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Cardinal nipote

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Pietro Ottoboni, l'ultimo cardinal nipote, ritratto da Francesco Trevisani

Un cardinal nipote (in latino cardinalis nepos) è un cardinale creato da un papa che sia suo zio o, più in generale, un suo parente. L'usanza di creare cardinali nipoti ebbe origine nel medioevo, ma raggiunse la massima diffusione durante i secoli XVI-XVII[1] Il vocabolo nepotismo si riferiva originariamente proprio a questa pratica, senza accezioni negative. A partire dal periodo della permanenza del papato ad Avignone (1309-1377) fino alla bolla di Innocenzo XII Romanum decet pontificem (1692), che proibiva il nepotismo, un papa senza cardinal nipote era l'eccezione[2]. Ogni altro papa fece entrare almeno un parente nel Sacro Collegio dei Cardinali, e nella maggior parte dei casi si trattava del nipote[3].

L'istituzione del cardinal nipote andò incontro a cambiamenti ed evoluzioni nel corso di sette secoli, risentendo dei mutamenti del contesto della storia del papato e delle diverse personalità dei singoli pontefici. Dal 1566 al 1692, il cardinal nipote deteneva l'ufficio curiale di Sovrintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico, e i due termini erano usati indifferentemente. L'ufficio curiale e l'istituzione decaddero in concomitanza con la crescita del potere del Cardinale Segretario di Stato e con la progressiva perdita di centralità politica dello Stato pontificio nel corso del XVII e XVIII secolo.

Furono cardinali nipoti 16, e probabilmente fino a 18 papi[4] (Giovanni XIX, Benedetto IX, Gregorio IX, Alessandro IV, Adriano V, Gregorio XI, Bonifacio IX, Eugenio IV, Paolo II, Alessandro VI, Pio III, Giulio II, Leone X, Clemente VII, Benedetto XIII e Pio VII, forse anche Innocenzo III e Benedetto XII), un antipapa (Giovanni XXIII) e due o tre santi (Carlo Borromeo, San Guarino di Palestrina e forse Anselmo di Lucca, nel caso sia stato effettivamente cardinale).

Storia

Prima del 1566

The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) produced an unprecedented number of cardinal-nephews.

The creation of cardinal-nephews predates the hierarchical preeminence of cardinals within the Roman Catholic Church, which grew out of the 1059 decree of Pope Nicholas II, In Nomine Domini, which established cardinal-bishops as the sole electors of the pope, with the consent of cardinal-deacons and cardinal-priests.[5] The first known cardinal-nephew is Lotario (or Loctarius), seniore, cousin of Pope Benedict VIII (1012–1024), elected circa 1015.[6] Benedict VIII also elevated his brother Giovanni (the future Pope John XIX) and his cousin Teofilatto (the future Pope Benedict IX) as cardinal-deacons.[6] Possibly the first known cardinal-nephew after 1059 is Anselm of Lucca, the nephew or brother of Pope Alexander II (1061–1073),[6] although until the end of 12th the majority of the alleged cases of such appointments are dubious, either because the relationship between the pope and cardinal is not proven, or because the cardinalate of the papal kinsman is uncertain.[7] However, it is beyond doubt that the promotions of papal relatives to the College of Cardinals were common in 13th century

Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Alessandro Farnese (left) and his other grandson, Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right)

According to historian John Bargrave, "by the Council of Bazill, Session 21, the number of cardinals was not to be above 24, and not any nephew of the Pope or of any cardinal was to be of that number. (Session 23.)"[8]

Ranuccio Farnese was made cardinal by Paul III at the age of 15.

Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including six on September 20, 1342, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time. The capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave limited the pope it elected (Pope Paul II) to appointing one cardinal-nephew, along with other conditions designed to increase the power of the College of Cardinals and reduce the pope's ability to dilute that power.[9]

The Fifth Council of the Lateran declared in 1514 that the care of relatives was to be commended, and the creation of cardinal-nephews was often recommended or justified based on the need to care for indigent family members.[10] A cardinal-nephew could usually expect profitable appointments; for example, Alessandro Cardinal Farnese, cardinal-nephew of Pope Paul III (1534–1549) held 64 benefices simultaneously in addition to the vice-chancellorship.[11]

Pope Paul IV (1555–1559), in his old age, was said to have "fallen almost completely under the cardinal-nephew's influence";[12] Paul IV's cardinal-nephew, Carlo Carafa, was accused in August 1558 by a Theatine of seducing a Roman noble woman, Plautila de' Massimi, who had come into possession of an inordinate amount of money and jewelry, but the accusations were dismissed by the pontiff.[13] St. Charles Borromeo, cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, which came to be sometimes known as the secretarius maior.[14] Pius IV was notorious for nepotism: between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives.[15]

1566–1692

Pope Pius V created the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew on March 14, 1566.

