Vorlage:Infobox Military Conflict Vorlage:Campaign The Byzantine-Ottoman wars was a series of decisive conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and the Byzantine Greeks that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Early on, the Byzantines had numerous opponents to face including the Latin Empire, the Bulgarian Empire and the Serbian Empire. As the Ottomans rose in prominence they too would be involved in fighting the regional powers though clever diplomacy mixed with crippling Byzantine taxes and large Ottoman armies ensured the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople by 1453 and the end of the Byzantine Empire.
Origins of the War
Following the Byzantine-Seljuk Wars, the various Turks that had settled in Asia Minor had begun to carve out several Beyliks or semi-independent states for themselves following the collapse of the Sultanate of Rum in the late 13th century.
One of the Nobles (Bey) of the old Sultanate was Osman I, also known as Uc beg or "protector". Osman's domain was in the north west region of Anatolia, not far from Constantinople. Consequently the proximity to the Byzantine Empire allowed Osman and his ghazi raiders to fully exploit the weakened position that the Byzantines were at in the late 13th century. This low ebb was due in part to Michael Palaeologus' ambitions of driving out the Latins from Greece; the transfer troops from Asia Minor to Greece opened Asia Minor to attack.
Rise of the Ottomans: 1265 - 1328
Following Michael Palaeologus' conquest of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire was left in a grave position. There was plenty of talk amongst the Latin states remaining on the Greek mainland and other regions of retaking Constantinople for the Latin Empire[1] whilst to the north the main threat came from Serbian expansion into the Balkans by King Stephen Uros [2]. What was once a strong frontier under the Komnenian dynasty at the Danube river now threatened Constantinople itself.
To solve these problems Michael Palaeologus began consolidating his rule; he had the younger co-emperor John IV blinded resulting in much resentment[3]. To counter this, the Byzantine Emperor installed a new Patriarch of Constantinople ordering him to lift an excommunication that had been placed against him by the former Patriarch and to submit to the authority of Rome in order to alleviate the Latin Threat.[4].
Meanwhile as the Byzantine Empire continued the conquest of Latin territory, Turks under Osman I began their raids into Byzantine Anatolia; Sogut and Eskisehir were taken in 1265 and 1289 respectively speaking[5]. Michael Palaeologus' was unable to deal with these early setbacks due to the need to transfer troops to the West.
In 1282 Michael Palaeologus died and his son Andronicus II took power. The death of the old Byzantine Emperor came as a relief for the society as a large; his policy of Latin appeasement to the Church in Rome, heavy taxation and military expenditure placed a severe burden on the people. As the Ottoman Turks began taking land from the Empire, they were seen as liberators of Anatolians and many soon converted to Islam undermining the Byzantine's Orthodox power base [6].
Andronicus' rule was marked with incompetence and short-sighted decisions that in the long run would ruin the Byzantine Empire beyond repair. He began to debase the Byzantine Hyperpyron reducing the value of the Byzatine economy; taxes were decreased and instead placed upon the Knight-class Pronoia. To popularize his rule he repudiated the union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, thereby further increasing hostilities between the Latins and the Byzantines.[7] Despite this, Andronicus II took a deep interest in preserving the Anatolian lands of Byzantium and ordered construction of Forts in Asia Minor and vigorous training of the army.[8] The Byzantine Emperor ordered that his court be moved to Anatolia to oversee the campaigns there and instructed his General Alexios Philanthropenos to push back the Turks. Early success were rendered useless when Alexios staged an unsuccessful coup, leading to his blinding and the end of his campaigns. This allowed the Ottomans to lay siege to Nicaea in 1301. A further defeat on Andronicus' son Michael IX and the Byzantine General Mouzalon occurred at Bapheus in 1302 [9].
