Finsternis bei der Kreuzigung Jesu

Crucifixion eclipse refers to the three-hour period of darkness that was reported to have transpired during the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at Calvary (Golgotha). Total solar eclipses and meteorological obscurations have failed to satisfy its salient features. The ancient meaning of the word eclipse was not restricted to the obscuration of light by either the Earth or Moon.

Time reckoning conventions

Recorded descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse were expressed in terms of the Roman time reckoning system. Judea, like many Mediterranean nations, was under the rule of the Roman Empire at the time of the crucifixion. Judeans measured time in terms of the Roman twelve divisions of daylight: hours. The first hour occurred at sunrise; the twelfth occurred at sunset; noon, the sixth hour, occurred when the sun reached its highest point in the sky; and the ninth hour corresponded to midway between noon and sunset. The length of an hour would vary with the seasons. It could be twenty minutes during the winter and ninety minutes in the summer. It was close to sixty minutes during the crucifixion. According to Duncan (1998, p. 48), the Roman soldiers announced the third hour of the morning (tertia hora), the sixth of midday (sexta hora), and the ninth of the afternoon (nona hora). Biblical and extra-biblical records indicate the darkness commenced when the Sun was at zenith, the sixth hour, and radiance resumed when the sun was approximately forty-five degrees above the horizon, the ninth hour.

Witnesses of the crucifixion darkness could distinguish between short and long events. Ancient cultures tracked the passage of time by pointing to specific positions of the sun in the sky (Aveni, 1995, 90-92). The witnesses did not need a sundial or hourglass to know when the sixth and ninth hours had occurred. Praying at three-hour intervals was an old Jewish practice (Richards, 1998, p. 44).

Biblical descriptions

The earliest descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse appeared in biblical documents.

Prophetic scriptures

A prophecy recorded in Amos states the sun would be darkened at noon in a cloudless sky.

And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God, that I will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day (Amos 8:9).

Some have used the following prophecy as grounds for a lunar eclipse explanation of the crucifixion eclipse:

The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the Lord come (Joel 2:31).

Joel had stated the darkening of the Sun and the reddening of the Moon would be a sign before the great and dreadful day of the Lord (Walvoord 1991). Apostle Peter cited Joel’s prophecy after the crucifixion on the Day of Pentecost to explain the glossolalia phenomena accompanying the baptism of the Holy Ghost. The phenomena triggered by the opening of the sixth seal in Revelation 6:12-17 was a further elaboration of Joel’s prophecy.

Synoptic Gospels

The synoptic gospels indicate the darkness commenced at noon Jerusalem time; transpired for three hours during the afternoon preceding the first day of Passover; was accompanied with an earthquake; and coincided with the crucifixion of Jesus. Apostle John’s account of the crucifixion does not describe the loss of sunlight.

Now from the sixth hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour. … And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent; And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose, And came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many. Now when the centurion, and they that were with him, watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, and those things that were done, they feared greatly, saying, Truly this was the Son of God (Matthew 27: 45, 51-54).

And when the sixth hour was come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour (Mark 15:33).

And it was about the sixth hour, and there was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour. And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst (Luke 23: 44, 45).

Secular descriptions

This section presents the recognized and spurious secular documents that contain descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse. The abundance and diversity of these writings support the physical, not allegorical, interpretations of the descriptive and prophetic biblical accounts of the crucifixion darkness phenomenon. An explanation is provided for the lack of comment by some historians about those descriptions.

Tertiary documents

Copies of the Histories by Thallus have not survived. But, several quotations from its passages were made by other writers. Julius Africanus seems to have been the first scholar to argue against a solar eclipse as the crucifixion darkness mechanism. Several Christian authors have commented on Julius Africanus’ criticism of Thallus’ use of the word eclipse to describe the darkening. Africanus’ argument stems from the fact that a solar eclipse can not occur during Passover: the earth is between the sun and the moon during that holiday. Carrier (1999) had provided the verbatim quotation by George Syncellus, a 9th century monk, of Africanus’ argument against Thallus’ description. Africanus’ record indicates the darkness was extremely unusual and had covered the whole world. He emphasized the fact that rock shattering earthquakes, three hours of darkness, and resurrections were not the normal accompaniments of eclipses.

