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Plinio2 (토론 | 기여)님의 2021년 9월 29일 (수) 13:29 판 (→Christian church)

이후 역사

고대 후기

아크로폴리스 언덕 중앙에 자리잡은 파르테논

서기 3세기 중반 직후 파르테논에 큰 화재가 발생[1][2]하여 지붕과 성소 내부의 상당 부분이 소실되었다.[3] 276년에 헤룰리 해적이 아테네를 약탈하는 와중에 대부분의 공공 건물이 파괴되었는데 그중에는 파르테논도 있었다.[4] 배교자 율리아누스 황제의 치세인 4세기에 복구 작업이 이루어졌다.[5] 성소 위로 목재 지붕을 치고 점토 기와를 덮었는데, 원래 지붕보다 훨씬 경사가 급했으며, 건물 주변이 노출되었다.[3]

파르테논은 건립 이래 천 년 가까이 아테나 여신의 신전으로 유지되었지만 435년 테오도시우스 2세가 동로마 제국의 모든 이교 신전을 폐쇄하라는 칙령을 내리면서 같이 폐쇄된다.[6] 5세기 중 정확히 언제 파르테논이 신전으로서 폐쇄되었는지는 논쟁이 되고 있다. 파르테논 신전의 폐쇄 시점을 제논이 남은 신전에 대해 폐쇄 명령을 내린 481~484년으로 비정하기도 하는데, 당시 파르테논은 아테네에서 고대 종교의 본산이었으며, 신전에서 그리스의 제의를 복원하기로 약속했던 일루스의 지원을 받았기 때문이었다.[7]

5세기의 어느 시점에 아테나 여신상은 동로마 황제에 의해 약탈되어 콘스탄티노폴리스로 옮겨졌다. 이후 여신상은 1204년 4차 십자군 당시 콘스탄티노폴리스 약탈이 벌어졌을 때 파괴된 것으로 보인다.[8]

기독교회

6세기 말[9]에 파르테논은 기독교 교회로 전용되어 파르테노스 마리아(동정녀 마리아)의 교회 또는 테오토코스(하느님의 어머니) 교회가 되었다. 건물의 방향은 동쪽을 향하게 바뀌었으며, 주 출입구는 건물 서편에 배치되었다.

The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church in the final decade of the sixth century AD[9] to become the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary) or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed to face towards the east; the main entrance was placed at the building's western end, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were situated towards the building's eastern side adjacent to an apse built where the temple's pronaos was formerly located.[10][11][12] A large central portal with surrounding side-doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church's nave, from the rear chamber, the church's narthex.[10] The spaces between the columns of the opisthodomos and the peristyle were walled up, though a number of doorways still permitted access.[10] Icons were painted on the walls and many Christian inscriptions were carved into the Parthenon's columns.[5] These renovations inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures.

The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephesos, and Thessaloniki.[13] In 1018, the emperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon.[13] In medieval Greek accounts it is called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to as famous without explaining exactly which temple they were referring to, thus establishing that it was indeed well known.[13]

At the time of the Latin occupation, it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic church of Our Lady. During this period a tower, used either as a watchtower or bell tower and containing a spiral staircase, was constructed at the southwest corner of the cella, and vaulted tombs were built beneath the Parthenon's floor.[14]

Islamic mosque

Painting of the ruins of the Parthenon and the Ottoman mosque built after 1715, in the early 1830s by Pierre Peytier.

In 1456, Ottoman Turkish forces invaded Athens and laid siege to a Florentine army defending the Acropolis until June 1458, when it surrendered to the Turks.[15] The Turks may have briefly restored the Parthenon to the Greek Orthodox Christians for continued use as a church.[16] Some time before the close of the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.[17][18]

The precise circumstances under which the Turks appropriated it for use as a mosque are unclear; one account states that Mehmed II ordered its conversion as punishment for an Athenian plot against Ottoman rule.[19] The apse became a mihrab,[20] the tower previously constructed during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon was extended upwards to become a minaret,[21] a minbar was installed,[10] the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints and other Christian imagery.[22]

Despite the alterations accompanying the Parthenon's conversion into a church and subsequently a mosque, its structure had remained basically intact.[23] In 1667 the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi expressed marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and figuratively described the building as "like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency".[24] He composed a poetic supplication stating that, as "a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, [it] should remain standing for all time".[25] The French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674 visited the Acropolis and sketched the Parthenon's sculptural decorations.[26] Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier sketched the Parthenon for the Frenchman Graviers d’Ortières.[3] These depictions, particularly those made by Carrey, provide important, and sometimes the only, evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its various sculptures prior to the devastation it suffered in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its art objects.[26]

