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Unabhängigkeitsreferendum in Kroatien 1991

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Vorlage:Politics of Croatia An independence referendum was held in Croatia on 19 May 1991, following the Croatian parliamentary elections of 1990 and rise of ethnic tensions that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia. The result of the referendum was 93.24% in favor of independence, with 83.56% turnout. Croatia declared independence and dissolution of its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991, but it also introduced a a three-month moratorium on the decision when urged to do so by the European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe through the Brioni Agreement. The war in Croatia escalated during the moratorium, and on 8 October 1991, the Parliament of Croatia severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia.

The Badinter Arbitration Committee was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community (EEC), to provide the Conference on Yugoslavia with legal advice on compliance of former Yugoslav republics, with criteria for diplomatic recognition. The committee rendered ten opinions and concluded, that Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics may not be altered unless freely agreed upon. Germany advocated quick recognition of Croatia in order to stop violence, opposed by France, United Kingdom and the Netherlands however the countries agreed to avoid unilateral actions, preferring a common policy. On 10 October, the EEC decided to postpone any decision to recognize Croatia for two months, but on 17 December, the EEC formally agreed to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition on 15 January 1992 on the basis of its request and a positive opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Commission. Croatia was recognized as an independent state by Slovenia in June, followed by Lithuania in July, and Ukraine, Latvia, Iceland and Germany in December 1991. On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community members, and in May 1992, by the United Nations.

Background

After the World War II, Croatia became a single-party Socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia, ruled by the Communists, but enjoying a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding greater autonomy for Croatian language.[1] The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, suppressed by Yugoslav leadership.[2] Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring, and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.[3]

In the 1980s the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro.[4][5] In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation.[6] In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, with Franjo Tuđman's win raising nationalist tensions further.[7] Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK),[8] intent on achieving independence from Croatia.[9][10]

Referendum and declaration of independence

Map showing Croatia with arrows indicating the movement of JNA units from Serbia and northern Bosnia into eastern Croatia, from western Bosnia into central Croatia, from Knin into northern Dalmatia and from Bosnia and Montenegro into southern Dalmatia.
The Yugoslav Army strategic offensive plan in Croatia, 1991.

On 25 April 1991, the Parliament of Croatia decided to hold the independence referendum on 19 May. The decision was published in the official gazette of the Republic of Croatia and made official on 2 May 1991.[11] The referendum questions offered options of Croatia becoming a sovereign and independent state guaranteeing cultural autonomy and all civil rights to Serbs and other national minorities in Croatia, which may form an association of sovereign states with other former Yugoslav republics, and Croatia remaining in Yugoslavia as a unified federal state.[11][12] Serb local authorities issued calls for a boycott, which were largely followed by Croatian Serbs.[13] The referendum was held at 7,691 polling stations and voters were given two ballots—blue and red, with a single referendum question each, allowing use of either of the ballots or both of them. The referendum question proposing independence, presented on the blue ballot, passed with 93.24% in favor, 4.15% against, and 1.18% of invalid or blank votes. The second referendum question proposing that Croatia should remain in Yugoslavia was declined with 5.38% votes in favor, 92.18% against and 2.07% of invalid votes. The turnout was 83.56%.[14]

Croatia declared independence and dissolved (Vorlage:Lang-hr) its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991.[15][16] The European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three-month moratorium on the decision.[17] Croatia agreed to freeze its independence declaration for three months, initially easing tensions.[18] Nonetheless, the Croatian War of Independence escalated further.[19] On 7 October, the eve of expiration of the moratorium, the Yugoslav Air Force attacked Banski dvori, the main government building in Zagreb, an incident referred to as the bombing of Banski dvori.[20][21] On 8 October 1991, the three-month moratorium on implementation of the declaration of independence expired, the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia. That particular session of the parliament was held in INA building in Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb because of security concerns provoked by the air raid of the previous day.[22] October 8 is now celebrated as Croatia's Independence Day.[23]

Choice Votes %
For independence 2,845,521 93.24
Against independence 126,630 4.15
Invalid votes 36,055 1.18
Total 3,051,881
Source: State Election Committee[14]
93.24%
4.15%
For
Against

Aftermath

Flag of Croatia flown in front of the Council of Europe building in Strasbourg

The Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on the former Yugoslavia, also referred to as Badinter Arbitration Committee, was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community (EEC) on 27 August 1991, to provide the Conference on Yugoslavia with legal advice on compliance of former Yugoslav republics, including Croatia, with criteria for their recognition.[24] The five-member Commission consisted of presidents of Constitutional Courts in the EEC. Starting in late November 1991, the committee rendered ten opinions. The Commission stated, among other things, that SFR Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics may not be altered unless freely agreed upon.[25] Factors in Croatia's preservation of its pre-war borders were the Yugoslav Federal Constitution Amendments of 1971, and the Yugoslav Federal Constitution of 1974. The 1971 amendments introduced a concept that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units, and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution. The 1974 constitution confirmed and strengthened the principles introduced in 1971.[26][3] The borders had been defined by demarcation commissions in 1947, pursuant to decisions of AVNOJ in 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organization of Yugoslavia.[27]

