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Psychologische Unterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen

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Vorlage:Human intelligence Research on sex and intelligence investigates differences in the distributions of cognitive ability test scores between men and women. This research employs experimental tests of cognition, which take a variety of forms. The research focuses both on differences in individual skills as well as on overall differences in IQ.Vorlage:Citation needed

IQ tests, regarded by psychometricians as measures of intelligence, usually test a variety of skills, and yield a global score that is often regarded as a measure of g, a hypothesized general factor of intelligence. Tests have shown that differences between men and women are minimal or negligible, but men are often overrepresented at extreme scores, both very high and very low.[1][2][3][4]Vorlage:Verify source

IQ tests

According to Jackson and J. Phillipe Rushton, during the early twentieth century, the scientific consensus held that gender plays no role in intelligence.[5] They attribute this consensus in part to early work by Cyril Burt[6] and Lewis Terman,[7] who found no sex differences in the first IQ tests. In 1995, Hedges and Nowell demonstrated only statistically insignificant differences in average IQ between men and women using data published in several large representative studies published up until that year.[8]

A 1995 study performed by the American Psychological Association in response to the book The Bell Curve (which investigated intelligence differences between different social classes) shows no difference in average IQ between sexes.[9] Other studies done in the mid-1990s have concluded that the IQ performances of men and women differ little.[8][9] Analyzing data from 2,404 individuals, the "California Verbal Learning Test" concluded that "When mediating variables were controlled, gender differences tended to disappear on tests for which there was a male advantage and to magnify on tests for which there was a female advantage."[10] In his book, Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study, K. Warner Schaie concludes that there are few gender differences in spatial competencies.[11]

A 1999 study by Richard Lynn in which he analyzed data from a number of published tests (such as the standardized g-loaded Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised) found that the mean IQ of men exceeded that of women by approximately 3-4 IQ points.[12] In a later meta-analysis, a type of study that aggregates the results from many other studies, Lynn and Irwing found an advantage for males. The meta analysis aggregated the results of 57 earlier studies, examined sex differences on the Standard and Advanced Progressive Matrices (comprising various g-loaded tests of non-verbal reasoning) and found that men exceeded women by an average of 5.0 IQ points.[13] Steve Blinkhorn published a critique of the article in Nature,[14] to which the original article's authors wrote a response, also published in Nature.[15]

A 2004 study investigated the differences in IQ between the sexes in relation to age. It found that girls do better at younger ages but that their performance declines relative to boys with age. The sex difference as a whole for 18 year olds was a 4.3 IQ advantage for males, very close to the advantage that can be predicted from the larger brain size of males (4.4 IQ points). The authors note the profile of sex differences in abilities is closely similar across studies from different countries, which is testimony to the robustness of the sex difference.[16]

In 2005 Lynn followed up his meta-analysis by a similar survey of 22 studies of sex differences among university students. It concluded that men scored higher than women by 3.3 to 5.0 IQ points.[17]

In another large study of 100 000 subjects by researchers Jackson and Rushton, males aged 17 – 18 years were found to have an average of 3.63 IQ points in excess of their female equivalents.[5]

A study by Helmuth Nyborg and published in 2005 utilized a more rigourous way of calculating some of the scores used in intelligence research. It found an average advantage for males of 3.15 IQ-points.[18] An earlier 2002 study by Colom et al had used similar methods of calculation as in the Nyborg study. Yet, it suggested little differences in intelligence between males and females.[19] However, when other researchers have reanalyzed the results, they point out that the Colom study actually do show a male advantage of about 3.6 IQ points.[18][20]

Another study from 2007, however, found a contrary result of 2-4 IQ point advantage for females in later life.[21]

A 2009 study replicates earlier studies that find an intelligence gap favoring males. However, the study also relates the difference to physical size. The advantage for males is true when not controlled for height, but after controlling for height, the study found a small advantage for females. The authors suggests that the males may have become slightly more intelligent than women via assortative mating of more intelligent men and beautiful women and that of taller men and beautiful women, coupled with a greater tendency of tall parents to have sons.[20]