Destruction

Fragment of an exploded shell found on top of a wall in the Parthenon, thought to originate from the time of the Venetian siege

In 1687, the Parthenon was extensively damaged in the greatest catastrophe to befall it in its long history.[5] As part of the Morean War (1684–1699), the Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack Athens and capture the Acropolis. The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine – despite having been forewarned of the dangers of this use by the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea – and as a shelter for members of the local Turkish community.[27]

The southern side of the Parthenon, which sustained considerable damage in the 1687 explosion

On 26 September a Venetian mortar round, fired from the Hill of Philopappos, blew up the magazine, and the building was partly destroyed.[28] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[23] Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani writes that "...three of the sanctuary’s four walls nearly collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place. Six columns from the south side fell, eight from the north, as well as whatever remained from the eastern porch, except for one column. The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves, triglyphs, and metopes."[3] About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders[27] and caused large fires that burned until the following day and consumed many homes.[3]

Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental; one such account, written by the German officer Sobievolski, states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon; expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance. Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon.[3][27] Subsequently, Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process. Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building's west pediment.[11][29]

The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[27]

Once the Turks had recaptured the Acropolis, they used some of the rubble produced by this explosion to erect a smaller mosque within the shell of the ruined Parthenon.[30] For the next century and a half, parts of the remaining structure were looted for building material and especially valuable objects.[31]

The 18th century was a period of Ottoman stagnation—so that many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise in philhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek independence. Amongst those early travelers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens. What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon, published in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated. In 1801, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, obtained a questionable firman (edict) from the Sultan, whose existence or legitimacy has not been proved to this day, to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove sculptures from them. [출처 필요]

Independent Greece

When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished; only its base and spiral staircase up to the level of the architrave remain intact.[32] Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However, the image of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph, published in Lerebours's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.[33] The area became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. In the later 19th century, the Parthenon was widely considered by Americans and Europeans to be the pinnacle of human architectural achievement, and became a popular destination and subject of artists, including Frederic Edwin Church and Sanford Robinson Gifford.[34][35] Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage.[출처 필요]

Life-size pediment sculptures from the Parthenon in the British Museum

Dispute over the marbles

 이 부분의 본문은 Elgin Marbles입니다.

The dispute centers around the Parthenon Marbles removed by Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, from 1801 to 1803, which are in the British Museum. A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but more than half are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.[36][37] A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return the sculptures to Greece.[37] The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures,[38] and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation). Nevertheless, talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides might move a step closer to a resolution.[39]

Restoration

Restoration works in 2021

In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay, a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.[40] The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use.[출처 필요] In some cases, prior re-constructions were found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.[41]

Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.[42]

