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Apache-Sprachen

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Süd-Athabaskan (auch Apache) ist eine Unterfamilie der athabaskanischen Sprachen, die im Südwesten Nordamerikas gesprochen werden. Diese Sprachen werden von verschiedenen Gruppen der Apachen- und Navajovölker gesprochen, vornehmlich im südwestlichen Teil der USA (Arizona, New Mexiko und Oklahoma, aber auch in Colorado und Utah). Früher wurde es auch in Nordwest-Mexiko und Texas gesprochen. Die anderen athabaskischen Sprachen werden im Nordwesten Kanadas und Alaskas, sowie an den pazifischen Küstenregionen der USA gesprochen.

West-Apachen nennen ihre Sprache Nnéé biyáti’ oder Ndéé biyáti’. Navajos nennen ihre Sprache Diné bizaad.

Der berühmteste Sprecher von Süd-Athabaskan war Geronimo (Goyaałé), der Chiricahua sprach.

Klassifikation

Süd-Athabaskanische Sprachen können in 2 Gruppen geteilt werden: (I) Ebene und (II) Südwesten. Ebenen-Apache ist das einzige Mitglied der Ebenen-Apachen-Gruppe. Die Südwest-Gruppe kann weiter aufgeteilt werden, in die Untergruppen (A) Westlich und (B) Östlich. Die Untergruppe "Westlich" besteht aus West-Apache, Navajo, Mescalero und Chiricahua. Die Untergruppe "Östlich" besteht aus Jicarilla und Lipan.

I. Ebene

  1. Ebenen-Apache

II. Südwesten

Mescalero und Chiricahua werden als verschiedene Sprachen erachtet, obwohl Sprecher der jeweils anderen Sprache sich verstehen. Ethnologen (=Völkerkundler) behandeln sie als eine Sprache. West-Apache und Navajo sind näher miteinander verwandt, als beide mit Mescalero oder Chiricahua. Lipan und Ebenen-Apache sind fast ausgestorben (Lipan ist es vielleicht schon). Chiricahua ist stark gefährdet. West-Apache, Mescalero und Jicarilla werden ebenfalls als gefährdet angesehen, aber Kinder lernen diese Sprachen noch. Navajo ist die stärkste unter den nordamerikanischen Sprachen, der Gebrauch unter Erstklässlern hat sich aber von 90% auf 30% reduziert (1998, New York Times, 9. April, S. A20)

Klang (Phonologie)

Vorlage:IPA Notiz

Alle süd-athabaskanischen Sprachen haben eine ähnliche Phonologie, ein ähnliches Lautsystem. Die folgende Beschreibung konzentriert sich auf West-Apache. Man kann von geringen Variationen dieser Beschreibung in anderen, verwandten Sprachen ausgehen. Vergleiche z.B. Navajo, Jicarilla, Chiricahua).

Konsonanten

Süd-Athabaskan hat allgemein ein Konsonanten-Repertoire, das dem Satz der 33 unten gezeigten (hauptsächlich auf West-Apache basierenden) Konsonanten ähnelt:

  Bilabial Alveolar Alveolar Lateral Palatal Velar Glottal
(affricate series)
Stop unaspiriert p t ʦ tɬ ʧ k  
aspiriert   tʰ ʦʰ tɬʰ ʧʰ kʰ  
glottalisiert   t’ ʦ’ tɬ’ ʧ’ k’ ʔ
prenasalisiert (mb) (nd/d/n)          
Nasal simple m n          
glottalisiert (ˀm) (ˀn)          
Fricativ Stimmlos     s ɬ ʃ x h
Stimmvoll     z l ʒ ɣ  
Approximant         j    

Orthographie (Konsonanten)

Die praktische Orthographie entspricht der Aussprache des Süd-Athabaskan relativ gut (den Schreibsystemen von Deutsch oder Vietnamesisch gegenübergestellt). Die folgende Tabelle zeigt die phonetische Schreibweise mit dem dazugehörigen orthographischen Symbol:

IPA Buchstabierung IPA Buchstabierung IPA Buchstabierung IPA Buchstabierung
[t] d [tʰ] t [t’] t’ [ j ] y
[k] g [kʰ] k [k’] k’ [h] h
[ʦ] dz [ʦʰ] ts [ʦ’] ts’ [ʔ] ’
[ʧ] j [ʧʰ] ch [ʧ’] ch’ [l] l
[tɮ] dl [tɬʰ] tł [tɬ’] tł’ [ɬ] ł
[p] b [pʰ] p [mb] b/m [nd] d/n/nd
[s] s [ʃ] sh [m] m [n] n
[z] z [ʒ] zh [ʔm] ’m [ʔn] ’n
[x] h            
[ɣ] gh            

Einige Buchstabierkonventionen:

  1. Die Fricative [h] und [x] werden beide als h geschrieben. (see also #2 below)
  2. Der Fricativ [x] wird gewöhnlich als h geschrieben, nach einem o aber als ein hw (kann wie [xʷ] ausgesprochen werden).
  3. The fricative [ɣ] is written gh the majority of the time, but before i and e it is written as y (& may be pronounced as [ʝ]), and before o it is written as w (& may be pronounced as [ɣʷ]).
  4. All words that begin with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop ’ [ʔ]. This glottal stop is never written at the beginning of a word.
  5. Some words are pronounced either as d or n or nd, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as [nd]. The same is true with b and m in a few words.
  6. In many words n can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic [n̩]. This is not indicated in the spelling.

Vowels

Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in the "practical" orthography):

  Front   Central   Back  
  High   i    
  Mid   e   o
  Low     a  

These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic ˛ (borrowed from Polish orthography) in Western Apache, Navajo, Chiricahua, and Mescalero, while in Jicarilla the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel. This results in sixteen different vowels:

  High-Front Mid-Front Mid-Back Low-Central
Oral short i e o a
long ii ee oo aa
Nasal short į ę ǫ ą
long įį ęę ǫǫ ąą

IPA equivalents for oral vowels:

i = [ɪ], ii = [iː], e = [ɛ], ee = [ɛː], o = [o], oo = [ʊː], a = [ɐ], aa = [ɑː].

orthography (vowels)

In Western Apache, there is a practice where orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal u never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently).

However, in Harry Hoijer and other American linguists' work all o-vowels are written as o. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic u, consistently writing this vowel as o.

In Chiricahua and Mescalero, this vowel is written as u in all contexts (including nasalized ų).

Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages.

Tone

Southern Athabaskan languages are tonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having 4 tones (using Americanist transcription system):

  • high (marked with acute accent ´, Example: á)
  • low (marked with grave accent `, Example: à)
  • rising (marked with háček ˇ, Example: â)
  • falling (marked with circumflex ˆ, Example: ǎ)

Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic n (Example: ń).

The practical orthography has tried to simplify the Americanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent while leaving low tone unmarked:

  • high tone: á
  • low tone: a

So now niziz is written instead of the previous nìzìz.

Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second, and vice versa for falling tone:

  • rising: aá (instead of Americanist: â·)
  • falling: áa (instead of Americanist: ǎ·)

Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (forthcoming) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic ¯, as in ō, ǭ. In Chiricahua, a falling tone can occur on a syllabic n: n̂.

Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from Chiricahua Apache:

chąą  'feces'
chaa  'beaver'
shiban  'my buckskin'
shibán  'my bread'
bik’ai’  'his hip'
bík’ai’  'his stepmother'
hah’aał  'you two are going to chew it'
hah’ał  'you two are chewing it'

Comparative phonology

Vorlage:Sectstub

The differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified Swadesh list:

  Navajo Chiricahua Western Apache
(San Carlos) 		Jicarilla Lipan
I shí shí shíí shí shí
thou ni ⁿdí ⁿdi ni ⁿdí
we nihí náhí nohwíí nahí nahí
many łą́ łą́ łą́ą́ łá łą́
one ła’ ła’ ła’- ła’ ła’-
two naaki naaki naaki naaki naaki
big -tso -tso -tso -tso -tso
long -neez -neez -neez -ⁿdees -ⁿdiis
small -yáázh -zą́ą́yé -zhaazh -zhááh -zhą́ą́yí
woman ’asdzání ’isdzáń ’isdzánhń ’isdzání ’isdzání
man diné nⁿdé nnéé diⁿdé diⁿdí
fish łóó’ łóí’ łóg łógee łǫ́’
dog łééchą́ą́’í kéjaa łį́į́chaayáné łį́’chaa’á nii’łį́
louse yaa’ yaa yaa’ yaa’ yaa
tree tsin tsin ch’il nooshchíí chish
leaf -t’ąą’ -t’ąą -t’ąą’ -t’ąą’ -t’ąą’
meat -tsį’ -tsįį -tsį’ -tsį -tsįį
blood dił dił dił dił dił
bone ts’in ts’į’ ts’in -ts’in -ts’įh
grease -k’ah k’ah k’ah xéh xáí
egg -ghęęzhii -gheezhe -ghęęzh -gheezhi -ghaish
horn -dee’ -dee’ -dee’ -dee’ -dii’
tail -tsee’ -tsee’ -tsee’ -tsee’ -dzistsii’
feather -t’a’ -t’a’ -t’a’ -t’a’ -t’a’
hair -ghaa’ -ghaa -ghaa -ghaa’ -ghaa
head -tsii’ -tsii -tsii -tsii -tsii’
ear -zhaa’ -zhaa -jaa -jaa -jaa
eye -náá’ -ⁿdáa -náá -ⁿdáá -ⁿdáa
nose -´-chį́į́h -´-chį́ -chį́h -chį́sh -´-chį́sh
mouth -zéé’ -zé -zé’ -zé’ -zí’
tooth -ghoo’ -ghoo -ghoo’ -ghoo -ghoo
tongue -tsoo’ -zaade -zaad -zaadi -zaadi
claw -s-gaan -s-gan -gan -s-gan -s-gąą
foot -kee’ -kee -kee’ -kee -kii
knee -god -go’ -god -go’ -goh
hand -´-la’ -laa -la’ -la’ -laa’
belly -bid -bi’ -bid -bi’ -bih
neck -k’os -k’os -k’os -k’os -k’os
breast -be’ -be’ -be’ -be’ -bi’
heart -jéí -jéí -jíí -jéé -jíí
drink -dlą́ -dlą́ -dlą́ -dlą́’ -dlą́
eat -yą́ -yą́ -yą́ą́ -yą́’ -yą́
bite -gháásh -gháásh -gháásh -ghą́sh -dląsh
see -’į́ -’į́ -’į́į́ -’į́ -’į́