Robert Badinter presided over the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on the former Yugoslavia

Germany advocated quick recognition of Croatia in order to stop violence, Helmut Kohl requesting the recognition in the Bundestag on 4 September. Germany was opposed by France, United Kingdom and the Netherlands however the countries agreed to avoid unilateral actions, preferring a common policy. On 10 October, two days after the Parliament of Croatia confirmed the declaration of independence after expiration of the three-month moratorium, the EEC decided to postpone any decision to recognize Croatia for two months. German foreign minister, Hans Dietrich Genscher later wrote that it was decided then to recognize in two months time if the war did not end by that time, and Germany presented their decision to recognize Croatia on 23 December 1991 as its policy and duty. As the period drew to a close, Germany was supported in its position by Italy and Denmark. France and the United Kingdom attempted to prevent the German recognition by drafting a United Nations (UN) resolution requesting that no country takes unilateral actions which could worsen the situation in Yugoslavia, only to back down during the UN Security Council debate on the matter on 14 December when Germany appeared determined to defy the UN resolution. On 17 December, the EEC formally agreed to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition on 15 January 1992 on the basis of its request and a positive opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Commission.[28] A remaining lacuna was addressed by a letter from Croatian President Franjo Tuđman to Robert Badinter who presided over the arbitration commission, accepting in principle that Croatia should amend its constitution in response to the commission's opinions to guarantee national minority rights as requested by the EEC guidelines.[3] In response, the RSK was formally declared its separation from Croatia on 19 December, but its statehood and independence were not recognized.[29] On 26 December, Yugoslavia announced plans for a smaller state that could include the territory captured from Croatia during the war.[30] The intent was noted and rejected by the UN General Assembly.[31]

Croatia was first recognized as an independent state by Slovenia on 26 June 1991 who declared its independence on the same day as Croatia.[15] Slovenia was followed by Lithuania on 30 July, and Ukraine, Latvia, Iceland and Germany in December 1991.[32] On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community members, and in May 1992, by the United Nations.[33][34] In the period following the declaration of independence, the war escalated further with the battle of Vukovar,[35] siege of Dubrovnik,[36] and fighting elsewhere, until a ceasefire of 3 January 1992 brought a significant reduction of violence and stabilization of frontlines.[37] The war effectively ended in 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia in August 1995.[38] Remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, with the process concluded in January 1998.[39]