Despite this, Andronicus tried once more to strike a decisive blow back at the Turks, this time hiring Catalan mercenaries. Under the guidance of the Emperor's son (Michael IX) and the leadership of Roger de Flor, a 6,500 strong Catalan mercenary force campaigned in the Spring and Summer of 1303 to drive back the Turks. Their expensive services drove the Turks back from Philadelphia to Cyzicus and in doing so brought great destruction to the Anatolian landscape. Once again these gains were thwarted by internal matters; the leader of the company (Roger de Flor) was assassinated. In revenge the Catalan mercenaries began pillaging the Anatolian countryside. When they left in 1307 to attack Byzantine Thrace, the locals welcomed the Ottomans who once again began blockading key fortresses in Asia Minor.[10]
The Ottomans were able to implement their military success due to the numerous divisions amongst their opponents. Many of the peasant classes in Anatolia saw the Ottomans as the better master[11][12]
After these defeats, Andronicus was in no position to send many troops. In 1320 Andronicus II's grandson, Andronicus III was disinherited following the death of Andronicus II's son.[13] In 1321 Andronicus III retaliated by marching on Constantinople; he was given Thrace as an appanage. However, Andronicus III continued to press for his inheritance and in 1322 was made co-emperor. This culminated into a small scale Balkan war in which Serbia backed Andronicus II and the Bulgarians backed his grandson, Andronicus III. Eventually Andronicus III emerged triumphant on May 23 1328. As Andronicus III consolidated his hold on Byzantium, the Ottomans succeeded in taking Brusa from the Byzantines in 1326.[14] thus beginning what would turn out to be a series of successful sieges
Byzantium Counter: 1328 - 1341
Main article in Siege of Nicomedia
Andronicus III's reign was to be marked by Byzantium's last genuine and promising attempt at restoring the glory that was once Rome. In 1329 Byzantine Troops were sent to meet the Ottomans[15] who had been blockading and in effect laying siege to Nicaea since 1301[16]. Byzantine counter-attacks coupled with the scale of Nicaea's defenses had frustrated the Ottomans' attempts at taking any cities. The fate of Nicaea was sealed when the Byzantine relief army was defeated at Pelekanos on 10 June 1329[17]. In 1331 Nicaea surrendered, a massive blow considering that it was the capital of the Empire only 70 years ago.
Once again the Byzantines' military power was depleted and Andronicus III was forced into diplomacy as his grandfather was before him; in return for the safety of the remaining Byzantine settlements in Asia Minor, tribute would be paid to the Ottomans. Unfortunately for the Byzantine Empire, this did not stop the Ottomans from laying siege to and taking Nicomedia in 1333 and 1337 respectively speaking.
Despite these setbacks, Andronicus III was able to score a few successes against his opponents in Greece and Asia Minor; Epirus along with Thessalonika were subjugated. In 1329 The Byzantines captured Chios and in 1335 secured Lesbos. Nonetheless, these isolated Islands were isolated exceptions to the general trend of increasing Ottoman conquests. Furthermore, none of the Islands were a part of the Ottoman domain; their capture demonstrates the potential that the Byzantines had at the time of Andronicus III. Byzantine military ability would be further weakened by Serbian expansions into recent acquisitions by Andronicus III (Epirus) and finally by a devastating civil war that would subjugate the Byzantine Empire as a vassal to the Ottomans.
Byzantine Civil War: 1341 - 1371
Andronicus III died in 1341 leaving his 10 year old son John V to rule. A regency was set up with Kantakouzenos, the young Emperor's mother and the Patriarch John XIV Kalekas. Rivalries between Kalekas and Kantakouzenos led to civil in Byzantium, with Kantakouzeonos emerging triumphant at Constantinople on February 1347. During this time plague, earthquakes and Ottoman raiding continued until only Philladelphia remained in Byzantine hands and only so by paying tribute. Throughout the civil war the Byzantines on both sides employed Turks and Serbs with mercenaries pillaging at will, leaving much of Macedonia in ruin and in the hands of the Serbian Empire. Following this victory, Kantakouzenos ruled as co-emperor with John V. However this dual rule failed and the two waged a new civil war further diminishing what was left of Byzantium's integrity in the eyes of her troublesome neighbours. John VI Kantakouzenos emerged triumphant once again and replaced the now exiled John V Palaeologus with his son Matthew Kantakouzenos as junior co-emperor. However the Turks under Osman I's son, Orkhan, now came into the play by capturing the fort of Kallipolis (Gallipoli) in 1354 and gaining access to the European mainland. The arrival of the seemingly unbeatable Ottoman soldiers surrounding Constantinople caused a panic in Constantinople. This was capitalized by John V who, with the assistance of the Genoans staged a coup and ousted John VI Kantakouzenos on November 1354 who later became a monk.