Variance in IQ

Most modern IQ tests are weighted to even out overall sex differences in average score.[22] Different weightings or tests other than IQ, for instance general intelligence factor, may however be used in defining intelligence. A study by Colom et al. in 2002 showed that the difference observed is in "ability in general", not in "general ability", and that the average sex-difference favoring males must be attributed to specific group factors and test specificity.[23]

A 2005 study by Ian Deary, Paul Irwing, Geoff Der, and Timothy Bates,[24] focusing on the ASVAB scores of 1,292 pairs of opposite sex siblings, showed twice as many males as females in the top and bottom 2% of scores, demonstrating a significantly higher variance in male scores. The study also found a very small (d' ≈ 0.07, or about 7% of a standard deviation) average male advantage in g.

Analysing data from the international PISA student evaluation study, Machin and Pekkarinen found higher variance in boys' than girls' results on mathematics and reading tests in most OECD countries.[25] Hyde and Metz[26] argue that boys and girls differ in the variance of their ability due to sociocultural factors. According to their analysis, which gender shows the greatest variance differs between countries: in some countries, such as the Netherlands, girls tend to have a greater variance than boys, whereas in others, such as the US, boys have the greater variance.

A study by Rosalind Arden and Robert Plomin from 2006 found greater variance among boys than among girls. The variance was greater among boys at every age between 2 and 10 years, except at age two where the difference was statistically non-significant. At age 10 the boys had a higher mean IQ-score, a higher variance and were over-represented at the high tail.[27]

Specific abilities

Vorlage:See also

  • In a 2008 study[28] paid for by the National Science Foundation in the United States, researchers found that "girls perform as well as boys on standardized math tests. Although 20 years ago, high school boys performed better than girls in math, the researchers found that is no longer the case. The reason, they said, is simple: Girls used to take fewer advanced math courses than boys, but now they are taking just as many."[29] However, the study indicated that, while on average boys and girls performed similarly, boys were overrepresented among the very best performers as well as among the very worst.[30]
  • Spatial abilities: large differences favoring males are found in performance on visual-spatial tasks (e.g. mental rotation) and spatio-temporal tasks (e.g. tracking a moving object through space).[31] The male advantage in visual-spatial tasks is approximately 1 standard deviation, and becomes experimentally discernible at puberty.[32] A minority of opinions are known to differ on this issue: In his book, Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study, K. Warner Schaie concludes that there are few sex differences in spatial competencies.[11]
  • Memory: Women show greater proficiency and reliance on distinctive landmarks for navigation while males rely on an overall mental map.[33][34] Studies by H. Stumpf and Richard Lynn have also demonstrated statistically significant medium- and short-term memory advantages in women.
  • A study examining sex differences in performance on the California Verbal Learning Test found that males performed better on Digit Span Backwards and on reaction time, while females were better on short-term memory recall and Symbol-Digit Modalities Test.[10]

History

In the nineteenth century, whether men and women had equal intelligence was seen by many as a prerequisite for the granting of suffrage.Vorlage:Citation needed Leta Hollingworth argues that women were not permitted to realize their full potential, as they were confined to the roles of child-rearing and housekeeping. From the late twentieth century onwards, sex differences in intelligence have been discussed to determine whether disproportionate employment or payment favoring men is a manifestation of sexism or simply a reflection of innate aptitudes.[35]

Physical Brain Parameters

Vorlage:See also

In 1861, Paul Broca examined 432 human brains and found that the brains of males had an average weight of 1,325 grams, while the brains of females had an average weight of 1,144 grams. Other differences that have been established include greater length in men of myelinated axons in their white matter (176,000 km compared to 146,000 km);[36] and 33% more synapses per mm3 of cerebral cortex.[37]

In studies concerning intelligence, it has been suggested that the ratio of brain weight to body weight is more predictive of IQ levels, rather than actual brain weight. While men's brains are an average of 10-15% larger and heavier than women's brains, some researchers propose that the ratio of brain to body size does not differ between the sexes.[38][39] However, some argue that since brain-to-body-size ratios tend to decrease as body size increases, a sex difference in brain-weight ratios still exists between men and women of the same size. A 1992 study of 6,325 Army personnel found that men's brains had an average volume of 1442 cm³, while the women averaged 1332 cm³. These differences were shown to be smaller but to persist even when adjusted for body size measured as body height or body surface, such that women averaged 100g less brain mass than men of equal size.[40]

