude toward religion. In this article, Ya wrote that the basic policy of the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China is to "recognise that everyone has the freedom to believe in a religion, and also that everyone has the freedom not to believe in a religion."“
  64. ↑ The Practice of Chinese Buddhism, 1900–1950 – Page 393
  65. ↑ Xie, Zhibin, Religious diversity and public religion in China, p.145, Ashgate Publishing 2006
  66. ↑ Tyler, Christian Wild West China, p. 259, Rutgers Univ. Press 2004
  67. ↑ Referenzfehler: Ungültiges <ref>-Tag; kein Text angegeben für Einzelnachweis mit dem Namen deccanherald_212827.
  68. ↑ a b c Referenzfehler: Ungültiges <ref>-Tag; kein Text angegeben für Einzelnachweis mit dem Namen Temperman.
  69. ↑ White Paper—Freedom of Religious Belief in China. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America, Oktober 1997, abgerufen am 5. September 2007.
  70. ↑ Annual Report to Congress on International Religious Freedom. U.S. Department of State, abgerufen am 2. Oktober 2007.
  71. ↑ International Religious Freedom Report 2007 — China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau). U.S. Department of State, 2007, abgerufen am 2. Oktober 2007.
  72. ↑ Richard Madsen: Chinese society: change, conflict and resistance. Hrsg.: Elizabeth J. Perry, Mark Selden. Routledge, 2010, ISBN 978-0-415-56073-3, Chapter 10. Chinese Christianity: Indigenization and conflict, S. 239.
  73. ↑ Peter Tze Ming Ng, "Religious Situations in China Today: Secularization Theory Revisited" Paper presented at the Association for the Sociology of Religion Meetings, Chicago, August 14–16, 2002.
  74. ↑ China - USCIRF Annual Report 2015. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom;
  75. ↑ Katrina Swett: 7. Dezember 2012;: „The religious freedom situation in Russia is deteriorating and China remains one of the world's most egregious violators of this fundamental right“
  76. ↑ China - Country report - Freedom in the World - 2013.
  77. ↑ Minority Rights Group International, Religious Minorities and China, November 2001, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/469cbf8e0.html [accessed 5 October 2015]
  78. ↑ United States Department of State, 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom - China, 28 July 2014, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/53d907958e.html [accessed 5 October 2015]
  79. ↑ United States Department of State, 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom - China: Macau, 28 July 2014, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/53d907945.html [accessed 5 October 2015]
  80. ↑ Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, China: Freedom of religious practice and belief in Fujian province, 8 October 1999, CHN33002.EX, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad442c.html [accessed 5 October 2015]
  81. ↑ Sui-Lee Wee: U.N. official calls China's crackdown on Uighurs "disturbing".
  82. ↑ China lodges protest with U.S. after religious freedom report. In: Reuters. 4. Mai 2015;.
  83. ↑ Michelle Gonzalez Maldonado: Religion shapes Cuba despite Castro's influence. The Conversation, 1. Dezember 2016, abgerufen am 5. September 2017 (englisch): „Under Castro's rule, Cuba was for decades a self-declared atheist state where Christians were persecuted and marginalized. ... In 1992 the Cuban Constitution was amended to declare it a secular state. It was no longer an atheist Republic.“
  84. ↑ The State of Religion Atlas. Simon & Schuster: „Atheism continues to be the official position of the governments of China, North Korea and Cuba.“
  85. ↑ Jay Mallin: Covering Castro: Rise and Decline of Cuba's Communist Dictator. Transaction Publishers, 1994, ISBN 978-1-4128-2053-0 (google.com).
  86. ↑ Hertzke (2006):43
  87. ↑ William F. Buckley Jr., Cuba libre? web.archive.org Fehler bei Vorlage * Parametername unbekannt (Vorlage:Webarchiv): "date"Vorlage:Webarchiv/Wartung/Parameter Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: Genau einer der Parameter 'wayback', 'webciteID', 'archive-today', 'archive-is' oder 'archiv-url' muss angegeben werden.Vorlage:Webarchiv/Wartung/Linktext_fehltVorlage:Webarchiv/Wartung/URL Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: enWP-Wert im Parameter 'url'., November 21, 2005, National review.
  88. ↑ CUBA - Status of Government Respect for Religious Freedom. In: International Religious Freedom Report for 2011. United States Department of State - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor;
  89. ↑ Constitution of Cuba, Article 8: Freedom of Religion and Separation of Church and State. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs;
  90. ↑ How Pope John Paul II Paved The Way For The U.S.-Cuba Thaw. In: The Huffington Post.
  91. ↑ Nick Miroff: Pope Francis arrives in Havana, praising U.S.-Cuba thaw. In: Washington Post. 19. September 2015;.
  92. ↑ Rosie Scammell: Castro thanks Pope Francis for brokering thaw between Cuba and US. In: the Guardian.
  93. ↑ Pope Francis Is Credited With a Crucial Role in U.S.-Cuba Agreement. In: The New York Times. 18. Dezember 2014;.
  94. ↑ Los Angeles Times: Pope Francis' role in Cuba stretches back years. In: latimes.com. 18. Dezember 2014;.
