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Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy

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Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (English IPA: ɦusæŋ ʃɑid sɦuɾɑwɑɾdɪə; Vorlage:Lang-ur; Vorlage:Lang-bn; 8 September 1892Vorlage:Snd5 December 1963), best known as H. S. Suhrawardy, was an East Pakistani:11[1] politician and a lawyer who served as the fifth Prime Minister of Pakistan, appointed in this capacity on 12 September 1956 until resigning on 17 October 1957.:11[1]

Born into an illustrious Bengali Muslim family in Midnapore, Suhrawardy was educated in Calcutta and was trained as a barrister in Oxford where he practiced law at the Gray's Inn in Great Britain.[2] Upon returning to India in 1921, his legislative career started with his election to the to the Bengal Legislative Assembly on Muslim League's platform but joined the Swaraj Party when he was invited to be elected as the Deputy Mayor of Calcutta under Chittaranjan Das.

After Chittaranjan Das's death in 1925, Suhrawardy promoted the Muslim unity on a Muslim League's platform, and began advocating for the two-nation theory. After the general elections held in 1934, Suhrawardy pushed for strengthening the Muslim League's political program and asserted his role as becoming one of the Founding Fathers of Pakistan. After joining the Bengal's government in 1937, Suhrawardy assumed the only Muslim League-led government after the general elections held in 1945, and faced criticism from the Indian press of his alleged role in massive riots took place in Calcutta in 1946.:239[3]

During the time of India's partition in 1947, Suhrawardy forwarded the idea of independent United Bengal to prevent the partition, thus preventing the choice of either joining the federations of India or Pakistan, enjoying the support from Muhammad Ali Jinnah over this issue.:342[4][5]:140[6]:290–291[7]

Nonetheless, Suhrawardy worked towards integration of East Bengal into the Federation of Pakistan but partied away with the Muslim League when he joined hands to establish the Awami League in 1949.[8][9] During the legislative elections held in 1954, Suhrawardy provided his crucial political support to the United Front that defeated the Muslim League.[8][10] In 1953, Suhrawardy joined the Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Bogra's Ministry of Talents as a Minister of Law and Justice and served until 1955.

After the supporting the vote of no-confidence motion at the National Assembly that removed Prime Minister Muhammad Ali, the three-party coalition government of Muslim League, Awami League, and the Republican Party, appointed Suhrawardy to the office of Prime Minister, promising to address the issue of economic disparities between the Western Pakistan and the Eastern Pakistan, resolving the energy conservation crises and reforming the nation's military.[10] His foreign policy resulted in increase dependency towards the U.S. foreign aid to the country and pioneering a strategic partnership with the United States against the Soviet Union, and recognized the China by supporting the One-China policy. At home front, he faced pressure from the business and stock community over his economic policy to distribute the taxation and federal revenues between the East and West where the controversial issue of national integration had reached the fruition by the nationalists.[11] After failing to bring a resolution against President Iskandar Mirza at the Parliament to seek vote of confidence, Suhrawardy unexpectedly resigned from his post amid a possible retaliation by President Mirza and possible possible defections from his party in favor of the Maulana Bhasani Group in the Awami League.:63–64[12]

Early years

Family background and education

Huseyn Suhrawardy was born on 8 September 1892 in Midnapore, Bengal in India into an illustrious Bengali Muslim family known for their wealth, education, and gentry background, who claimed to be the direct descendent and ancestors of the First Caliphate.:81[13][2] His father, Justice Sir Zahid Suhrawardy, was a jurist at the Calcutta High Court; and his mother, Banu, was the daughter of Maulana Ubaidullah Suhrawardy, who was a prolific Urdu language writer and was the first Indian women to have passed the Senior Cambridge examinations.:320[14] His elder brother, Hasan, a linguist, found a great successful career as a diplomat with Pakistan's Foreign ministry.:320[14]

The Suhrawardy family spoke Urdu-language and did not identified them as Bengalis but Huseyn Suhrawardy learned Bengali language and chose to identify himself as a Bengali.:66[15] His uncles, Hassan Suhrawardy served in the British Indian Army as a military physician while Sir Abdullah Suhrwardy was a barrister.:320[14]