An alternative proposal is the measurement of gray matter or white matter volume in the brain as an indicator of intelligence; the former used for information processing, whereas the latter consisting of the connections between processing centers. Neuroimaging studies, such as MRI and CT, have demonstrated loss of gray matter volume in conditions associated with cognitive impairment, such as Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal dementia and senile dementia.[41] In 2005, Haier et al. reported that, compared with men, women show more white matter and fewer gray matter areas related to intelligence.[42] Using brain mapping, it was shown that men have more than six times the amount of gray matter related to general intelligence than women, and women have nearly ten times the amount of white matter related to intelligence than men.[43] They also report that the brain areas correlated with IQ differ between the sexes. In short, men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions.[44]

Despite these findings, there still remains no clear relationship between physical brain measurement and functional capacity. Some have suggested that physical studies of the brain in predicting intelligence are largely arbitrary due to the inherent neuroplasticity of the organ and the multitude of ways that brain function can be influenced by the stimulating quality of the environment and hormonal influences.[45]

Hypotheses

The importance of testosterone and other androgens as a cause of sex differences has been a subject of study. Adult women who were exposed to unusually high levels of androgens in the womb due to a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia score significantly higher on tests of spatial ability.[46] Girls with this condition play more with "boys' toys" and less with "girls' toys" than unaffected controls.[47] Many studies find positive correlations between testosterone levels in normal males and measures of spatial ability.[48] However, the relationship is complex.[49][50]

It is possible that sexual dimorphism may exist in regard to intellectual abilities in humans. Vorlage:Citation needed Men may have evolved greater spatial abilities, possibly as a result of certain behaviors, such as navigating during a hunt, that they were more likely to be involved in during humans' evolutionary history.[51] Similarly, women may have evolved to devote more mental resources to gathering food, as well as understanding and tracking relationships and reading others' emotional states in order for them to be able to better understand their social situation.[51]

According to Diane F. Halpern, the above two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; some combination of the two may be at work. She wrote in the preface of her 2000 book Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities:

At the time I started writing this book it seemed clear to me that any between sex differences in thinking abilities were due to socialization practices, artifacts, and mistakes in the research. After reviewing a pile of journal articles that stood several feet high, and numerous books and book chapters that dwarfed the stack of journal articles, I changed my mind. The literature on sex differences in cognitive abilities is filled with inconsistent findings, contradictory theories, and emotional claims that are unsupported by the research. Yet despite all the noise in the data, clear and consistent messages could be heard. There are real and in some cases sizable sex differences with respect to some cognitive abilities. Socialization practices are undoubtedly important, but there is also good evidence that biological sex differences play a role in establishing and maintaining cognitive sex differences, a conclusion I wasn't prepared to make when I began reviewing the relevant literature.

Some observed differences in the variability of skills between the sexes can be explained genetically: many brain-related genes are located on the X chromosome, of which women have two copies and men only one. A mutation in one of these genes, whether positive or negative, will thus have a higher impact in males than in females (where the second, presumably non-mutated copy will mitigate the effect of the mutated one).[52][53]

Controversies

In January 2005, Lawrence Summers, president of Harvard University, unintentionally provoked a public controversy when several attendees discussed with reporters some statements he made during his lunchtime presentation at an economics conference at the National Bureau of Economic Research.[54][55][56] These attendees included MIT biologist Nancy Hopkins, University of California Santa Cruz chancellor designate Denice D. Denton, former deputy director of the National Science Foundation, Anne C. Petersen, former executive director of the Association for Women in Science, Catherine Didion, chemistry professor at the University of Oklahoma, Donna J. Nelson, and Sheila Tobias, a feminist author and proponent of women in science. In analyzing the disproportionate numbers of men over women in high-end science and engineering jobs, he suggested that, after the conflict between employers' demands for high time commitments and women's disproportionate role in the raising of children, the next most important factor might be the above-mentioned greater variance in intelligence among men than women, and that this difference in variance might be intrinsic,[54] adding that he "would like nothing better than to be proved wrong." The controversy generated a great deal of media attention; it contributed to the resignation of Summers the following year,[57] and led Harvard to commit $50 million to the recruitment and hiring of women faculty.[58]

