Programmed learning
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Programmed learning or programmed instruction is a system where learning material is presented in chunks. The learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results. The material may be presented in a teaching machine, or a book or a computer.[1]
The first such system was devised by Sidney L. Pressey in 1926.[2][3] "The first.. [teaching machine] was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... [it] demonstrated its ability to actually teach".[4]
However, Pressey's work was more or less forgotten for quite a long time.[5] The general idea of programmed learning was re-invented by the behaviourist B.F. Skinner. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods.[6] His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of reinforcement" in typical behaviourist manner. It consists of self-teaching with the aid of a specialized textbook or teaching machine. The medium presents material in a logical and tested sequence. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension, then are immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information.[7]
Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning.[1]p619 In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods. The costs of producing the learning materials was one reason the ideas fell out of use.
Many of these ideas were picked up and used in other educational fields, such as open learning (see the Open University) and computer-assisted learning, such as the Integrated Learning System (ILS) approach.[8]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed) Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally.
- ↑ Pressey S.L. 1926. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores – and teaches. School & Society 23, 373–6.
- ↑ Pressey, S.L. 1927. A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. School & Society 25, 544–552.
- ↑ Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. 1966. Theories of learning. 3rd ed, New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts. Chapter 16: Learning & the technology of instruction. p554–561 Programmed learning.
- ↑ Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book. Washington D.C. National Education Association.
- ↑ Skinner B.F. 1965. The technology of teaching. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of all his papers on programmed learning.
- ↑ Margulies, Stuart; Eigen, Lewis D (1961), Applied Programmed Instruction, John Wiley & Sons.
- ↑ Pritchard, Alan (2009) Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (2nd edition) David Fulton, London, page 12 ISBN 978-0-415-46608-0