However, the civil war did not end there; Matthew Kantakouzenos now obtained troops from Orkhan and began a bid for taking Constantinople. His capture in 1356 ended his dreams of becoming Emperor and with it came an ephemeral defeat for the Ottomans whom had favored the overthrow of John V.
Following the end of the civil conflict came a small lull in fighting between the expanding Ottomans and Byzantines. In 1361 Didymoteichon fell to the Turks. Orhan's successor, Murad I was more concerned with his Anatolian positions. However, just like Alp Arslan of the Seljuk Turks, Murad I left the taking of Byzantine territory to his vassals with Philippopolis falling after major campaigning between 1363-4 and Adrianople sucumbing to the Ottomans in 1369.
The Byzantine Empire was in no position to launch any decent counter-attack or defence of these lands; by now the Ottomans had become supremely powerful. Murad I crushed an army of Serbians on the 26 September 1371 at the Battle of Maritsa leading to the end of Serbian power. The Ottomans were now poised to conquer Constantinople. In an attempt to stave of defeat, John V appealed to the Pope for support offering submission to Rome in return for Military support. Despite publicly confessing the Roman Catholic Faith in St Peter's Basilica, John V received no help. John V therefore was forced to turn to his enemies, the Ottomans to reason with them. Murad I and John V then came to an agreement whereby Byzantium would provide regular tribute in troops and money in exchange for security.
Byzantine vassalage 1371 - 1394
By now the Ottomans had literally won the war; much of Byzantium was reduced to a few settlements other than Constantinople and was forced to recognize its vassal status to the Ottoman Sultan. This vassalage continued until 1394. However whilst Constantinople had been neutralized, the surrounding Christian powers were still a threat to the Ottomans and Asia Minor was not under complete Ottoman control. The Ottomans continued their thrust into the Balkans, proving to be great conquerors in Europe as they were in Anatolia; in 1385 Sofia was captured from the Bulgarians and Nis was taken the following year. Other smaller states were subjugated as vassals, including the Serbs. Serbian resistance was crushed at the Battle of Kosovo (1389), much of Bulgaria was taken in 1393 by Bayezid I (the Thunderbolt) and in 1396 the last bastion of Bulgarian independence was wiped out when Vin fell.
Ottoman advances into the Balkans was aided by further Byzantine civil conflict this time between John V Palaeologus and his eldest son Andronicus IV. With Ottoman aid from Murad I, John V was able to blind Andronikus IV and his son John VII Palaeologus in September 1373. Andronikus IV escaped with son and this time managed to acquire Murad's aid by promising higher tribute than John V. The civil strife continued as late as September 1390 though potential for conflict continued until 1408. From 1383 to 1389, John V forgave his eldest son Andronikus IV and his son John VII, angering his former heir and second son, Manuel II Palaeologus who seized Thesalonika and alarmed the Ottoman Sultan at his success in liberating parts of Greece from Ottoman rule. When Thesalonika capitulated in 1387 to Hayreddin Pasha, Manuel II Palaeologus sought the forgiveness of the Sultan and John V. Manuel II's increasingly close relationship with John V angered John VII who saw his right as the heir theatened. John VII launched a coup against John V but despite Ottoman and Genoan aid his reign lasted five months when he was toppled by Manuel II and his father John V.