In May 2005, Harvard University psychology professors Steven Pinker and Elizabeth Spelke debated "The Science of Gender and Science".[59]

In 2006, Danish psychologist and intelligence researcher Helmuth Nyborg was temporarily suspended from his position at Aarhus University, deemed guilty by some of scientific misconduct in relation to the academic documentation after publishing a peer-reviewed paper in Personality and Individual Differences that showed an 3.15-point IQ difference in favor of men.[18] His work was reviewed by an investigative committee. Nyborg was defended —- and the university criticized — by other researchers in the intelligence field.[60]

See also

Other:

References

Vorlage:Reflist

Bibliography

  • Born, M. P.; Bleichrodt, N.; van der Flier, H.: Cross-cultural comparison of sex-related differences on intelligence tests. In: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 18. Jahrgang, 1987, S. 283–314, doi:10.1177/0022002187018003002.
  • Colom, R.; García, L.F.; Juan-Espinosa, M.; Abad, F.: Null Sex Differences in General Intelligence: Evidence from the WAIS-III. In: Spanish Journal of Psychology. 5. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2002, S. 29–35, PMID 12025362 (ucm.es [PDF]).
  • Haier, R.J.; Benbow, C.P.: Sex differences and lateralization in temporal lobe glucose metabolism during mathematical reasoning. In: Dev Neuropsychol. 11. Jahrgang, 1995, S. 405–414, doi:10.1080/87565649509540629.
  • Lynn, Richard; Irwing, P.; Cammock, T.: Sex differences in general knowledge. In: Intelligence. 30. Jahrgang, 2002, S. 27–40, doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00064-2.
  • Lynn, Richard: Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: a developmental theory. In: Intelligence. 27. Jahrgang, 1999, S. 1–12, doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00009-4.

