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Bild
Weblinks
list
| Deutsch | Englische | |
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| Algisch (?) | Algic | |
| Chimakuan (? - Chimakum?) | Chimakuan | |
| Coos oder Coos-Takelman (?) | Coosan | |
| Penuti | Plateau Penutian | = Sahaptian + Klamath-Modoc + Molala |
| Takelman oder Coos-Takelman (?) | Takelman | = Takelma + Kalapuyan |
| Uti oder Penuti(?) | Utian | = Miwokan + Costanoan |
| Yuki | Yukian | = Yuki + Wappo |
| ? | Siuslaw | |
| Tunika (?) | Tunica |
Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas
This article is a list of different language classification proposals developed for indigenous languages of the Americas. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not always neatly correspond to these continent divisions.
(See: Indigenous languages of the Americas for the main article about these languages.)
North America
Gallatin (1836)
- (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)
Families
- Algonkin-Lenape (=Algonquian)
- Athapascas (=Athabaskan)
- Catawban (=Catawba + Woccons)
- Eskimaux (=Eskimoan)
- Iroquois (=Northern Iroquoian)
- Cherokees (=Southern Iroquoian)
- Muskogee (=Eastern Muskogean)
- Chahtas (=Western Muskogean)
- Sioux (=Siouan)
Languages
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11. Straits of Fuca (=Makah) |
Gallatin (1848)
Families
- Algonquian languages
- Athabaskan languages
- Catawban languages
- Eskimoan languages
- Iroquoian languages (Northern)
- Iroquoian languages (Southern)
- Muskogean languages
- Siouan languages
Languages
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1. Adai |
18. Kutchin |
Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"
John Wesley Powell's classification of 58 "stocks" was the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent. (More current names are indicated parenthetically.)
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1. Adaizan |
21. Keresan |
40. Shoshonean (=Uto-Azetcan) |
Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica
Below is Sapir's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unlike encyclopedias in general, including Wikipedia). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo-Aleut, Algonkin-Wakashan, Nadene, Penutian, Hokan-Siouan, and Aztec-Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general language's-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks in that appear Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)
- "Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"
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I. Eskimo-Aleut II. Algonkin-Wakashan
III. Nadene
IV. Penutian
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V. Hokan-Siouan
VI. Aztec-Tanoan
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Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964
The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.
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6. Penutian phylum
7. Aztec-Tanoan phylum
8. Keres isolate |
Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.
Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"
Campbell & Mithun's 1979 is a more conservation classification where they insist on demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phylums of previous authors are "split".
Greenberg (1987)
Goddard (1996) & Mithun (1999)
(preliminary)
FAMILIES
- Algic
- Algonquian
- Wiyot (>Ritwan?)
- Yurok (>Ritwan?)
- Na-Dene
- Eyak-Athabaskan
- Eyak
- Athabaskan
- Tlingit
- Eyak-Athabaskan
- Caddoan (>Macro-Siouan?)
- Chimakuan
- Chinookan (> Penutian?)
- Chumashan [chúmash]
- Comecrudan
- Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
- Eskimo-Aleut
- Eskimoan
- Aleut = Unangan
- Iroquoian
- Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
- Kiowa-Tanoan
- Maiduan
- Muskogean [m^sk^djían]
- Palaihnihan (Achumawi-Atsugewi)
- Pomoan [pómo, pomóan]
- Sahaptian
- Salishan [sélish]
- Shastan
- Siouan-Catawban
- Siouan
- Catawban
- Tsimshianic
- Utian
- Miwok
- Costanoan
- Utaztecan
- Numic = Plateau
- Tübatulabal = Kern
- Takic = Southern California
- Hopi = Pueblo
- Tepiman = Pimic
- Taracahitic
- Tubar
- Corachol
- Aztecan
- Wakashan
- Kwakiutlan
- Nootkan
- Wintuan (>Coast Penutian?)
- Yokutsan
- Yuman-Cochimi
- Yuman
- Cochimi
ISOLATES
- Adai
- Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
- Atakapa (>Tunican?)
- Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
- Cayuse
- Chimariko [chimáriko]
- Chititmacha [shitimashá] (>Tunican?)
- Coahuilteco
- Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
- Esselen
- Haida
- Karankawa
- Karuk
- Keres
- Klamath-Modoc
- Kootenai [kúteni]
- Molala
- Natchez
- Salinan
- Siuslaw (>Coast Penutian?)
- Takelma [takélma]
- Timucua
- Tonkawa [tónkawa]
- Tunica (>Tunican?)
- Wappo (>Yuki-Wappo)
- Washo
- Yana
- Yuchi (>Siouan)
- Yuki (>Yuki-Wappo)
- Zuni
STOCKS
Yuki-Wappo supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)
- Yuki-Wappo
Penutian outside Mexico considered probably by many
- Penutian
- Tsimshianic
- Chinookan
- Takelma
- Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
- Maidun
- Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
- Alsea
- Coosan
- Siuslaw
- Wintuan
- Plateau
- Sahaptian
- Klamath
- Molala
- Cayuse ? (poor data)
- Yok-Utian ?
- Yokuts
- Utian
Siouan-Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely
- Macro-Siouan
- Iroquoian-Caddoan
- Iroquoian
- Caddoan
- Siouan-Yuchi
- Siouan-Catawban
- Yuchi
Natchez-Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis
- Natchez-Muskogean
- Natchez
- Muskogean
Hokan: most promising proposals
- Hokan
- Karuk
- Chimariko
- Shastan
- Palaihnihan
- Yana
- Washo
- Pomoan
- Esselen
- Salinan
- Yuman-Cochimi
- Seri
"Unlikely" to be Hokan:
- Chumashan
- Tonkawa
- Karankawa
Subtiaba-Tlappanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977)
Aztec-Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund
Mesoamerica
(Consensus conservative classification)
FAMILIES
- Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America)
- Corachol (Cora-Huichol)
- Aztecan (Nahua-Pochutec)
- Totonac-Tepehua
- Otomanguean
- Otopamean
- Popolocan-Mazatecan
- Subtiaba-Tlapanec
- Amuzgo
- Mixtecan
- Chatino-Zapotec
- Chinantec
- Chiapanec-Mangue (extinct)
- Tequistlatec-Jicaque
- Mixe-Zoque
- Mayan
- Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)
- Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerican proper. See South America)
- Paya
ISOLATES
- Tarascan (= Purepecha)
- Cuitlatec (extinct)
- Huave
- Xinca (extinct?)
- Lenca (extinct)
PROPOSED STOCKS
- Hokan (see North America)
- Tequistlatec-Jicaque
- Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.)
- Totonac-Tepehua
- Huave
- Mixe-Zoque
- Mayan
- Macro-Chibchan
- Chibchan
- Misumalpan
- Paya (sometimes placed in Chibchan proper)
- Xinca
- Lenca
South America
Kaufman (1990)
Families & isolates
Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 "genetic units". Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only language family, such language area, emergent area, and language complex, where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply families. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. A final note is that Kaufman uses his own nomenclature for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His names have been retained below.
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Families:
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Isolates/Unclassfied:
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Stocks
In addition to his conversative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often an obvious hyphenation of two members, for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.
"Good" stocks:
- Awaké-Kaliana
- Chibcha-Misumalpa
- Ezmeralda-Jaruro
- Jurí-Tikuna
- Kechumara (=Kechua + Haki) (good?)
- Lule-Vilela
- Mosetén-Chon (good?)
- Páes-Barbakóa
- Pano-Takana
- Sechura-Katakao
- Wamo-Chapakúra
"Probable" stocks:
- macro-Je (=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)
- Mura-Matanawí
"Promising" stocks:
- Kaliánan (=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku)
"Maybe" stocks:
- Bora-Witoto
- Hívaro-Kawapana
- Kunsa-Kapishaná
- Pukina-Kolyawaya
- Sáparo-Yawa
Clusters & networks
Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms clusters and networks. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.