Following the Council of Trent (1563), Pope Pius V (1566–1572) drew up the terms for the office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, who was to handle the temporal affairs of the Papal States and the foreign relations of the Holy See. After abortively attempting to divide the duties of the Superintendent between four non-familial cardinals, Pius V acceded to the urgings of the College of Cardinals and his Spanish ambassador, and appointed his grandnephew, Michele Bonelli, as Superintendent, demarcating his duties with a papal bull of March 14, 1566.[16] However, Pius V relentlessly avoided delegating any real autonomous power to Bonelli.[17]

The Cardinal Nephew (also called cardinale padrone[16] or Secretarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiasticæ:[18] "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State",[16] Italian: Sopraintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico[10]) was an official legate of the Roman Curia, approximately equivalent to the Cardinal Secretary of State, which absorbed its functions after the office of Cardinal Nephew was abolished in 1692.[18][19] The office has been likened by historians to a "prime minister", "alter ego",[16] or "vice-pope".[20] The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a pope's first cardinal creations, and his creature was traditionally accompanied by a salute from the guns of Castel Sant'Angelo.[21]

Following the Avignon Papacy, the Cardinal Nephew was responsible for the spiritual and temporal governance of the Comtat Venaissin, where the Avignon popes had resided; in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV raised the Diocese of Avignon to the rank of an archbishopric, to the benefit of his nephew Giuliano della Rovere.[19]

Pope Innocent X named the son, nephew, and cousin of his sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini to the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew

The terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by Pius V's successors to Paul V (1605–1621).[16] The Cardinal Nephew was also the correspondence liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates, and the prefect for two congregations: the Consulta and the Congregazione del Buon Governo.[10] The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army and a "channel through which flowed benefices one way and gold the other".[21]

However, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak popes; most Cardinal Nephews were the de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself.[10]

Although Pope Leo XI (1605) died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini, Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XI's successor, Pope Paul V in 1615.[22]

Some historians consider Scipione Borghese, cardinal-nephew to Pope Paul V, to be the "prototypical representative" of a cardinal-nephew, unlike those before him, created to "provide for and oversee the permanent social and economic ascent of the reigning papal family into the ranks of the high Roman aristocracy".[23] For example, in 1616, 24 of the 30 abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out, a practice the Council of Trent had attempted to eliminate.[15] A thorough financial analysis of Borghese's cardinalate by Reinhard Volcker (based on a series of extant account books) examines the strategies Borghese used to build up wealth during his uncle's pontificate and non-ecclesiastical assets before his uncle's death, which Volcker considers to be exemplary of Baroque papal families.[24] It is estimated that Paul V Borghese had transferred to his family approximately 4% of the total income of the Holy See during his pontificate.[25].

Pope Gregory XIV (1590–1591) began the practice of creating cardinal-nephews whose formal appointment coincided de facto with their nomination, and was thus separate from the ordinal process for creating cardinals,[22] and, when he fell ill, he authorized his cardinal-nephew, Paolo Emilio Sfondrato, to use the Fiat ut petitur, a power which was later diminished at the urging of the College.[26] Paul V issued a motu proprio on April 30, 1618, formally bestowing on his cardinal-nephew the same authority Pope Clement VIII had given to Pietro Aldobrandini, beginning what historian Laurain-Portemer calls "l'age classique'" of nepotism.[27]

Pope Gregory XV with his Cardinal Nephew of unprecedented income and authority, Ludovico Ludovisi, known as il cardinale padrone.