Following John V's death, Manuel II Palaeologus was able to secure his throne and establish good relations with the Sultan, becoming his vassal. In return for Ottoman acceptance of his reign Manuel II was forced to dismatle the fortifications at the Golden Gate.
Byzantine Rebellion: 1394 - 1424
In 1394, relations between the Byzantines and the Ottomans changed for the worse and the war between the two resumed when the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid (ruled 1389 - 1402) ordered the execution of Manuel II after the Emperor attempted to reconcile his nephew John VII. The Ottoman Sultan then later changed his decision and demanded that a Mosque and a Turkish colony be established in Constantinople. Manuel II not only refused this, he also refused to pay the Sultan tribute and went so far as to ignore the Sultan's messages, leading to a siege of the city in 1394. Manuel II called for a Crusade, which came in 1396. Under the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, the Crusade was crushed at Nicopolis in 1396. The defeat convinced Manuel II to escape the city and travel to Western Europe for aid. During this time the reconciled John VII led the city's successful defence against the Ottomans. The siege was finally broken when Timur of the Chagatai Mongols led an army into Anatolia, dismantling the network of Beylik's loyal to the Ottoman Sultan. At the Battle of Ankara Timur's forces routed Bayezid I's forces, a shocking defeat for which none were prepared for. In the aftermath, the Ottoman Turks began fighting each other notably Bayezid's sons.
The Byzantines wasted no time exploiting the situation; signing a peace treaty with their Christian neighbours and with one of Bayezid's sons, they were able to recover Thessalonika and much of the Peloponnese.
The Ottoman civil war ended in 1413 when Mehmed I with the blessings of the Byzantine Empire defeated his opponents.
The death of Mehmed I and the rise of Murad II in 1421 coupled with the assumption of John VIII to the Byzantine Throne led to a change in relations between the two for the worse; neither leader was content with the status quo. John VIII made the first and foolish move by inciting a rebellion in the Ottoman Empire; a certain Mustafa had emerged from the shadows and claimed that he was Bayezid's lost son. Despite the odds, a sizeable force had mustered in Europe under his banner. Murad II's furious reply smashed this upstart and in 1422 began besieging Thessalonika and Constantinople. John VIII then turned to his ageing father, Manuel II for advice who incited yet another rebellion in the Ottoman ranks - this time supporting Murad II brother's claim, Kucuk Mustafa. The seemingly promising rebellion had its origins in Asia Minor with Brusa coming under siege. After a failed assault on Constantinople, Murad II was forced to turn back his army and defeat Kucuk. With these defeats, the Byzantines were forced once more into vassalage - 300,000 coins of silver were to be delivered to the Sultan as tribute on an annual basis.
Ottoman Triumph 1424 - 1453
The Ottomans faced numerous opponents between 1424 and 1453. Tied in the siege of Thessalonika, the Ottomans had to contend with the Serbs under George Brankovic, the Hungarians under Janosh Corvinus Hunyadi and the Albanians under Georgios Kastriotes. This resistance culminated into the Crusade of Varna of 1444, which, despite so much local support and deception (a peace treaty was unilaterally revoked by the Hungarians) was defeated.
In 1448 and 1451 there was a change in the Byzantine and Ottoman leaderships respectively speaking. Murad II died and was succeeded by Mehmed the Conqueror whilst Constantine XI succeeded John VIII.
Constantine XI and Mehmed did not get along well; Constantine XI threatened to rebel against the Sultan unless certain conditions were met by the Sultan regarding the status quo. The Sultan responded with these bold and fool-hardy threats by building fortifications in the Bosporus and thus close Constantinople from outside naval assistance. The Ottomans already controlled the land around Constantinople and so began an assault on the city on 6 April 1453. Despite a union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Byzantines received no aid from the Pope;
- England and France were in concluding stages of the Hundred Years War. The French did not wish to lose their advantage in the fight by sending Knights to their death and the English were in no such position to do so.