After his matriculation from the Calcutta Madras, Suhrawardy academically excelled when he went enrolled to attend the Calcutta University in 1906, attending the St. Xavier's College where he graduated with BSc in Mathematics in 1911.:6–7[12][16]:90[17] In 1913, Suhrawardy attained his MA in Arabic Language and earned a scholarship to attend the Oxford University for his higher studies. His gentry background allowed him to settle in England comfortably while attending the St. Catherine's College of Oxford University, where he attained MA in political science and graduated with the BCL degree in 1920.:407[18]:330[19]

After leaving the Oxford, Suhrwardy was called to bar at the Gray's Inn where he was trained as barrister-at-Law in 1922–23.[20]

Political career in India

Deputy mayorship of Calcutta and legislation (1922–1944)

After his training as the Barrister-at-Law in England, Suhrawardy returned to India where he begin his practice at the Calcutta High Court in 1922–23, building his reputation as a competent lawyer.:80[13] During this time, he joined the Muslim League and secured his elections as a Member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly.[2] His legislative career took prominence during the times of the Khilafat Movement, a conservative Islamic movement in India, and had remained associate with the Movement for several years.:80[13]

In 1924–25, Suhrawardy was appointed as deputy mayor of the Calcutta Corporation when he joined the Swaraj Party led by the Mayor of Kolkata Chittaranjan Das.:80[13] In 1926, he broke with the Swaraj Party after the Hindu-Muslim riots took place in Calcutta, and represented the accused Muslims at the Calcutta High Court, and begin encouraging the trade strikes to maintain pressure on the Congress Party.:93:124[21]

In 1930s, he strengthened the political program of the Muslim League, supporting the concept of Pakistan, and begin mobilizing his support in favor of the Pakistan Movement.[2] In 1936, he became the Secretary-General of the Muslim League's Bengal chapter and successfully defended his constituency in general elections held in 1934–37.[2]

His outspoken advocacy for the Pakistan Movement further strengthened the position and political program of the Muslim League, and was appointed to head the Ministry of Commerce and Labour from 1937 until 1943 under the provincial administration of Premier of Bengal Abul Kasim Fazlul Haq.:16[12]

In 1943, Premier K. Nazimuddin eventually appointed him to lead the Ministry of Civil Supply and it was during his tenureship when the famine took place in Bengal in 1943.:97[22] Although, British administrator and Governor of Bengal Richard Casey was of the view of considering Premier K. Nazimuddin as "incapable", there were major allegations that leveled on him towards deliberating causing the famine and doing very little to prevent it.:97[22] Suhrawardy, on the other hand, contradicted when claiming that it was the Central government in New Delhi and black marketers that had seized the transportation of rice and wheats to the presidency.:97[22]

On the other hand, Indian author, Madhushree Mukherjee, laid major responsibility of this famine to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill who wanted the ration for war efforts only and had refrained the U.S. aid to Bengal.:128[23] Suhrwardy was further accused of practicing the Scorched-Earth policy to counter the Japanese Army's advances in East and supervised to burn thousand fishing boats to block any potential movement of invading Japanese Army troops.:533–535[24] These measures aggravated starvation and famine and the relief was only ordered when Lord Wavell became the Viceroy, using the Indian Army to organise relief.:534[24] However, by that time, the winter crop had arrived and famine conditions had already eased, after millions had earlier perished.:534[24]

Prime Minister of Bengal (1945–46)

Vorlage:See also

In 1946, Suhrawardy established and headed a Muslim League government in Bengal. It was the only Muslim League government in India at that time.