The “Father of Church History,” Eusebius (264 – 340), Bishop of Caesarea, linked two extra-biblical accounts to the crucifixion events in his Chronicle. According to Carrier (1999), Eusebius was among the very few scholars to quote Phlegon verbatim. Eusebius recorded an account from a Greek compendium describing a solar eclipse and earthquake that had occurred in Bithynia and the city of Nicaea during the eighteenth year of Tiberias. And, within the same passage, Eusebius quoted Phlegon’s detailed version of the solar blackout and earthquake. According to Eusebius, Phlegon had placed the phenomena in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad, during a clear sky. Eusebius argued the two records had documented events that were simultaneous with the crucifixion of Jesus.

Phlegon’s account supports Amos’ prediction that the darkening would start at noon and transpire in clear skies. According to Eusebius, Phlegon stated the “great eclipse” had started at the sixth hour with stars becoming visible in the night sky. The stars would not have been visible if the sky had been cloudy. Carrier (1999) notes that “another Greek compendium,” which Eusebius refers to, may have been written by Thallus. Eusebius listed Thallus as one of his sources. Duration was the probable cause for them to describe the eclipse as great. Neither Phlegon nor Thallus had cited its duration. But, Eusebius had made the connection between the biblical and secular reports for a complete account of the crucifixion darkness and earthquake.

Tertullian, in his Apologeticus, provided a brief description of the darkness that had commenced at noon during the crucifixion. He also indicated that those who were unaware of the prediction for the noontide onset of darkness had called it an eclipse (Bouw 1998).

New Testament Apocrypha

A Roman guard by the name of Ananias discovered records by Nicodemus describing the trial, crucifixion, and events surrounding the resurrection of Jesus (Barnstone, 1984, p. 368). The documents were not intended to serve as another book of the Bible. Ananias’ discovery became known as the Gospel of Nicodemus. The first two sections of Chapter 11 of the segment of the Gospel of Nicodemus entitled the “Acts of Pilate” contains a description of the solar darkening (James,1924).

Nicodemus stated the darkness had started during the noon, lasted three hours, and was caused by the darkening of the Sun. He did not describe it as a solar eclipse. Nicodemus’ account contained the testimonies of Judeans who had been summoned by Pilate. They said it was an ordinary solar eclipse. Neither the witnesses nor the governor and his wife responded to it as an ordinary eclipse.

The apocryphal Gospel of Peter (Fragment I, V, 15-20) contains another extra-biblical record of the crucifixion darkness (James, 1924). It is a record of three physical facts. The sun had not set, the darkness had endured much longer than a solar eclipse, and it explicitly indicated the level of darkness was that of night. It described people stumbling in the darkness and going about to light their lamps.

Some spurious extra-biblical sources contain references to the crucifixion eclipse. Commentaries by Matthew Henry cited a statement made by Dionysius the Areopagite at Heliopolis, Egypt, but Clarke’s Commentary (2002) indicated Dionysius’ writings had been proven to be spurious and forgeries of the fifth or sixth century. Bouw (1998) provided a review of crucifixion darkness accounts in The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Augustus, in Rome, The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Tiberius Caesar in Rome, and The Acts Pilate. The Gospel of Bartholomew states Jesus vanished from the cross to appear in hell during the solar blackout. The Report of Pilate (also known as the Archko Library) is an alleged report by Pontius Pilate about the crucifixion events. According to Stewart (n.d.), the Reverend W. D. Mahan of Boonville, Missouri, was the actual author and 1879 was the year it was published.

Secular non-descriptions

A contention Carrier (1999) raised against the crucifixion darkness was the absence of corroborative works by prominent Roman historians like Seneca the Elder (45 BC – 39 AD), Pliny the Elder (23 AD – 79 AD), and Flavius Josephus (37 AD – 100 AD). Their silence was consistent with political policies of that region and era. The Roman Empire aggressively discouraged the proliferation of stories about miraculous Christian events until Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Toleration in 313 AD (Halley, 1965, p. 759).

Egypt had been silent about earlier solar eclipses. Brewer (1991, p. 14) listed twenty-two, unreported, total solar eclipses that had crossed the Nile Valley from 2861 BC to 1063 BC. Amir Bey (1999) cited both the rapid decay rate of papyrus in the Nile region and religious embarrassment as reasonable causes for their silence. The latter is the more applicable of the two arguments. Egyptians were Sun worshippers. They would have regarded solar darkenings as signs of weakness against their god. Documenting solar eclipses was politically incorrect for the Egyptian culture.