hear -ts’į́į́h -ts’a’ -ts’ag -ts’ą́’ -ts’ah
sleep -ghosh -ghosh -ghosh -ghosh -ghosh
die -tsaah -tsaa -tsaa -tsei -tsaa
kill -ghé -ghé -ghéé -ghéh -gháí
swim -kǫ́ǫ́h -kǫǫ -kǫǫ -kǫ́h -kǫǫ
fly -t’ááh -t’á -t’áh -t’áíh -t’áh
lie -tį́ -tį́ -tį́ -kį́ -kį́
sit -dá -dá -dáá -dá -dá
stand -zį́ -zį́ -zį́ -zį́ -zį́
say -ní -ⁿdí -níí -níh -níh
sun jóhonaa’áí jį́gonaa’áí yaa’áí jį́gonaa’áí jį́į́’naa’áí
moon ’ooljéé’ tł’éé’naa’áí tł’éé’gonaa’áí tł’éé’gonaa’áí tł’éénaa’áí
star sǫ’ sǫǫs ts’iiłsǫǫsé sǫǫs sǫǫs
water tó tó tóó kó kó
rain -tą́ -tą́ -tą́ą́ -ką́h -ką
stone tsé tsé tséé -tsé tsí
sand sáí sáí’ sáí sáí sáí
earth ni’ nii ni’ nii nii’
cloud k’os k’os yáák’os ńł-tsą́ k’os
smoke łid łi’ łid łi’ łih
fire kǫ’ kǫǫ kǫ’ kǫ’ kǫǫ’
ash łeeshch’iih gooshch’ii ’ił-ch’ii goshch’íísh goshts’iish
burn -k’ą́ą́h -k’ąą -k’ą́ą́ -k’ą́ -k’ą́
path ’a-tiin ’íń-tin ’i-tin ’íńkin ’iníkįį
red -chíí’ -chí -chíí -chíí’ -chísh
green -tł’izh -tł’izh -tł’izh -tł’ish -tł’ish
yellow -tso -tso’ -tsog -tso’ -tso
white -gia -ga’ -gai -gai -gah
black -zhin -zhį’ dił-xił -zhį -zhįh
night tł’éé’ tł’é tł’é’ tł’é’ tł’í’
hot -do -do’ -dog -do’ -doh
cold -k’az -k’az -k’az -k’as -k’as
full -bin -bį’ -bį -bįh -bįh
name -´-zhi’ -´-zhii -˛́˛́-zhi’ -zhi’ -´-zhii’
three táá’ táá’ táági káá’ káí’í
four dį́į́’ dį́į́’ dį́į́’í dį́į́’ dį́į́’í
day jį́ jį́ jį́į́ jį́’ jį́
fog ’ááh ’áá’ ’áád naoshigiji naashigish
wind ńł-ch’i nł-ch’i’ ’įįł-ch’i ńł-ch’i’ ńł-ch’ih
flow -lį́ -lį́ -lį́į́ -lį́’ -lį́
wash -gis -gis -gis -dé , -dee’ -dá , -daa’
worm ch’osh ch’osh ch’osh ch’osh ch’osh
leg -jáád -jáde -jád -jádí -jádí
arm -gaan -gan -gan -gan -gąą’
lip -daa’ -da’ -zá-baané -daa -daa
guts -ch’íí’ -ch’í -ch’i’ -ch’é’ -ch’í’
saliva shéé’ -zhé -zhíg -zhégi -zhá-tł’ishdi
grass tł’oh tł’oh tł’oh tł’oh -tł’oh
mother -má -má -máá -má -’-nándí
father -zhé’é -taa -taa -ka’é -’aashí
ice tin tį’ tįh ’į́-loh kįh
snow yas zas zas zas zas
rotten -dzid -dzi’ -jid -dzi’ -dzih
smell -chin -chį’ -chą́ą́ -chą́’ -chą́
fear -dzid -dzi’ -dzid -dzi’ -dzih
rope tł’óół tł’óół tł’óół tł’ół tł’óół