  1. ↑ “Introduction to the Parthenon Frieze”. National Documentation Centre (Greek Ministry of Culture). 2012년 10월 28일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  2. ↑ Freely 2004, p. 69. "According to one authority, John Travlos, this occurred when Athens was sacked by the Heruli in AD 267, at which time the two-tiered colonnade in the cella was destroyed."
  3. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 Chatziaslani, Kornilia. “Morosini in Athens”. Archaeology of the City of Athens. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  4. ↑ O'Donovan, Connell. “Pirates, marauders, and homos, oh my!”. 2015년 12월 10일에 확인함. 
  5. ↑ 가 나 다 “The Parthenon”. Acropolis Restoration Service. 2012년 8월 28일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  6. ↑ Freely 2004, p. 69.
  7. ↑ Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370–529
  8. ↑ Cremin, Aedeen (2007). 《Archaeologica》. Frances Lincoln Ltd. 170쪽. ISBN 978-0-7112-2822-1. 
  9. ↑ 가 나 Freely 2004, p. 69 "Some modern writers maintain that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian sanctuary during the reign of Justinian (527–65)...But there is no evidence to support this in the ancient sources. The existing evidence suggests that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian basilica in the last decade of the sixth century."
  10. ↑ 가 나 다 라 Freely 2004, p. 70.
  11. ↑ 가 나 Hollis 2009, p. 21.
  12. ↑ Hurwit 2000, p. 293.
  13. ↑ 가 나 다 Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). “A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon” (PDF). University of Michigan. 3쪽. 2009년 8월 24일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 
  14. ↑ Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (1999년 11월 19일). 《The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archaeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present》. CUP Archive. ISBN 9780521417860 – Google Books 경유. 
  15. ↑ Babinger, Franz (1992). 《Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time》. Princeton University Press. 159–160쪽. ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6. 
  16. ↑ Tomkinson, John L. “Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)”. Anagnosis Books. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함.  "In 1466 the Parthenon was referred to as a church, so it seems likely that for some time at least, it continued to function as a cathedral, being restored to the use of the Greek archbishop."
  17. ↑ Tomkinson, John L. “Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)”. Anagnosis Books. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함.  "Some time later – we do not know exactly when – the Parthenon was itself converted into a mosque."
  18. ↑ D'Ooge 1909, p. 317. "The conversion of the Parthenon into a mosque is first mentioned by another anonymous writer, the Paris Anonymous, whose manuscript dating from the latter half of the fifteenth century was discovered in the library of Paris in 1862."
  19. ↑ Miller, Walter (1893). “A History of the Akropolis of Athens”. 《The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts》 8 (4): 546–547. doi:10.2307/495887. JSTOR 495887. 
  20. ↑ Hollis 2009, p. 33.
  21. ↑ Bruno, Vincent J. (1974). 《The Parthenon》. W.W. Norton & Company. 172쪽. ISBN 978-0-393-31440-3. 
  22. ↑ D'Ooge 1909, p. 317.
  23. ↑ 가 나 Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2012). 《Understanding Art》 10판. Cengage Learning. 305쪽. ISBN 978-1-111-83695-5. 
  24. ↑ Stoneman, Richard (2004). 《A Traveller's History of Athens》. Interlink Books. 209쪽. ISBN 978-1-56656-533-2. 
  25. ↑ Holt, Frank L. (November–December 2008). “I, Marble Maiden”. 《Saudi Aramco World》 59 (6): 36–41. 2012년 8월 1일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2012년 12월 3일에 확인함. 
  26. ↑ 가 나 T. Bowie, D. Thimme, The Carrey Drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures, 1971
  27. ↑ 가 나 다 라 Tomkinson, John L. “Venetian Athens: Venetian Interlude (1684–1689)”. Anagnosis Books. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  28. ↑ Theodor E. Mommsen, The Venetians in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 45, No. 4 (October – December 1941), pp. 544–556
  29. ↑ Palagia, Olga (1998). 《The Pediments of the Parthenon》 2판. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11198-1. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  30. ↑ Tomkinson, John L. “Ottoman Athens II: Later Ottoman Athens (1689–1821)”. Anagnosis Books. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함. 
  31. ↑ Grafton, Anthony; Glenn W. Most; Salvatore Settis (2010). 《The Classical Tradition》. Harvard University Press. 693쪽. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. 
  32. ↑ Murray, John (1884). 《Handbook for travellers in Greece, Volume 2》. Oxford University Press. 317쪽. 
  33. ↑ Neils, The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present, 336– the picture was taken in October 1839
  34. ↑ Carr, Gerald L. (1994). 《Frederic Edwin Church: Catalogue Raisonne of Works at Olana State Historic Site, Volume I》. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 342–343쪽. ISBN 978-0521385404. 
  35. ↑ “Collection: Ruins of the Parthenon”. 《National Gallery of Art》. 2020년 7월 28일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2020년 5월 28일에 확인함. 
  36. ↑ 〈Parthenon〉. 《Encyclopædia Britannica》. 틀:Edition needed
  37. ↑ 가 나 Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures, International Herald Tribune
  38. ↑ “The Parthenon sculptures: The Trustees' statement”. The British Museum. 2020년 1월 24일에 확인함. 
  39. ↑ Talks Due on Elgin Marbles Return, BBC News
  40. ↑ Lina Lambrinou, "State of the Art: ‘Parthenon of Athens: A Challenge Throughout History" 보관됨 3 10월 2008 - 웨이백 머신 (pdf file) with bibliography of interim conservation reports;
  41. ↑ "The Surface Conservation Project" (pdf file). Once they had been conserved, the West Frieze blocks were moved to the museum, and copies cast in artificial stone were reinstalled in their places.
  42. ↑ Hadingham, Evan (2008). “Unlocking the Mysteries of the Parthenon”. 《Smithsonian Magazine》. 2008년 2월 22일에 확인함. 
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