Vorlage:Race and sex differences

  1. ↑ http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/269/5220/41
  2. ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7604277
  3. ↑ Robin McKie: Who has the bigger brain? In: The Guardian, November 6, 2005 
  4. ↑ http://www.ayubmed.edu.pk/JAMC/PAST/21-3/Sohail.pdf
  5. ↑ a b Douglas N. Jackson, Rushton, J. Philippe: Males have greater g: Sex differences in general mental ability from 100,000 17- to 18-year-olds on the Scholastic Assessment Test. In: Intelligence. 34. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, S. 479–486, doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.03.005.
  6. ↑ Burt, C. L.; Moore, R. C. (1912). "The mental differences between the sexes". Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, 1, 273–284, 355–388.
  7. ↑ Terman, Lewis M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence: an explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. OCLC 186102
  8. ↑ a b Larry V. Hedges, Nowell, Amy: Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals. In: Science. 269. Jahrgang, Nr. 5220, 1995, S. 41–45, doi:10.1126/science.7604277, PMID 7604277.
  9. ↑ a b "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns", Task Force established by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association, August 7, 1995.
  10. ↑ a b Anthony F. Jorm, Anstey, Kaarin J.; Christensen, Helen; Rodgers, Bryan: Gender differences in cognitive abilities: The mediating role of health state and health habits. In: Intelligence. 32. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, S. 7–23, doi:10.1016/j.intell.2003.08.001.
  11. ↑ a b Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study
  12. ↑ Lynn, Richard: Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: a developmental theory. In: Intelligence. 27. Jahrgang, 1999, S. 1–12, doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00009-4.
  13. ↑ Lynn, R., & Irwing, P.: Sex differences on the Progressive Matrices: A meta-analysis. In: Intelligence. 32. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, 2004, S. 481−498, doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008.
  14. ↑ Blinkhorn, Steve ([Intelligence: A gender bender http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7064/full/438031a.html]
  15. ↑ Lynn, Richard ([Intelligence: Is there a sex difference in IQ scores? http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7098/full/nature04966.html]
  16. ↑ Colom, R., & Lynn, R. (2004). Testing the developmental theory of sex differences in intelligence in 12–18-year-olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 36:75−82.
  17. ↑ Irwing, P., & Lynn, R. (2005). Sex differences in means and variability on Progressive Matrices in university students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 505–524.
  18. ↑ a b c Nyborg, H.: Sex-related differences in general intelligence g, brain size, and social status. In: Personality and Individual Differences. 39. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, August 2005, S. 497–509, doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.011.
  19. ↑ Colom, R., Garcia, L. F., Juan-Espinosa, M., & Abad, F. (2002). Null sex differences in general intelligence: Evidence from the WAIS-III. Spanish Journal of Psychology 5:29–35.
  20. ↑ a b Kanazawa & Reiniers (2009). ["The role of height in the sex difference in intelligence." http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20066931?dopt=Abstract] American Journal of Psychology 122(4):527-36.
  21. ↑ Keith et al (2007). ["Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 6 to 59: Evidence from the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities" http://www.iapsych.com/articles/keith2008ip.pdf] Intelligence, doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.11.001
  22. ↑ Vorlage:Cite
  23. ↑ Colom, R.; García, L.F.; Juan-Espinosa, M.; Abad, F.: Null Sex Differences in General Intelligence: Evidence from the WAIS-III. In: Spanish Journal of Psychology. 5. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2002, S. 29–35, PMID 12025362 (ucm.es [PDF]).
  24. ↑ Deary, I.J.; Irwing, P.; Der, G; Bates, T.C. (2005). "Brother–sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: Analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979". Intelligence 35:451-456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.003
  25. ↑ Machin, S.; Pekkarinen, T.: Global Sex Differences in Test Score Variability. In: Science. 322. Jahrgang, Nr. 5906, 2008, S. 1331–1332, doi:10.1126/science.1162573 (sciencemag.org).
  26. ↑ Hyde, J.S.; Metz, J.E.: Gender, culture, and mathematics performance. In: PNAS. 106. Jahrgang, Nr. 22, 2009, S. 8801–8807, doi:10.1073/pnas.0901265106, PMID 19487665, PMC 2689999 (freier Volltext) – (pnas.org).
  27. ↑ Arden, R. & Plomin, R. (2006). "Sex differences in variance of intelligence across childhood". Personality and Individual Differences 41:39–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.027
  28. ↑ Hyde, J., Lindberg, S., Linn, M., Ellis, A., & Williams, C.: Diversity: Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance. In: Science. 321. Jahrgang, Nr. 5888, 2008, S. 494–495, doi:10.1126/science.1160364, PMID 18653867.
  29. ↑ Lewin, Tamar (July 25, 2008)."Math Scores Show No Gap for Girls, Study Finds", The New York Times.