As the demand for a separate Muslim state of Pakistan became popular among Indian Muslims, the independence of Pakistan on communal lines was deemed inevitable by mid-1947. To prevent the inclusion of Hindu-majority districts of Punjab and Bengal in a Muslim Pakistan, the Indian National Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha sought the division of these provinces on communal lines. Bengali nationalists such as Sarat Chandra Bose, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Kiran Shankar Roy, Abul Hashim, Satya Ranjan Bakshi and Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry sought to counter partition proposals with the demand for a united and independent state of Bengal.[25][26] Suhrawardy and Bose sought the formation of a coalition government between Bengali Congress and the Bengal Provincial Muslim League. Proponents of the plan urged the masses to reject communal divisions and uphold the vision of a united Bengal. In a press conference held in Delhi on 27 April 1947 Suhrawardy presented his plan for a united and independent Bengal and Abul Hashim issued a similar statement in Calcutta on 29 April.[25] However the plan failed due to the opposition of the Muslim League, Congress, the Hindu Mahasabha[27] and the Communist Party of India.[28]

United Bengal proposal and Direct Action Day (1947)

Vorlage:Main article

Suhrawardy has left a controversial legacy in post-independent India. There are several views on the exact cause of the Direct Action Day riots. The Hindu press blamed the Suhrawardy Government and the Muslim League.[29] According to intelligentsia, riots were instigated by members of the Muslim League and its affiliate Volunteer Corps,[30][31][32][33][34]Vorlage:Page needed in the city in order to enforce the declaration by the Muslim League that Muslims were to 'suspend all business' to support their demand for an independent Pakistan.[30][31][32][35] However, supporters of the Muslim League believed that the Congress Party was behind the violence in an effort to weaken the fragile Muslim League government in Bengal.[30][36]Vorlage:Page needed[34] Historian Joya Chatterji allocates much of the responsibility to Suhrawardy, for setting up the confrontation and failing to stop the rioting, but points out that Hindu leaders were also culpable.[37]

Public Service in Pakistan

In 1947, the balance of power in Calcutta shifted from the Muslim League to the Indian National Congress, and Suhrawardy stepped down from the Chief Ministership. Unlike other Muslim League stalwarts of India, he did not leave his hometown immediately for the newly established Pakistan. Anticipating revenge of Hindus against Muslims in Calcutta after the transfer of power, Suhrawardy sought help from Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi was persuaded to stay and pacify tempers in Calcutta with the intention that Suhrawardy share the same roof with him so that they could appeal to Muslims and Hindus alike to live in peace. "Adversity makes strange bed-fellows," Gandhi remarked in his prayer meeting.[38]

Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (left) with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1949.

Upon the formation of Pakistan, Suhrawardy maintained his work in politics, continuing to focus on East Bengal as it became after the independence of Pakistan. On return to Dhaka he joined Awami Muslim League that Maulana Bhashai formed.

In the 1950s, Suhrawardy worked to consolidate political parties in East Pakistan to balance the politics of West Pakistan. He, along with other leading Bengali leaders A.K. Fazlul Huq and Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, formed a political alliance in the name of Jukta Front which won a landslide victory in 1954 general election of East Pakistan. Under Muhammad Ali Bogra, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy would serve as Law Minister and later become the head of opposition parties.

Prime Minister of Pakistan (1955–56)

In 1956, Suhrawardy won the slot of Prime minister and was hastily appointed as fifth Prime Minister by President Iskander Mirza after the surprise resignation of Chaudhry Muhammad Ali. As Prime minister, Suhrawardy took the nation on confidence on national radio, promising to resolve the energy crises, economical disparity and promised the nation to build a massive military in an arms race with India.

Domestic policies

One Unit programme

The One Unit was a controversial geopolitical programme implemented to consolidate the political authority, retained by four provinces, to federal capital in 1954.[39] By the time Suhrawardy was the Prime Minister, an intense political competition between rightist Muslim League and the centrist Republican Party was forming regarding this issue. The politics over this issue was chaotic when the four provinces engaged in a political struggle to the reversal of the One Unit which established West Pakistan in 1955.[39]