See also

Portal: Croatia – Übersicht zu Wikipedia-Inhalten zum Thema Croatia

Vorlage:Clear

References

Vorlage:Reflist

Vorlage:Croatian elections

  1. ↑ Ivica Šute: Deklaracija o nazivu i položaju hrvatskog književnog jezika – Građa za povijest Deklaracije, Zagreb, 1997, str. 225. In: Radovi Zavoda za hrvatsku povijest. 31. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1. April 1999, ISSN 0353-295X, S. 317–318 (kroatisch).
  2. ↑ Vlado Vurušić: Heroina Hrvatskog proljeća In: Jutarnji list, 6 August 2009. Abgerufen im 14 October 2011 (croatian). 
  3. ↑ a b c Roland Rich: Recognition of States: The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. In: European Journal of International Law. 4. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1993, S. 36–65 (ejil.org [abgerufen am 18. Oktober 2011]). Referenzfehler: Ungültiges <ref>-Tag. Der Name „Rich“ wurde mehrere Male mit einem unterschiedlichen Inhalt definiert.
  4. ↑ Frucht 2005, p. 433
  5. ↑ Leaders of a Republic In Yugoslavia Resign In: The New York Times, 12 January 1989. Abgerufen im 7 February 2010 
  6. ↑ Davor Pauković: Posljednji kongres Saveza komunista Jugoslavije: uzroci, tijek i posljedice raspada. In: Časopis za suvremenu povijest. 1. Jahrgang, Nr. 1. Centar za politološka istraživanja, 1. Juni 2008, ISSN 1847-2397, S. 21–33 (kroatisch, srce.hr [PDF; abgerufen am 11. Dezember 2010]).
  7. ↑ Branka Magas: Obituary: Franjo Tudjman In: The Independent, 13 December 1999. Abgerufen im 17 October 2011 
  8. ↑ Dieter Nohlen, Philip Stöver: Elections in Europe: A Data Handbook. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft Mbh & Co, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7, S. 401 (google.hr [abgerufen am 27. Dezember 2011]).
  9. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Croatia's Serbs Declare Their Autonomy In: The New York Times, 2 October 1990. Abgerufen im 11 December 2010 
  10. ↑ Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Routledge, 1998, ISBN 978-1-85743-058-5, S. 272–278 (google.hr [abgerufen am 16. Dezember 2010]).
  11. ↑ a b Odluka o raspisu referenduma In: Narodne Novine, 2 May 1991. Abgerufen im 27 December 2011 (croatian). 
  12. ↑ Croatia Calls for EC-Style Yugoslavia In: Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1991. Abgerufen im 20 December 2010 
  13. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Croatia Votes for Sovereignty and Confederation In: The New York Times, 20 May 1991. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 
  14. ↑ a b Izviješće o provedenom referendumu. (PDF) State Election Committee, 22. Mai 1991, abgerufen am 27. Dezember 2011 (kroatisch).
  15. ↑ a b Chuck Sudetic: 2 YUGOSLAV STATES VOTE INDEPENDENCE TO PRESS DEMANDS In: The New York Times, 26 June 1991. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 
  16. ↑ DEKLARACIJA o proglašenju suverene i samostalne Republike Hrvatske In: Narodne Novine, Narodne Novine d.d., 25 June 1991. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 (croatian). 
  17. ↑ Alan Riding: Europeans Warn on Yugoslav Split In: The New York Times, 26 June 1991. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 
  18. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Conflict in Yugoslavia; 2 Yugoslav States Agree to Suspend Secession Process In: The New York Times, 29 June 1991. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 
  19. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Shells Still Fall on Croatian Towns Despite Truce In: The New York Times, 6 October 1991. Abgerufen im December 16, 2010 
  20. ↑ Yugoslav Planes Attack Croatian Presidential Palace In: The New York Times, 8 October 1991. Abgerufen im 13 December 2010 
  21. ↑ Carol J. Williams: Croatia Leader's Palace Attacked In: Los Angeles Times, 8 October 1991. Abgerufen im 23 January 2011 
  22. ↑ Govor predsjednika Hrvatskog sabora Luke Bebića povodom Dana neovisnosti. Sabor, 7. Oktober 2008, abgerufen am 28. Dezember 2011 (kroatisch).
  23. ↑ Ceremonial session of the Croatian Parliament on the occasion of the Day of Independence of the Republic of Croatia (Zagreb, October 7, 2004). In: Official web site of the Parliament of Croatia. Parliament of Croatia, 7. Oktober 2004, abgerufen am 16. Dezember 2010.
  24. ↑ Sandro Knezović: Europska politika u vrijeme disolucije jugoslavenske federacije. In: Politička Misao. 43. Jahrgang, Nr. 3. University of Zagreb, Faculty of Political Sciences, Februar 2007, ISSN 0032-3241, S. 109–131 (kroatisch, srce.hr [abgerufen am 27. Dezember 2011]).
  25. ↑ Allain Pellet: The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples. In: European Journal of International Law. 3. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1992, S. 178–185 (207.57.19.226 [PDF]).
  26. ↑ Saša Čobanov, Davorin Rudolf: Jugoslavija: unitarna država ili federacija povijesne težnje srpskoga i hrvatskog naroda – jedan od uzroka raspada Jugoslavije. In: Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu. 46. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. University of Split, Faculty of Law, 2009, ISSN 1847-0459 (kroatisch, pravst.hr [abgerufen am 10. Dezember 2010]).
  27. ↑ Egon Kraljević: Prilog za povijest uprave: Komisija za razgraničenje pri Predsjedništvu Vlade Narodne Republike Hrvatske 1945.-1946. In: Arhivski vjesnik. 50. Jahrgang, Nr. 50. Croatian State Archives, November 2007, ISSN 0570-9008 (kroatisch, srce.hr [PDF; abgerufen am 10. Dezember 2010]).
  28. ↑ Sonia Lucarelli: Europe and the breakup of Yugoslavia: a political failure in search of a scholarly explanation. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2000, ISBN 978-90-411-1439-6, S. 125–129 (google.hr [abgerufen am 27. Dezember 2011]).
  29. ↑ Statehood and the law of self-determination. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002, ISBN 978-90-411-1890-5, S. 79–81 (google.hr [abgerufen am 28. Dezember 2011]).
  30. ↑ Serb-Led Presidency Drafts Plan For New and Smaller Yugoslavia In: The New York Times, 27 December 1991. Abgerufen im 28 December 2011 
  31. ↑ A/RES/49/43 The situation in the occupied territories of Croatia. (PDF) United Nations, 9. Februar 1995, abgerufen am 28. Dezember 2011.
  32. ↑ Date of Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic Relation. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration (Croatia), abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2011.
  33. ↑ Stephen Kinzer: Slovenia and Croatia Get Bonn's Nod In: The New York Times, 24 December 1991. Abgerufen im 16 December 2010 
  34. ↑ Paul L. Montgomery: 3 Ex-Yugoslav Republics Are Accepted Into U.N. In: The New York Times, 23 May 1992. Abgerufen im 12 December 2010 
  35. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Croats Concede Danube Town's Loss In: The New York Times, 18 November 1991. Abgerufen im 15 December 2010 
  36. ↑ David Binder: Old City Totters in Yugoslav Siege In: The New York Times, 9 November 1991. Abgerufen im December 16, 2010 
  37. ↑ Chuck Sudetic: Yugoslav Factions Agree to U.N. Plan to Halt Civil War In: The New York Times, 3 January 1992. Abgerufen im 16 December 2010 
  38. ↑ Dean E. Murphy: Croats Declare Victory, End Blitz In: Los Angeles Times, 8 August 1995. Abgerufen im 18 December 2010 
  39. ↑ Chris Hedges: An Ethnic Morass Is Returned to Croatia In: The New York Times, 16 January 1998. Abgerufen im 18 December 2010 
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