Benutzer:Shi Annan/Autonome Republik Nordepirus

About a general view on history, geography, demographics and political issues concerning the region, see Northern Epirus.

The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (Vorlage:Lang-el) was a short-lived self-governing, entity founded in March 1914, in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, by the Greeks living in southern Albania (Northern Epirotes). The area, known as "Northern Epirus" to Greeks and with a substantial Greek population, had been occupied by the Greek Army during the First Balkan War. The 1913 Treaty of London however, had assigned it to the newly established Albanian state. This decision was rejected by the local Greeks, and as the Greek army withdrew to the new border, an autonomous government was set up at Argyrokastro (Gjirokastër), with tacit support from Greece. In May the autonomy was confirmed by the Great Powers with the Protocol of Corfu. The agreement ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local population and provided self government under nominal Albanian sovereignty. However, it was never implemented because in August the Albanian government collapsed. In the event, the Greek Army re-occupied the area after the outbreak of World War I. The area was slated to be ceded to Greece following the war, but the withdrawal of Italian support and Greece's defeat in the Asia Minor Campaign resulted in its final cession to Albania in 1924.

Background

Ethnographic map of Northern Epirus in 1913

Northern Epirus and the Balkan Wars

In March 1913, during the First Balkan War, the Greek army, after breaching the Ottoman fortifications at Bizani, liberated Ioannina and soon afterwards advanced further north. Himara was already under Greek control from 5 November 1912, after a local Himariote, Gendarmerie Major Spyros Spyromilios, made a successful landing in the region, without initially facing resistance. At the end of the war Greek armed forces controlled most of the historical region of Epirus, reaching a line from the Ceraunian mountains (above Himara) in the Ionian coast to the Prespa lake to the east.

At the same time, the Albanian independence movement gathered momentum. On 28 November 1912, in Vlore, Ismail Qemali declared the independence of Albania, and soon, a provisional government was formed, which exercised its authority only in the immediate area around Vlore. At the same time, the Ottoman general Essad Pasha formed a "Central Albanian Senate" at Durazzo (Durres), while most of the area that would form the Albanian state was occupied by the Greeks (in the south) and the Serbians (in the north).

Protocol of Florence

The concept of an independent Albanian state was supported by the Great European Powers, especially by Austro-Hungary and Italy. Both these powers were seeking to control Albania, which, in the words of the Italian Foreign Minister, Tommaso Tittoni, would give either "incontestable supremacy in the Adriatic". The Serbian possession of Shkodër and the possibility of the Greek border running a few miles south of Vlore was therefore strongly resisted by these states.

With the delineation of the exact boundaries of the new state, the region of Northern Epirus was awarded to Albania, under terms of the Protocol of Florence (17 December 1913). Thus, on 21 February 1914 the ambassadors of the Great Powers delivered a note to the Greek government asking the evacuation of the area from the Greek army. The Greek Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, acceded to this in hopes of a favourable solution to Greece's other outstanding problem, the recognition of Greek sovereignty over the islands of the North Eastern Aegean.

Declaration of Autonomy

Picture of the official declaration of Autonomy (1 March 1914). President, Georgios Christakis and members of the Government, local clergy, military personnel and civilians are seen in front lines.

This turn of events was highly unpopular among the pro-Greek party in the area. As a result they decided to declare their own separate political identity and self governance. A distinguished Epirot politician and former Greek foreign minister, Georgios Christakis-Zografos, took the initiative and discussed the imminent situation with local representatives in a "Panepirotic Council". At 28 February 1914, in Gjirokastër, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was declared and a provisional Government was formed to support the state's objectives. Christakis-Zografos himself became president of the provisional government. In his speech, on March 2, explained that the Northern Epirotes will not accept the destiny which the European Powers have imposed upon them, concluding that:

In the following days, Alexandros Karapanos, Zografos' nephew and a MP for Arta, was installed as foreign minister and Colonel Dimitrios Doulis as minister of military affairs. Armed groups were formed, such as the "Sacred Band" or Spyromilios' men around Himarra. In accordance to the declaration of the autonomy, they would defend against any threat trying to infiltrate their territory, in order to secure their wish to remain in a self governed state.

First reactions

The Greek government was reluctant to take any overt initiatives in support of the uprising. On May 9, it blockaded the port of Sarande, one of the first cities that joined the autonomist movement. Military and political officials carried out a slow evacuation process, which began in March and ended on 28 April. Officially, any form of resistance was discouraged, and assurances were given that the Great Powers and the International Commission Committee (an organization founded by the Great Powers, in order to secure peace and stability in the area) would guarantee for their rights. The first districts that joined the autonomist movement except of Gjirokastër were Himara, Saranda and Permet. On March 1, the Greek military commander of Korçë, Colonel Kontoulis, ceded the region to the newly formed Albanian gendarmerie, which was under the command of Dutch officers.

As the Greek army withdrew, armed conflicts broke out between Albanian and Northern Epirote forces. A provisional settlement brokered by the Dutch Colonel Thomson was rejected by the new Albanian government of Prince William of Albania in early March.

Timeline

The autonomy flag as depicted by L'Illustration (April 1914) in the Saranda headquarters. Saranda was one of the first cities that joined the autonomists' movement.