The right-wing and left-wing parties in West were opposing the One Unit, and the cause was taken up by the rightist Muslim League and religious parties. Prime Minister Suhrawardy supported the One Unit plan to establish the federalism but the vast opposition paralyzed Suhrawardy's progress to oversee the program properly. Politically, the One Unit failed to progress and suffered with many set backs in West; it did not produce any geopolitical results and achievements for Suhrawardy's government.[39] On the other hand, the One Unit was quite a success in East Pakistan. Amid political disturbances, massive labour strikes, and civil disorder instigated at the behest of right-wing and left-wing parties, Suhrawardy was forced to halt the One Unit and finally abandoning the controversial sections of One Unit in 1956. The four provinces successfully retained their geographical status while the East-Pakistan was evolved into one single large province with overwhelming Bengali population.[39]

Economic initiatives

The constitutionally obliged, the National Finance Commission Program (NFC Program), was immediately suspended by Prime Minister Suhrawardy despite the reserves of the four provinces of the West Pakistan in 1956. Suhrawardy advocated for the USSR-based Five-Year Plans to centralize the national economy. In this view, the East Pakistan's economy was quickly centralized and all major economic planning shifted to West Pakistan.

Efforts leading to centralizing the economy was met with great resistance in West Pakistan when the elite monopolist and the business community angrily refused to oblige to his policies. The business community in Karachi began its political struggle to undermine any attempts of financial distribution of the US$10 million ICA aid to the better part of the East Pakistan and to set up a consolidated national shipping corporation. In the financial cities of West Pakistan, such as Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, and Peshawar, there were series of major labour strikes against the economic policies of Suhrawardy supported by the elite business community and the private sector.[11]

Furthermore, in order to divert attention from the controversial One Unit Program, Prime Minister Suhrawardy tried to end the crises by calling a small group of investors to set up small business in the country. Despite many initiatives and holding off the NFC Award Program, Suhrawardy's political position and image worsened and deteriorated in the four provinces in West Pakistan. Many nationalist leaders and activists of the Muslim League were dismayed with the suspension of the constitutionally obliged NFC Program while nationalists. His critics and Muslim League leaders observed that with the suspension of NFC Award Program, Suhrawardy tried to give more financial allocations, aids, grants, and opportunity to East-Pakistan than West Pakistan, including West Pakistan's four provinces. During the last days of his Prime ministerial years, Suhrawardy tried to remove the economic disparity between the Eastern and Western wings of the country but to no avail. He also tried unsuccessfully to alleviate the food shortage in the country.[11]

Suhrawardy's bid for premiership as well as Suhrawardy's successful forging of an alliance with the Republican Party secured the office for himself. As soon as he became the prime minister, Suhrawardy initiated a legal work reviving the joint electorate system. There was a strong opposition and resentment to the joint electorate system in West Pakistan. The Muslim League had taken the cause to the public and began calling for implementation of separate electorate system. In contrast to West Pakistan, the joint electorate was highly popular in East Pakistan. The tug of war with the Muslim League to establish the appropriate electorate caused problems for his government.[11]

His contribution in formulating the 1956 constitution of Pakistan was substantial as he played a vital role in incorporating provisions for civil liberties and universal adult franchise in line with his adherence to parliamentary form of liberal democracy.[11]

Foreign and defence initiatives

Foreign policy

Suhrawardy with US President Dwight D. Eisenhower (left) in 1957.

In the foreign policy arena, Suhrawardy wasted no time announcing his foreign policy in first session of the parliament of Pakistan.[40] Suhrawardy advocated a pronounced pro-western policy, supporting a strong support to United States.[40] Suhrawardy is considered to be one of the pioneers of Pakistan's pro-United States stand, a policy that is presently continued by the present government.[40] He was also the first Pakistani Prime Minister to visit China in 1956 and the delegation included Professor Ahmed Ali, Pakistan's First Envoy to China (1951–52) who had established the Pakistani embassy in Peking and formed Pak-China friendship and strengthened the official diplomatic friendship between Pakistan and China,[41] a friendship that Henry Kissinger would later use to make his now-famous secret trip to China in July 1971.

Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing. Pakistan today hosts China's largest embassy.[42]

His tenure saw the enhancement of the relations with the United States in July 1957, when President Dwight Eisenhower requested prime minister Suhrawardy to allow the US to establish a secret intelligence facility in Pakistan and for the U-2 spyplane to fly from Pakistan. A facility established in Badaber (Peshawar Air Station), Vorlage:Convert from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency (NSA). The base was finally closed by the military government in 1970, later by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who installed the ISI as in charge of the base in 1971.

His pro-western policy helped dismantle the foreign support for the leftist alliance in Pakistan, most notable of them were Maulana Bhashani and Yar Mohammad Khan who challenged him for the party's chairmanship.[40] Although Maulana Bhashani and Yar Mohammad Khan managed to consolidate the Awami League, they failed to carry the party mass with them.[40]

Rebuilding the military

In 1955, the United States dispatched the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) for the Pakistan Armed Forces. The promotion of military uniforms and the military services were projected and broadcast all over the country, as part of his policy. Approving a new defence policy, Suhrawardy expanded the area of military districts, integrating the adjacent areas, and making arm deals enhance the military capabilities. Prime Minister Suhrawardy signed the extension papers of Chief of Army Staff General Ayub Khan and Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Siddiq Choudhry in 1955; both were continued to serve on four-star appointments until 1959.

Suhrawardy appointed radiochemist dr. Abdul Hafeez as the Chairman of the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) whilst the ingenious military reforms and production were also taken. The presence of Pakistan Armed Forces in East Pakistan also exponentially grew, but restricted to maintain combatant forces in West whilst the reserves were sent to East Pakistan.

Nuclear power

Vorlage:Main article During the 1950s, Pakistan was suffering from severe energy crises, although the crisis in the East was not as severe as in the West.[43] Amid protest and civil disobedience by West-Pakistan's population demanding to resolve the electricity issue, force Suhrawardy to take the approach to resolve the issue to harness the electricity.[43] In 1956, Suhrawardy announced the nation's first ever nuclear policy, but only benefiting the West-Pakistan, and adopted the parliamentary act of 1956.[43]

It was Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy's premiership when Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) was established by a Parliamentary Act of 1956.[43] Suhrawardy renounced to develop the nuclear weapons, and disassociated scientific research on the nuclear weapons, after signing the Atoms for Peace programme. Suhrawardy approved the appointment of Dr. Nazir Ahmad, an experimental physicist, as the first Chairman.[43] Suhrawardy asked the PAEC to survey the site to establish the commercial nuclear power plants.[43] Suhrawardy upgraded the government rank, and extended the appointment of Salimuzzaman Siddiqui as his government's Science Advisor.

Under Dr. Nazir Ahmad's scientific direction, Pakistan started its nuclear energy programme and Prime Minister Suhrawardy also allotted PAEC to set up its new pilot-nuclear labs.[43] As Prime minister, he played an important role in establishing of Nuclear research institutes in West Pakistan, working to build the nuclear power infrastructure.[43] The PAEC brought the role of Raziuddin Siddiqui, a theoretical physicist, but refrained him to work on the atomic bombs, instead asking him to constitute research on theoretical physics and alternative use of nuclear energy.[43] Suhrawardy made extremely critical decision on nuclear power expansion, and denied the request of PAEC Chairman dr. Nazir Ahmad to acquiring the NRX reactor from Canada.[43] Instead approved the recommendation of Raziuddin Siddiqui after authorizing an agreement to acquire the Pool-type reactor from the United States in 1956.[43]

He also laid foundation of the first nuclear power plant in Karachi, when it was recommended by the PAEC.[43] After addressing the West population, Suhrawardy planned to provide country's first nuclear power plant in near future to end the energy crises.[43] However, after his removal from office, the proposal went into cold storage and severely undermined by a political turmoil in the country.[43] Furthermore, Ayub Khan had also froze the further programmes as he thought Pakistan was too poor to work on this programme.[43] Thus, the nuclear energy programme and academic research was halted by Ayub Khan's military regime for more than a decade.[43]

Resignation

Just within a year of assuming the government, Suhrawardy was in a middle confrontation with the business community and the private-sector in 1956.[44] The business community leaders were meeting with the President Iskandar Mirza to discuss the removal of Prime Minister Suhrawardy.[11]