Dating the crucifixion

Research to determine the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ Good Friday by means of solar eclipses, has yielded inconclusive results (Humphreys & Waddington 1983). Astronomical determinations of the date of the crucifixion have been derived from calculating the dates when the crescent of the new moon would be first visible over Jerusalem. Popular estimates have been April 7, 30 AD, April 3, 33 AD, and April 23, 34 AD (Schafer, 1990; Pratt, 1991).

Extra-biblical records have been incorporated with the determinations of the year of the crucifixion. Eusebius connected the solar darkening with the 18th year of Tiberius’ reign and the earthquakes to the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Since Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BC – 37 AD) ascended the throne in 14 AD, the 18th year of his reign would have occurred in 32 AD. Also, the darkening recorded by Phlegon yielded 32 AD. The fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad is 32 AD because the first Olympiad occurred in 776 BC. The Olympics had been conducted every four years after 796 BC until 394 AD.

Africanus had connected the date of the crucifixion with the fulfillment of one of Daniel’s prophecies. Those predictions indicated the number of years, in groups of sevens, that would transpire between the command to rebuild Jerusalem and the Triumphal Entry (Palm Sunday) of Jesus Christ. Sir Robert Anderson determined 32 A.D. as the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ from an examination of that prophecy. His calculation used March 14, 445 B.C. as the date of the decree by Artaxerxes Longimus to rebuild Jerusalem. It served as the start date for the fulfillment of Daniel 9:24-27 (Anderson 1895). His work received concurrences (McClain 1969; Missler 1999). Their works yielded April 6, 32 AD as the date of the Triumphal Entry. Recent corrective analyses by Rickard, the Bible Studies of The Moorings web site, yielded 33 A.D.[1]

Candidates for similar solar blackouts

David Le Conte (1998) obtained copyright clearances for over two hundred eclipse quotations from the MrEclipse.com web site. A simple search of those citations yielded several candidates that could be reclassified as solar blackouts. Multiple accounts of totalities exceeding a blackout period of thirty minutes were the primary criteria for selecting potential candidates. The following is a brief description of four sets of accounts possessing the characteristics of solar blackouts:

October 29, 878 AD: An hour long solar blackout had been attributed to a total solar eclipse. According to Espenak, 879 AD was void of total solar eclipses.
August 2, 1133: A half-hour solar blackout was accompanied with a great and loud earthquake. Many stars became visible after the Sun had suddenly lost its light. Le Conte cited the accounts from England, Augsburg, Heilsbronn, and Salzburg.
April 11, 1176: A two-hour solar blackout. The stars were visible and the Moon was seen near to the Sun. Livestock and people were disturbed by the darkening.
June 3, 1239: The cities of Toledo, Arezzo, Cesena, Coimbra, Florence, Siena, Split, and Montipellier recorded a three-hour blackout. Livestock and wild animals were very disturbed by this event. Birds and beasts were caught with ease. Writers recorded the visibility of the stars, the planet Mercury, and the Moon. People in Coimbra, Portugal, rushed to their church.

Storms on the sun effect the amount of cosmic radiation bombarding the Earth. Subsequently, the production of carbon-14 varies with the intensity of solar activity. Historical sunspot minima such as the Maunder Minimum, Sporer Minimum, and Dalton Minimum were evinced by the analyses of carbon-14 abundance in tree rings. The prospective dates of the crucifixion eclipse and the dates of the four similar solar blackouts fell within the Roman Maximum and Medieveal Maximum, respectively. Those events were evinced by analyses of carbon-14 abundances in tree rings (Eddy 1977). A blackout during the Modern Maximum could establish a causal relationship with periods of great solar activity. One of the many forms of solar activity could be the key to understanding the crucifixion eclipse and similar solar blackouts.

Crucifixion eclipse models

Total solar eclipse

Attempts to attribute the crucifixion eclipse to a solar eclipse have been unsuccessful. Several astrophysical features contradict the recorded characteristics of the solar blackout.

Solar eclipses are too brief to account for the crucifixion darkness. The length of the crucifixion darkness described by biblical and extra-biblical sources was more than a full order of magnitude for the totality of solar eclipses. Seven minutes and thirty-one seconds has been the established maximum limit of solar eclipse totality (Brewer, 1991, p. 62). The maximum duration of the total eclipse of November 3, 31 AD, was only one minute and four seconds. The maximum duration of the total eclipse of March 19, 33 AD, was only four minutes six seconds. Neither one had paths of totality passing near Jerusalem. Eclipses lasting at least six minutes, that were close to the crucifixion year, occurred on July 22, 27 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty-one seconds and on August 1, 45 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty seconds. None of them could satisfy the three-hour criterion.