Note that all dates are Old Style

• March 2: Greek Army evacuates Himarë area. Albanian irregulars attack the village Vouno. They are repelled.
• March 7: Northern Epirote forces defeat the Albanian Army at Kodra.
• March 15: Northern Epirote forces attack the Albanian Army forcing them out of the strategic spot of Kleisoura (Këlcyrë area).
• March 20: The local Greek population of Korytsa liberates its city from the Albanian gendarmerie.
• March 24: Albanian gendarmerie recaptures Korytsa.
• April 9: Albanian troops are repelled at Piliouri (Himarë area).
• April 12: An Albanian armed unit suffered heavy losses by Cretan volunteers at Logara (in Ceraunian mountains), when trying to infiltrate Himarë area.
• April 18: The Albanian Army occupies fort Borshi‎ on the Himarë-Agioi Saranda road.
• April 25: Northern Epirote troops, after a 3-day battle, routs the Albanian Army who flee leaving 500 dead on the battlefield. The government of Albania agrees to negotiate with the government of Northern Epirus accepting all their interim demands.
• April 26: Negotiations start at Corfu.
• May 5: The Protocol of Corfu is signed. Greece, Albania and the Great Powers recognize Northern Epirus as an autonomous state inside the Albanian borders.

Protocol of Corfu

5 lepta postage stamp of Northern Epirus with the state's flag.

Soon however, Prince William asked the International Commission to resume negotiations. These were carried out in the island of Corfu, where, on May 17, 1914, Albanian and Epirot representatives signed an agreement known as Protocol of Corfu. According to its terms, the two provinces of Korytsa and Argyrokastro that constituted Northern Epirus would become autonomous under nominal Albanian sovereignty. The Albanian government had the right to appoint and dismiss governors and upper rank officials. Other terms included the proportional recruitment of natives into the local gendarmerie and the prohibition of military levies from non-indigenous people of the region. In Orthodox schools, the Greek language would be the sole medium of instruction, except for the three first classes. Greek was also made equal to Albanian in all public affairs. The Ottoman-era privileges of Himara were renewed, and a foreigner was to be appointed as its "captain" for 10 years.

The execution and maintenance of the Protocol was intrusted to the International Commission of Control, as was also the organization of public administration and the departments of justice and finance in the region. The creation and training of the local gendarmerie was to be conducted by Danish officers.

The agreement of the Protocol was ratified by the representatives of the Great Powers at Athens at June 18, and by the Albanian government at June 23. During July 1914, the cities of Korce and Tepelene came under the control of the provisional government of Northern Epirus.

Outbreak of World War I

Soon after the outbreak of World War I, situation in Albania was unstable and political chaos emerged. While the country was split in a number of regional governments, Prince Wilhelm departed the country in September 1914. Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, was worried by this events, especially with the possibility that this unstable situation would trigger new conflicts in the area. At 27 October, after approval from the Great Powers, the Greek army entered the area for second time. The provisional government formally ceased to exist, declaring that it had accomplished its objectives.

Aftermath

Greek administration (Oct. 1914-Sept. 1916)

During the Greek administration and while the First World War continued it had been agreed between Greece, Italy and the Great Powers that the final settlement of the Northern Epirote issue should be left to the future, when the war ends. On August 1915 Greek Prime Minister E. Venizelos stated that 'only colossal fauls' could separate the region from Greece. But after Venizelos' resignation the following royalist governments determined to exploit. In the first months of 1916 Northern Epirus participated in the Greek elections and elected 16 representatives for the Greek Government. At March the region's union with Greece was officially declared, consisting of the prefectures of Argyrokastro and Korytsa.

Italian occupation and World War I peace treaties

Τhe politically unstable situation that followed in Greece during the next months, with the National Schism, between royalists and Venizelos’ supporters, divided Greece into two states. This situation led the Italian forces, according also to the development of the Balkan Front during World War I, to enter the area at September 1916, after approval of the Triple Entente. When the war ended (1918) the tendencies to reestablish the autonomy of the region continued.

In February 1922 the Albanian Parliament approved the Declaration of minority rights. However, the Declaration, contrary to the Protocol of Corfu, recognized minority rights only in a limited area (parts of Gjirokaster, Sarande district and 3 villages in Himara), without implementing any form of local autonomy. As one imminent consequence, all Greek schools in the excluded area were forced to close until 1935.

The autonomy question

The 'autonomy' question as part of the Northern Epirote issue was discussed at various times, however no progress has been made.

It is claimed that Albanian-American relations worsened in 1946 because the Albanian leader E. Hoxha opposed proposal for the restoration of an autonomous Northern Epirote entity. This resulted in his decision not to pursue diplomatic relations with the United States. Notably, at 1960s the Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev asked his Albanian counterpart, about giving autonomy to the Greek minority, but this initiative was without any results.

After the collapse of the communist regime in Albania, at 1991 the chairman of Omonia organization called for autonomy for 'Northern Epirus' on the basis that the rights provided for under the Albanian constitution were highly precarious. This proposal was rejected, so spurring the minority's radical wing to 'call for Union with Greece'.

In more recent times (1997) cycles of Albanian analysts claim that a possibility of a Greek minority-inspired breakaway Republic is very much alive.

See also

• Epirus (region)
• Postage stamps and postal history of Epirus
• List of Greek countries and regions

Sources

• Contested Spaces and Negotiated Identities in Dhermi/Drimades of Himare/Himara area, Southern Albania. Nataša Gregorič Bon. Nova Gorica 2008. Pg. 140 Formation of the Albanian Nation-State and the Protocol of Corfu (1914)
• Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 1912-1913, by Jacob Gould Schurman
• Misha Glenny. The Balkans: Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804-1999. 1999.
• The Albanian Question in British Policy and the Italian Intervention, August 1914-April 1915. Nicola Guy.
• George H. Chase: Greece of Tomorrow. READ BOOKS, ISBN 978-1-4067-0758-8. 
• Paschalis Kitromilides: Eleftherios Venizelos: The Trials of Statesmanship. Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-3364-7. 
• William Miller: The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927. Routledge, 1966, ISBN 978-0-7146-1974-3. 
• Edith Pierpont Stickney: Southern Albania or Northern Epirus in European International Affairs, 1912–1923. Stanford University Press, 1926, ISBN 978-0-8047-6171-0 (google.com).