The Awami League's close interaction with Pakistan Muslim League, who at that time was re-organizing itself, threatened another Bengali President Iskandar Mirza.[45] President Mirza wanted to control the democracy in the country, which Suhrawardy had always resisted.[46] President Mirza refused Prime Minister Suhrawardy's request to convene a meeting of Parliament for seeking a vote of confidenc movement.[46] Amid pressure to resign from his position and given vital threats to be removed by the President Mirza, Prime Minister Suhrawardy submitted his resignation letter after losing the considerable party support from the junior leadership.[46]

Public and personal life

In 1920, Suhrawardy was arrange to marry, Fatima (d. 1922), the daughter of Justice Sir Abdur Rahim who was also a politician. The marriage produced two children, Ahmed Shahab Suhrawardy and Jahan Suhrawardy— Ahmed died of pneumonia while studying in London whilst his daughter, Jahan was arranged to married off to Shah Ahmed Sulaiman, son of Justice Sir Shah Sulaiman.

After his passing in 1963, the Suhrawardy family remained active in national politics, and his granddaughter Shahida Jamil subsequently is a politician with the PML(N) and briefly served as the Law Minister in 1999 and 2007.

In 1940, Suhrawardy married Vera Alexandrovna Tiscenko, a Russian theatre actress and dancer whom he knew through his older brother's work in Russia. Vera converted to Islam by taking the name of Begum Noor Jehan, and took the citizenship of Pakistan in 1947.[47] She was a Russian actress of Polish descent from the Moscow Art Theatre and protege of Olga Knipper.[48][49] Suhrawardy and Vera Tiscenko divorced in 1951, and Vera moved to the United States with their only son, Rashid Suhrawardy, (known as Robert Ashby), who is a British actor living in London and briefly portrayed Jawaharlal Nehru in film Jinnah in 1998.

Death

Suhrawardy is buried with other Bengali leaders at a mausoleum in Shahbag, Dhaka.

He had been a chronic heart patient and died in Lebanon in 1963 due to a cardiac arrest. His death was officially due to complications from heart problems, though some have alleged he was poisoned, gassed or subjected to blunt-trauma in his bedroom, although is no proof of this.

Legacy

See also

References

Vorlage:Reflist

Further reading

  • Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy: A Biography by Begum Shaista Ikramullah (Oxford University Press, 1991)
  • Freedom at Midnight by Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins
  • Gandhi's Passion by Stanley Wolpert (Oxford University Press)
  • Memoirs of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy by Muhammad H R Talukdar (University Press Limited, 1987)
  • The Last Guardian: Memoirs of Hatch-Barnwell, ICS of Bengal by Stephen Hatch-Barnwell (University Press Limited, 2012)

Vorlage:Commons category

Vorlage:S-start Vorlage:S-off Vorlage:S-new Vorlage:S-ttl Vorlage:S-aft |- Vorlage:S-bef Vorlage:S-ttl Vorlage:S-aft |- Vorlage:S-ttl Vorlage:S-aft Vorlage:S-end

Vorlage:PakistaniPMs Vorlage:Pakistan Movement Vorlage:Bangladesh Awami League Vorlage:Presidents of Awami League