Grammar

Typological overview

Typologically, Southern Athabaskan languages are partly agglutinating, partly fusional, polysynthetic head-marking languages. The canonical word order is SOV, as can be seen in Navajo example below:


Mósí tsídii yiníł'į́ 'The cat is looking at the bird.'


Subject = mósí 'the cat'
Object = tsídii 'the bird'
Verb = yiníł'į́ 'it is looking at it'


Southern Athabaskan words are modified primarily by prefixes, which is unusual for SOV languages (suffixes are expected).

The Southern Athabaskan languages are "verb-heavy" — they have a great ponderance of verbs but relatively few nouns. In addition to verbs and nouns, these languages has other elements such as pronouns, clitics of various functions, demonstratives, numerals, postpositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, among others. Harry Hoijer grouped all of the above into a word class which he called particle. This categorization provides three grammatical categories (i.e. parts of speech):

  1. verbs
  2. nouns
  3. particles

There is nothing that corresponds to what are called adjectives in English. Adjectival notions are provided by verbs.

Verbs

The key element in Southern Athabaskan languages is the verb, and it is notoriously complex. Some noun meanings are provided by verbs, as in Navajo

  • Hoozdo 'Phoenix, Arizona' (lit. 'the place is hot') and
  • ch'é'étiin 'doorway' (lit. 'something has a path horizontally out').

Many complex nouns are derived from nominalized verbs as well, as in Navajo

  • ná'oolkiłí 'clock' (lit. 'one that is moved slowly in a circle') and
  • chidí naa'na'í bee'eldǫǫhtsoh bikáá' dah naaznilígíí 'army tank' (lit. 'a car that they sit up on top of that crawls around with a big thing with which an explosion is made').

Verbs are composed of a stem to which inflectional and/or derivational prefixes are added. Every verb must have at least one prefix. The prefixes are affixed to the verb in a specified order.

The Southern Athabaskan verb can be sectioned into different morphological components. The verb stem is composed of an abstract root and an often fused suffix. The stem together with a classifier prefix (and sometimes other thematic prefixes) make up the verb theme. The theme is then combined with derivational prefixes which in turn make up the verb base. Finally, inflectional prefixes (which Young & Morgan call "paradigmatic prefixes") are affixed to the base—producing a complete verb. This is represented schematically in the table below:

    root    
    stem   =   root + suffix
    theme   =   stem + classifier (+ thematic prefix(es))
    base   =   theme + derivational prefix(es)
    verb   =   base + inflectional prefix(es)

Verb Template

The prefixes that occur on a the verb are added in specified order according to prefix type. This type of morphology is called a position class template (or slot-and-filler template). Below is a table of a recent proposal of the Navajo verb template (Young & Morgan 1987). Edward Sapir and Harry Hoijer were the first to propose an analysis of this type. A given verb will not have a prefix for every position, in fact most Navajo verbs are not as complex as the template would seem to suggest.

The Navajo verb has 3 main parts:

disjunct prefixes conjunct prefixes STEM

These parts can be subdivided into 11 positions with some of the positions having even further subdivisions:

Disjunct
0 1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 2 3
object null postposition derivational-thematic reflexive reversionary semeliterative iterative distributive plural
Conjunct STEM
4 5 6a 6b 6c 7 8 9 10
direct object deictic subject thematic-derivational-aspect thematic-derivational-aspect transitional-semelfactive modal-aspectual subject "classifier" stem

Although prefixes are generally found in a specific position, some prefixes change order by the process of metathesis. For example, in Navajo prefix 'a- (3i object pronoun) usually occurs before di-, as in


adisbąąs 'I'm starting to drive some kind of wheeled vehicle along' [ < 'a- + di- + sh- + ł + -bąąs].


However, when 'a- occurs with the prefixes di- and ni-, the 'a- metathesizes with di-, leading to an order of di- + 'a- + ni-, as in


di'nisbąąs 'I'm in the act of driving some vehicle (into something) & getting stuck' [ < di-'a-ni-sh-ł-bąąs < 'a- + di- + ni- + sh- + ł + -bąąs]


instead of the expected adinisbąąs ('a-di-ni-sh-ł-bąąs) (note also that 'a- is reduced to '-). Metathesis is conditioned by phonological environment (Young & Morgan 1987:39).

Classificatory Verbs

Southern Athabaskan languages have verb stems that classify a particular object by its shape or other physical characteristics in addition to describing the movement or state of the object. These are known in Athabaskan linguistics as classificatory verb stems. These are usually identified by an acronym label. There are 11 primary classificatory "handling" verbs stems in Navajo which are listed below (given in the perfective mode). Other Southern Athabaskan languages have a slightly different set of stems.