- Spain was in the final stages of the Reconquista.
- The Holy Roman Empire had already tried at Varna and failed. Further fighting amongst the German Princes and in the Hussite wars had seriously reduced the willingness of most to Crusade.
- Poland and Hungary were also key participants at Varna. The defeat there and the [[Northern Crusades] had kept them busy.
Other than these major European powers, the only other were the Italian city-states. Genoa and Venice were both enemies of the Ottomans and of each other. The Venetians considered sending their fleet up to attack the fortifications guarding the Dardanelles and the Bosporus and therefore relief the city but this was too little too late. The Ottomans would have easily overpowered any military assistance provided by a city, even one as large as Venice. In any case some 2000 mercenaries, mostly Italian under Giovanni Giustiniani Longo[18] arrived to assist in the defence of the city. The city's defence fell on these and 5,000 militia soldiers raised from a city whose population had been seriously eroded by heavy taxation, plague and civil conflict[19]. Though poorly trained, the defenders were well armed in many weapons[20] except without any cannons to match the Ottoman's own artillery. Regardless, the city's fall did not depend on Ottoman artillery supremacy, nor their naval supremacy (many Italian ships were able to aid and then escape the city). The Fall cam about due to the combined weight of overwhelming odds stacked against the city - outnumbered by more than 10 to 1, the defenders were overcome by sheer attrition. As the Ottomans continued their seemingly unsuccessful and costly assaults, many in camp began to doubt the success of the siege; history had shown the city to be invincible to Ottoman siege and the memories of Ankara and Varna, even if they had not altered the status quo for long, lingered in their minds, as they did in the minds of the hopeful defenders. The Sultan then made a speech [21] reminding his subjects the vast wealth and pillaging of the city to come. An all-out assault captured the city on May 29 1453. As the Ottomans fanned out to sack the city, naval discipline began to collapse and many Genoans and Venetians escaped in vessels from the city, including Nicolo Barbaro[22], a Venetian surgeon present at the siege:
All through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city. The blood flowed in teh city like rainwater after a sudden storm, and the corpses of Turks and Christians were thrown into the Dardanelles, where they floated out to sea like melons along a canal.
After the siege, the Ottomans went on to take Morea in 1460 and Trebizond in 1461 [23] With the end of Trebizond came the end of the Byzantine Empire; the Palaeologoi Dynasty continued to be recognized as the rightful emperors of Constantinople by Europe until the 16th century when the Reformation, Ottoman threat and decreased interest in Crusading forced European powers to recognize the Ottoman Empire as masters of the Mediterranean.
References
- R.G. Grant, Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat, Dorling Kindersley Publishers Ltd, 2005.
Notes
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 255-257
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 260
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 255-257
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 255-257
- ↑ Parker, Geoffrey. Compact History of the World. 4th ed. London: Times Books, 2005 70-71
- ↑ Bentley, Jerry H., and Herb F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters a Gloabl Prespective on the Past. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hil, 2006
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 260-261
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 260-261
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 260-261
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. 260-261
- ↑ Bentley, Jerry H., and Herb F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters a Gloabl Prespective on the Past. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hil, 2006
- ↑ Madden, Thomas F. Crusades the Illustrated History. 1st ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan P, 2005.179.
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002.262.
- ↑ Parker, Geoffrey. Compact History of the World. 4th ed. London: Times Books, 2005. 70-71.
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002 263
- ↑ Grant, R G. Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2005 122
- ↑ Grant, R G. Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2005 122
- ↑ Philip Sherrard, Great Ages of Man Byzantium, Time-Life Books pg 168
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002
- ↑ Philip Sherrard, Great Ages of Man Byzantium, Time-Life Books pg 168
- ↑ Philip Sherrard, Great Ages of Man Byzantium, Time-Life Books pg 169
- ↑ Grant, R G. Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2005 pg 123
- ↑ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002 pg 283.