  1. ↑ a b Victoria Redclift: Statelessness and Citizenship: Camps and the Creation of Political Space. Routledge, Cambridge, UK 2013, ISBN 978-1-136-22032-6, Vorlage:Small, S. 183 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  2. ↑ a b c d e Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy–Former Prime Minister of Pakistan. (html) In: www.storyofpakistan.com. Nazaria-i-Pakistan Trust, 22. Oktober 2013, abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018 (en-pk).
  3. ↑ Chatterji, Joya (1994). Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947. Cambridge University Press. p. 239. ISBN 0-521-41128-9. Hindu culpability was never acknowledged. The Hindu press laid the blame for the violence upon the Suhrawardy Government and the Muslim League.
  4. ↑ Jalal – The sole spokesman, page 266
  5. ↑ Akbar Ahmed: Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Routledge, 2005, ISBN 978-1-134-75022-1, S. 342– (google.com).
  6. ↑ D. A. Low: Political Inheritance of Pakistan. Springer, 1991, ISBN 978-1-349-11556-3 (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  7. ↑ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund: A History of India. Psychology Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-415-15482-6 (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  8. ↑ a b Harun-or-Rashid: Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Second Auflage. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2012, Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed (banglapedia.org).
  9. ↑ Syed Badrul Ahsan: Suhrawardy's place in history In: The Daily Star, 5 December 2012. Abgerufen im 2 December 2014 
  10. ↑ a b H. S. Suhrawardy Becomes Prime Minister. In: Story of Pakistan. 1. Juli 2013, abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2014.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f The H.S. Suhrawardy government. In: Story of Pakistan. Abgerufen am 16. August 2013.
  12. ↑ a b c Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy: Memoirs of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with a Brief Account of His Life and Work. 2nd Auflage. Karachi University Press, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan 1987, S. 253 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS( SNIPPET VIEW); abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  13. ↑ a b c d Joya Chatterji: Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 2002, ISBN 978-0-521-52328-8, Vorlage:Small, S. 280 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  14. ↑ a b c S. M. Ikram: Indian Muslims and Partition of India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist, Lahore, Pun. Pak. 1995, ISBN 978-81-7156-374-6, Vorlage:Small, S. 505 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  15. ↑ Nikhat Ekbal: Great Muslims of undivided India. Gyan Publishing House, Karachi, Pakistan 2009, ISBN 978-81-7835-756-0, Vorlage:Small, S. 300 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  16. ↑ staff writers et.al.: Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy | Pride of Pakistan | Commemorations | PrideOfPakistan.com. In: www.prideofpakistan.com. Pride of Pakistan, abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018 (englisch).
  17. ↑ Atful Hye Shibly: Abdul Matin Chaudhury (1895–1948): Trusted Lieutenant of Mohammad Ali Jinnah. Juned Ahmed Choudhury, 2011, ISBN 978-984-33-2323-1, S. 170 (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 29. Januar 2018]).
  18. ↑ Mujibur Rahman (Sheikh): Sheikh Mujib in Parliament, 1955–58. Agamee Prakashani, 1997, ISBN 978-984-401-385-8, S. 422 (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  19. ↑ Durga Das Pvt Ltd: Eminent Indians who was who, 1900–1980, also annual diary of events. Durga Das Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi 1985, S. 420 (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  20. ↑ Bidyut Chakrabarti: Subhas Chandra Bose and Middle Class Radicalism: A Study in Indian Nationalism, 1928–1940. I.B.Tauris, New Delhi, India 1990, ISBN 978-1-85043-149-7, Vorlage:Small, S. 225 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  21. ↑ Christophe Jaffrelot: The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience. 2nd Auflage. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-023518-5, Vorlage:Small, S. 700 (amerikanisches Englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  22. ↑ a b c Thomas Keneally: Three Famines: Starvation and Politics. PublicAffairs, Princeton, U.S. 2011, ISBN 978-1-61039-066-8, Vorlage:Small, S. 323 (amerikanisches Englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  23. ↑ Madhusree Mukerjee: Churchill's Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India During World War II. Basic Books, Edington, UK 2011, ISBN 978-0-465-02481-0, Vorlage:Small, S. 297 (englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  24. ↑ a b c Rajendra Prasad: Autobiography (PB). Penguin Books India, Delhi, India 1946, ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5, Vorlage:Small, S. 571 (britisches Englisch, google.com [GOOGLE BOOKS; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2018]).