Mark Kidger (1999), an astronomer, compared the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter passage with historical eclipses. He indicated the total eclipse of November 24, 29 AD had the greatest geographical proximity to the site of the crucifixion. He determined its path of totality had passed slightly north of Jerusalem at 11:05 AM (see the NASA diagram of the path of totality for that eclipse [2]). Kidger indicated the maximum level of darkness at totality was just 95% for the eclipsed over Jerusalem. His research indicated that level of darkness would have been unnoticeable for people outdoors. His calculations indicated the eclipse had been total in Nazareth and Galilee for one minute and forty-nine seconds. Kidger (1999, p.71-72) concluded the population in Jerusalem lacked the necessity and the time to light their lamps for that total solar eclipse. Their behavior, as recorded in the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter, had been caused by a considerably longer period of darkness.

Another indicator of greatness of an eclipse is its width of totality. The shadow of the Moon cast by the Sun onto the Earth can reach a maximum North to South width of 230 miles (Brewer, 1991, p. 64). The general path of totality sweeps along a curve from West to East. Phlegon’s account states the great eclipse was witnessed by the city of Nicea in the Roman province of Bithynia. The observers in Jerusalem and Nicea were separated by a north north-west distance that exceeded 600 miles. That was approximately three times wider than the maximum width of totality.

Finally, as many other scholars and astronomers had reported, the crucifixion was at the time of Passover which is always celebrated during full moon. Solar eclipses can only occur at new moon, so it is questionable to attribute the three hours of darkness to a solar eclipse.

Lunar eclipse

Some speculation had been put forth to explain the crucifixion eclipse in terms of heavy cloud cover. Humphreys and Waddington (1983) suggested a meteorological darkening followed by a lunar eclipse could have been interpreted as fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy. Subsequently, they set the date of the crucifixion to be April 3, 33 AD. Schaefer’s (1990) calculations indicated that lunar eclipse could not have been seen from Jerusalem. Gaskel (1993) had argued a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention. Neither biblical nor secular sources have provided accounts of bad weather and/or volcanic clouds that could satisfy the features of that darkness.

Sudden noon sunset

Dodds (2003, p. 103) tried to explain the crucifixion blackout in terms of the Sun rapidly dropping beneath the horizon. He asserted a collision with an asteroid caused the axis of the Earth to temporarily tilt. The strength of his argument stemmed from an explanation by Flavio Barbiero for the disaster at the end of the Pleistocene era (Dodds). Barbiero’s analyses were based on a twenty degree shift in the rotational axis. But, a shift of ninety degrees would have been necessary for the crucifixion darkness. The Sun would have to be concealed by the horizon to provide the described level of darkness. The tilt would have had to rapidly transpire. Neither biblical nor extra-biblical accounts had described sharp movements of the Sun. A ninety degree precession in the Earth’s axis, transpiring within seconds, would have caused global floods, tremendous wind shears, and gigantic scaring by the heat of friction. Neither geophysical evidence nor historical records support this model.

Bouw global sunspots

Gerardus D. Bouw (1998) had proposed, with skepticism, global sunspots as an explanation for the crucifixion blackout. His deduction was offered as a last resort after comparing other models with the criteria presented by biblical and extra-biblical texts. He did not offer any arguments in support of his suggestion.

The Sun is not the only star to have a record of severe dimming. Other stars with starspots covering over half of their surfaces have been observed. For example, two stars with mega-spots were Lambda Andromedae (Magnetic Field, 1983) and the K0 spectral class giant star XX Triangulum (HD 12545) (Pilachowski, 1999). Vogt, Hatzes, Misch, and Kurster (1997) studied the behavior of the large polar spot on the RS CVn star HR 1099. It had persisted for eleven years. Those celestial objects normally belong to a stellar classification that excluded the Sun.

The tremendous progress made in space physics, Sun-Earth connections, planetary science, and current avenues of research in heliophysics may provide explanations for the crucifixion eclipse, similar recorded solar darkenings, and predicted blackouts by Christian eschatology.

Seismic triggers

During the darkness, an unusual earthquake hit the area. Its shock waves caused rocks to split without collapsing the entire city. The great veil in the temple was split from top to bottom. That phenomenon slightly resembled the snapped off tops of trees that had been caused by the violent concussive ground motions at the epicenter of the Alaskan earthquake of 1964. The tearing mechanism applied against the great curtain was very localized – it did not destroy the temple. The veil of the Temple was “60 feet long, 30 feet high, and about 4 inches thick; composed of 72 squares sewn together; so heavy it required 300 men to lift it” (DeLashmutt, 2005). And, selective graves were uncovered by the peculiar quake (Matthews 27:51-53). All of these occurred during the three hours of darkness.