  30. ↑ Winstein, Keith J. (July 25, 2008). "Boys' Math Scores Hit Highs and Lows", The Wall Street Journal (New York).
  31. ↑ Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
  32. ↑ Siann (1977).
  33. ↑ Kimura, Doreen (May 13, 2002). "Sex Differences in the Brain: Men and women display patterns of behavioral and cognitive differences that reflect varying hormonal influences on brain development", Scientific American.
  34. ↑ National Geographic - My Brilliant Brain "Make Me a Genius" http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6378985927858479238#
  35. ↑ Fausto-Sterling, Anne (1992). Myths of Gender: biological theories about women and men. ISBN 0465047920
  36. ↑ Marner, L.; Nyengaard, J.R.; Tang, Y.; Pakkenberg, B. (2003). "Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age". J Comp Neurol. 462(2):144-52. Vorlage:PMID
  37. ↑ Alonso-Nanclares, L.; Gonzalez-Soriano, J.; Rodriguez, J.R.; DeFelipe, J. (2008). "Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(38):14615-9.Vorlage:PMID
  38. ↑ Kimura, Doreen (1999). Sex and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-11236-9
  39. ↑ Ho, K.C.; Roessmann, U.; Straumfjord, J.V.; Monroe, G.: Analysis of brain weight. I. Adult brain weight in relation to sex, race, and age. In: Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 104. Jahrgang, Nr. 12, Dezember 1980, S. 635–9, PMID 6893659.
  40. ↑ Ankney, C.D.: Sex Differences in Relative Brain Size: The Mismeasure of Woman, Too? In: Intelligence. 16. Jahrgang, 1992, S. 329–336, doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H.
  41. ↑ Richards, B.A.; Chertkow, H.; Singh, V.; et al.: Patterns of cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. In: Neurobiol. Aging. 30. Jahrgang, Nr. 10, Februar 2008, S. 1626–36, doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.12.019, PMID 18261828.
  42. ↑ Haier, R.J.; Jung, R.E.; Yeo, R.A.; et al.: The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters. In: NeuroImage. 25. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2005, S. 320–327, doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.019, PMID 15734366.
  43. ↑ Haier, R.J.; Jung, R.E.; Yeo, R.A.; Head, K.; Alkire, M.T.: Structural brain variation and general intelligence. In: Neuroimage. 23. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, September 2004, S. 425–33, doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.04.025, PMID 15325390 (uci.edu [PDF]).
  44. ↑ "Intelligence in men and women is a gray and white matter: Men and women use different brain areas to achieve similar IQ results, UCI study finds" University of California, Irvine. Press release. January 20, 2005.
  45. ↑ Faverjon, S.; Silveira, D.C.' Fu, D.D.; et al.: Beneficial effects of enriched environment following status epilepticus in immature rats. In: Neurology. 59. Jahrgang, Nr. 9, November 2002, S. 1356–64, PMID 12427884 (neurology.org).
  46. ↑ Resnick, S.M.; Berenbaum, S.A.; Gottesman, I.I.' Bouchard, T.J.: Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In: Developmental Psychology. 22. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, März 1986, S. 191–8, doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.2.191.
  47. ↑ Berenbaum, S.A.; Hines, M.: Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. In: Psychological Science. 3. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, 1992, S. 203–6, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00028.x.
  48. ↑ Janowsky, J.S.; Oviatt, S.K.; Orwoll, E.S.: Testosterone influences spatial cognition in older men. In: Behav. Neurosci. 108. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, April 1994, S. 325–32, doi:10.1037/0735-7044.108.2.325, PMID 8037876 (apa.org).
  49. ↑ Gouchie, C.; Kimura, D.: The relationship between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. In: Psychoneuroendocrinology. 16. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 1991, S. 323–34, doi:10.1016/0306-4530(91)90018-O, PMID 1745699.
  50. ↑ Nyborg, H.: Performance and intelligence in hormonally different groups. In: Prog. Brain Res. 61. Jahrgang, 1984, S. 491–508, doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)64456-8, PMID 6396713.
  51. ↑ a b David C. Geary: Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences. American Psychological Association, 1998, ISBN 1-55798-527-8.
  52. ↑ Wade, Nicholas: Pas de Deux of Sexuality is Written in the Genes In: The New York Times, April 10, 2007 
  53. ↑ Ounsted and Taylor (1979).
  54. ↑ a b Bombardieri, Marcella (January 17, 2005). "Summers' remarks on women draw fire", Boston Globe, reporting the remarks of Larry Summers at a January 2005 conference.
  55. ↑ Transcript of Summers' remarks at NBER Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce.
  56. ↑ Summers' initial response to controversy.
  57. ↑ Hernandez, Javier C. (Feb 22, 2006). "Summers resigns: Shortest term since civil war; Bok will be interim chief", Harvard Crimson.
  58. ↑ Seward, Zarachy M. (May 16, 2005). "University Will Commit $50M to Women in Science", Harvard Crimson.
  59. ↑ "The Science Of Gender And Science", Edge.
  60. ↑ Letter from Prof. J. Philippe Rushton to the Dean of Aarhus University in defence of Prof. Nyborg, August 9, 2006.
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