  25. ↑ a b Wakil Ahmed: United Independent Bengal Movement=. In: Banglapedia. Bangladesh Asaitic Society, abgerufen am 9. August 2016.
  26. ↑ Nurul Kabir: Colonialism, politics of language and partition of Bengal PART XVI In: The New Age, The New Age, 1 September 2013. Abgerufen im 14 August 2016 
  27. ↑ Sekhar Bandyopadhyay: Decolonization in South Asia: Meanings of Freedom in Post-independence West Bengal, 1947–52. Routledge, 2009 (google.com).
  28. ↑ Keshob Mukhopadhay: An interview with prof. Ahmed sharif. In: News from Bangladesh. Daily News Monitoring Service, archiviert vom Original am 4. Februar 2015; abgerufen am 14. Januar 2015.
  29. ↑ Joya Chatterji: Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947. Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-41128-9, S. 239: „Hindu culpability was never acknowledged. The Hindu press laid the blame for the violence upon the Suhrawardy Government and the Muslim League.“
  30. ↑ a b c Frederick Burrows: Report to Viceroy Lord Wavell. The British Library IOR: L/P&J/8/655 f.f. 95, 96–107, 1946.
  31. ↑ a b Sato Tsugitaka: Muslim Societies: Historical and Comparative Aspects. Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0-415-33254-0, S. 112 (google.com).
  32. ↑ a b Suranjan Das: Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Second Auflage. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2012, Calcutta Riot, 1946 (banglapedia.org).
  33. ↑ Suranjan Das: The 1992 Calcutta Riot in Historical Continuum: A Relapse into 'Communal Fury'? In: Modern Asian Studies. 34. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. Cambridge University Press, Mai 2000, S. 281–306, doi:10.1017/S0026749X0000336X, JSTOR:313064.
  34. ↑ a b Bidyut Chakrabarty: The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932–1947: Contour of Freedom. RoutledgeCurzon, 2004, ISBN 0-415-32889-6.
  35. ↑ Direct Action. In: Time. Time Inc, 26. August 1946, abgerufen am 10. April 2008.
  36. ↑ Ayesha Jalal: The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-45850-1 (google.com).
  37. ↑ Joya Chatterji: Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947. Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-41128-9, S. 232–233: „Both sides in the confrontation came well-prepared for it ... Suhrawardy himself bears much of the responsibility for this blood-letting since he issued an open challenge to the Hindus and was grossly negligent ... in his failure to quell the rioting ... But Hindu leaders were also deeply implicated.“
  38. ↑ Stanley Wolpert: First Chapter: Gandhi's Passion In: The New York Times, 15 April 2001 
  39. ↑ a b c d West Pakistan Established through One Unit. In: Story of Pakistan. Abgerufen am 16. August 2013.
  40. ↑ a b c d e General Survey: Far East and Australasia: Pakistan. Europa Publications, Berlin, Germany 2002, ISBN 1-85743-133-2, S. 1657 onwards. (google.com).
  41. ↑ Megha Bahree: China In Pakistan In: Forbes, 2 July 2009 
  42. ↑ China opens ‘largest’ embassy in Pakistan, strengthens South Asia presence. In: Asian Correspondent.
  43. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Hamid Mir: A Hope is still alive.... In: Hamid Mir.... Penmanship. Hamid Mir, 9. Juni 2011, archiviert vom Original am 11. Juni 2011; abgerufen am 9. Juni 2011.
  44. ↑ Peter Lyon: Conflict between India and Pakistan : an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif. 2008, ISBN 1-57607-712-8.
  45. ↑ Resignation of Suhrawardy. In: Story of Pakistan. Abgerufen am 2. Februar 2012.
  46. ↑ a b c Suhrawardy and the resignation. In: Story of Pakistan. Abgerufen am 2. Februar 2012.
  47. ↑ Noor Jehan Begum vs Eugene Tiscenko on 3 January, 1941. Indiankanoon.org, abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2014.
  48. ↑ Pakistani Politicians: The ones you don't know much about. In: Gupshup.: „In 1940, Suhrawardy married Vera Tiscenko, a former actress of the Moscow Arts Theater. They divorced in 1951. Their only son, Rashid, was brought up in England, where he pursued a career as a professional actor.“Vorlage:User-generated content
  49. ↑ New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Stanislavski Revisited, Broadcast on WNYC AM NYC, 18 July 1976, LT-10 3099
  50. ↑ Khayaban-e-Suhrawardy Road. Khayaban-e-Suhrawardy Road;
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