The peculiar crucifixion earthquake may be an essential product of the solar darkening mechanism. Researchers have found correlations between a set of great earthquakes and the geomagnetic storms that have been caused by solar activity such as sunspots (Mazazarella and Palumbo, 1988; Palumbo, 1989; Shatashvili, Sikharulidze, and Khazaradze, 2000; Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2002; Mukherjee, 2003; Mukherjee and Körtvélyessy, 2005). Sunspots are regions of the photosphere that have been slightly darkened by very strong magnetic storms.

Animal behavior

The unusual behavior of the birds during the solar blackout of June 3, 1239 could be a clue for the nature of the solar darkening mechanism. Wide varieties of animals and plants have displayed their reactions to small variations in the strength and direction of magnetic fields (Winklhofer, 2005; Walker, Dennis, & Kirschvink, 2002; Muheim, 2001; Kirschvink, Walker, & Diebel, 2001; Lohmann, Hester, & Lohmann, 1999). Magnetoreceptors have been identified in the beaks of homing pigeons (Fleissner, et al., 2003). Geomagnetic fluctuations induced by the Sun may have disoriented the birds during the blackout of the third of June. A global magnetic storm on the Sun may have been the darkening mechanism.

Christian eschatological applications

According to Lockyear (1961, p. 243) "Such darkening of the Sun was an earnest of 'the great and terrible day of the Lord' ((Joel 2:31, 32)." The Day of the Lord is an eschatological period of wrath that has been described by such biblical passages as Amos 5:18 and Zephaniah 1:14-18 and that was to be ushered in by a solar blackout and lunar reddening (Acts 2:20-21; Revelation 6:12). Heliophysical explanations of the Bouw global sunspots may be applicable to the solar and lunar blackout associated with the second coming of Jesus Christ (Matthew 24:29-30; Mark 13:24-26; Luke 21:25-28). But, the Bouw model would have to be modified to explain the lunar red glow associated with the solar blackout described in Joel 2:31; Acts 2:20; and the sixth seal events of the Book of Revelation:

And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood (Revelation 6:12).

For example, the onset of the global sunspot storm generates heliomagnetic disturbances that trigger earthquakes. As the sunspot storms rapidly reach totality, the emission of visible light by the photosphere would be severely reduced. The strength and structure of the magnetic storms would transform the surface of the photosphere from granular to woven. Hughes, Paczuski, Dendy, Helander, and McClements (2002) had proposed a magnetic carpet as a model of the photospheric magnetic fields. Their computational modeling treated the stability of random distributions of magnetic loops as products of self-organized criticality. A crisscross arrangement of magnetic flux tubes may yield greater stability and strength than a random and/or parallel distribution of bands.

The global solar storm intensifies the density and speed of Solar Energetic Particles (SEP). SEP bombardment of the Moon would cause its surface to luminesce in red. Kopal and Rackham (1963) and Sekiguchi (1977) have recorded red, wide area lunar luminescences. They were too weak to be seen by the naked eye, but could serve as a precedent for the Moon glowing deep red during the sixth seal solar blackout. Kopal's and Rackham's work, like other astronomers, examined the luminescence role of solar activity. Lunar luminescence is one of the mechanisms of lunar transient phenomena. Transient lunar phenomenon went from fringe science to mainstream in 1963 (Greenacre 1963; Ley 1965; Cameron 1978).

Several observations have recorded the emission of coronal mass ejections in the absence of solar flares (Reames, 1995a, 1995b, & Reames, Tylka & Ng, 2001). Bright solar flares have not been the sole source of CME’s. Subsequently, the darkened Sun of Revelation 6:12 will be able to produce an intensified SEP flux.

Totality will be long enough for global populations to seek shelter beneath cliffs and within underground dens (Revelation 6:15). Causes for the world wide migrations and physical phenomena described by Revelation 6:12-15 can be explained by heliophysical applications of Bouw's global sunspot model.

The explanations may seem to be farfetched, but the seismic disruptions and red irradiance of the Moon are consistent with Heliophysical phenomena. Irregular variable stars and mega starspots are an established reality. These can promote an understanding of the mechanisms that had caused past and prophesied solar blackouts. And, the Bouw model is consistent with the pre-tribulation and premillenial theology within Christian eschatology.

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