Classifier+Stem  Label  Explanation Examples
-'ą́ SRO Solid Roundish Object bottle, ball, boot, box, etc.
-yį́ LPB Load, Pack, Burden backpack, bundle, sack, saddle, etc.
-ł-jool NCM Non-Compact Matter bunch of hair or grass, cloud, fog, etc.
-lá SFO Slender Flexible Object rope, mittens, socks, pile of fried onions, etc.
-tą́ SSO Slender Stiff Object arrow, bracelet, skillet, saw, etc.
-ł-tsooz FFO Flat Flexible Object blanket, coat, sack of groceries, etc.
-tłéé' MM Mushy Matter ice cream, mud, slumped-over drunken person, etc.
-nil PLO1 Plural Objects 1 eggs, balls, animals, coins, etc.
-jaa' PLO2 Plural Objects 2 marbles, seeds, sugar, bugs, etc.
-ką́ OC Open Container glass of milk, spoonful of food, handful of flour, etc.
-ł-tį́ ANO Animate Object microbe, person, corpse, doll, etc.

To compare with English, Navajo has no single verb that corresponds to the English word give. In order to say the equivalent of Give me some hay! the Navajo verb níłjool (NCM) must be used, while for Give me a cigarette! the verb nítįįh (SSO) must be used. The English verb give is expressed by 11 different verbs in Navajo, depending on the characteristics of the given object.

In addition to defining the physical properties of the object, primary classificatory verb stems also can distinguish between the manner of movement of the object. The stems can then be grouped into three different categories:

  1. handling
  2. propelling
  3. free flight

Handling includes actions such as carrying, lowering, and taking. Propelling includes tossing, dropping, and throwing. Free flight includes falling, and flying through space.

Using an example for the SRO category Navajo has

  1. -'ą́  to handle (a round object),
  2. -ne'  to throw (a round object), and
  3. -l-ts'id  (a round object) moves independently.

In addition, Southern Athabaskan languages also have other somewhat similar verb stems that Young & Morgan (1987) call secondary classificatory verbs.

(Note the term classifier is used in Athabaskan linguistics to refer to a prefix that indicates transitivity or acts as a thematic prefix, and as such is somewhat of a misnomer. These transitivity classifiers are not involved in the classificatory verb stems' classification of nouns and are not related in any way to the noun classifiers found in Chinese or Thai).

yi-/bi- Alternation (Animacy)

Like most Athabaskan languages, Southern Athabaskan languages show various levels of animacy in its grammar, with certain nouns taking specific verb forms according to their rank in this animacy hierarchy. For instance, Navajo nouns can be ranked by animacy on a continuum from most animate (a human) to least animate (an abstraction) (Young & Morgan 1987: 65-66):


humans/lightning → infants/big animals → med-size animals → small animals → insects → natural forces → inanimate objectes → abstraction


Generally, the most animate noun in a sentence must occur first while the noun with lesser animacy occurs second. If both nouns are equal in animacy, then either noun can occur in the first position. So, both example sentences (1) and (2) are correct. The yi- prefix on the verb indicates that the 1st noun is the subject and bi- indicates that the 2nd noun is the subject.


    (1)   Ashkii at'ééd yiníł'į́.
  boy girl yi-look
  'The boy is looking at the girl.'
    (2)   At'ééd ashkii biníł'į́.
  girl boy bi-look
  'The girl is being looked at by the boy.'


But example sentence (3) sounds wrong to most Navajo speakers because the less animate noun occurs before the more animate noun:


    (3)   * Tsídii at'ééd yishtąsh.
    bird girl yi-pecked
    'The bird pecked the girl.'


In order express this idea, the more animate noun must occur first, as in sentence (4):


    (4)   At'ééd tsídii bishtąsh.
  girl bird bi-pecked
  'The girl was pecked by the bird.'

Bibliography

For the bibliography, see the subarticle Southern Athabaskan languages/Bibliography.

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