  95. ↑ Doug Bandow: The Castros Continue to Shut Churches in Cuba. Newsweek, 1. Februar 2016, abgerufen am 5. September 2017 (englisch).
  96. ↑ Compare: Deseret News National "During the decades of state-sponsored atheism in East Germany, more formally known as the German Democratic Republic, the great emphasis was on avoiding religion."
  97. ↑ PAUL FROESE, STEVEN PFAFF: Explaining a Religious Anomaly: A Historical Analysis of Secularization in Eastern Germany. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 44. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, Dezember 2005, S. 397–422, doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00294.x: „No religion could benefit substantially from the conditions that obtained in the GDR. Antireligious regulations and the official promotion of an exclusive, socialist-inspired atheism devastated religion. The percentage of those without any religious affiliation grew from 7.6 percent of the population in 1950 to more than 60 percent in 1986....Clearly, communist antipathy toward religion and the repression of religious organizations must have played a role in the rapid and dramatic abandonment of religion. But what contribution did atheism make to this development? In the GDR the weakening of the churches and their accommodation to communism was influential, but apparently so was the success of scientific atheism as a competitor to religion.“
  98. ↑ PAUL FROESE, STEVEN PFAFF: Explaining a Religious Anomaly: A Historical Analysis of Secularization in Eastern Germany. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 44. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, Dezember 2005, S. 397–422, doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00294.x: „In the late 1950s, the regime announced that scientific atheism had become official policy and any of the approximately 1.5 million party members that remained church members were compelled to renounce religion (Maser 1999).“
  99. ↑ Ostdeutschland: Wo der Atheist zu Hause ist. Focus, 2012, abgerufen am 11. November 2017: „52 Prozent der Menschen in Ostdeutschland sind laut einer aktuellen Studie Atheisten. Das ist ein globaler Spitzenwert.“
  100. ↑ WHY EASTERN GERMANY IS THE MOST GODLESS PLACE ON EARTH. Die Welt, 2012, archiviert vom Original am 26. August 2012; abgerufen am 24. Mai 2009.
  101. ↑ East Germany the "most atheistic" of any region. Dialog International, 2012, abgerufen am 24. Mai 2009.
  102. ↑ Christine R. Barker: Church and State: Lessons from Germany? In: The Political Quarterly. 75. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, April 2004, S. 168–176, doi:10.1111/j.1467-923X.2004.00599.x: „The effects of living in an atheist state continue to be seen in younger generations of East Germans..“
  103. ↑ DPRK's Socialist Constitution (Full Text)
  104. ↑ a b Countries of Particular Concern: Democratic People's Republic of Korea. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom;
  105. ↑ Human Rights in North Korea (DPRK: The Democratic People's Republic of Korea). Human Rights Watch, 7. Juli 2004, archiviert vom Original am 1. August 2004;.
  106. ↑ The World Factbook. In: cia.gov.
  107. ↑ a b c THANK YOU FATHER KIM IL SUNG. U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, November 2005;.
  108. ↑ a b The Democratic People's Republic of Korea - USCIRF Annual Report. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2010;.
  109. ↑ North Korea Must be Held Accountable for its Abysmal Human Rights Record.
  110. ↑ 30Giorni - Korea, for a reconciliation between North and South (Interview with Cardinal Nicholas Cheong Jinsuk by Gianni Cardinale). In: 30giorni.it. Archiviert vom Original am 23. Oktober 2007;.
  111. ↑ Fox News, November 11, 2013. "North Korea publicly executes 80, some for videos or Bibles, report says"
  112. ↑ The constitution of the socialist republic of Viet Nam. In: vietnamnews.vn. Abgerufen am 1. Mai 2019 (englisch).
  113. ↑ a b c Soberanes Fernandez, Jose Luis, Mexico and the 1981 United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, pp. 437-438 nn. 7-8, BYU Law Review, June 2002
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  115. ↑ Cronon, E. David "American Catholics and Mexican Anticlericalism, 1933-1936", pp. 205-208, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLV, Sept. 1948
  116. ↑ a b c Archived copy. Archiviert vom Original am 3. März 2007; abgerufen am 3. März 2007.
  117. ↑ THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MARTIN-DEL-CAMPOs Part II. myheritage.es;
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  129. ↑ CCPR General Comment 22: 30/07/93 on ICCPR Article 18. In: Minorityrights.org. Archiviert vom Original am 16. Januar 2015;.
  130. ↑ International Federation for Human Rights: Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran. fdih.org, 1. August 2003, abgerufen am 3. März 2009.
  131. ↑ Derek H. Davis: The Evolution of Religious Liberty as a Universal Human Right. 6. Juni 2002, archiviert vom Original am 27. März 2009; abgerufen am 3. März 2009.
  132. ↑ a b c Responding to Religious Freedom and Presidential Leadership: A Historical Approach. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs;
  133. ↑ Mission to Russia - A Rabbi Eulogizes President Reagan.
  134. ↑ Allen Hertzke: Responding to Religious Freedom and Presidential Leadership: A Historical Approach. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs, 17. Februar 2015;.
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