Pope Gregory XV's (1621–1623) cardinal-nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi, the first cardinal-nephew known as il cardinale padrone ("the Cardinal boss")[28] accumulated a vast array of benefices: the bishopric of Bologna, 23 abbeys, the directorship of the Apostolic Signatura, as well as the offices of the vice-chancellor and high-chamberlain, and was able to have most of them redistributed among 17 of his kinsmen upon his death.[20] These benefices and offices netted Ludovisi more than 200,000 scudi annually, and he is considered to have exercised "more unlimited authority" than any previous cardinal-nephew.[29] Notably, cardinal-nephews were allowed to create facultas testandi to will the rewards of their benefices to secular family members.[20] Gregory XV's successor, Urban VIII (1623—1644) convened two special committees of theologans, both of whom endorsed this practice.[30]

«As Fabio Chigi, I had a family. As Alexander VII I have none. You won't find my name anywhere in the baptismal registers of Siena.»

(Pope Alexander VII, 1655, who appointed two cardinal-nephews in 1657[31])

Not all Cardinal Nephews were cardinal-nephews in the strictest sense. In fact, papal historian Valérie Pirie considers not having a nephew a "tremendous asset for a would-be pope" as it left the position open for an ally cardinal.[21] For example, Pope Clement X gave the office to Cardinal Paoluzzi-Altieri, whose nephew had recently married Laura Caterina Altieri, the sole heiress of Clement X's family.[32] Many historians consider Olimpia Maidalchini, the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (1644–1655), to have been a de facto Cardinal Nephew; the position was formally held by her son, Camillo Pamphilj, then her nephew, Francesco Maidalchini (after Pamphilj renounced his cardinalate in order to wed), and (after Francesco proved incompetent) Camillo Astalli, her cousin.[33][34] According to papal historian Ludwig von Pastor, "the misfortune of Pope Pamphilj was that the only person in his family who would have had the qualities necessary to fill such a position was a woman".[34]

Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689) despised the practice and only accepted his election as pope after the College of Cardinals consented to his plans for reform, which included a ban on nepotism.[1] However, Innocent XI backed down after thrice failing to achieve the support of the majority of his cardinals for a bull banning nepotism,[35] which had been tediously composed between 1677 and 1686.[36] Innocent XI refused entreaties from within the papal court to bring his only nephew, Livio Odescalchi, the prince of Sirmio, to Rome,[37] although he did elevate Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri, a distant relative, cardinal on September 2, 1686.[38] Innocent XI's successor, Pope Alexander VIII (1689–1691), was the last pope to create a Cardinal Nephew.[1] Alexander VIII also undid another reform of Innocent XI by restoring the revenues of the former Chancery to the Vice-Chancellor, who was, at the time, his cardinal-nephew, Pietro Ottoboni.[18] Edith Standen, a consultant to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, calls Ottoboni the "last and certainly not least magnificent example" of the "splendor of an extinct species, the Cardinal-Nephew".[39]

Until 1692 (and sometimes thereafter), the cardinal-nephew (or a lay nephew) would be the chief archivist of the pope, usually removing the archives to a family archive upon the death of the pontiff.[40] In particular, the archival collections of the Barberini, Farnese, Chigi, and Borghese families contain important papal documents.[41]

Dopo il 1692

Pope Innocent XII abolished the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew on June 22, 1692 and strengthened the office of Cardinal Secretary of State

Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700) issued a papal bull on June 22, 1692, Romanum decet pontificem, banning the office of Cardinal Nephew, limiting his successors to elevating only one cardinal relative, eliminating various sinecures traditionally reserved for cardinal-nephews, and capping the stipend or endowment the nephew of a pope could receive to 12,000 scudi.[10][39][31] Romanum decet pontificem was later incorporated into the Code of Canon Law of 1917 in canons 240, 2; 1414, 4; and 1432, 1.[42] In 1694, Innocent XII's series of reforms was concluded with an expensive campaign to eliminate the "venality" of offices while reimbursing their current holders.[36] These reforms are viewed by some scholars as a delayed reaction to the financial crisis created by the nepotism of Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644).[10]

Romualdo Braschi-Onesti, the penultimate cardinal-nephew

However, even following Romanun decet pontificem, only three of the eight popes of the 18th century failed to make a nephew or brother cardinal.[35] The College of Cardinals apparently preferred rule by nephews than by favorites, which they perceived as the alternative; for example, the College urged Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) to appoint a cardinal-nephew, whom they hoped would replace Benedict XIII's notorious lieutenant Niccolò Coscia.[31] Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) also had to be urged by key figures in the College to appoint his cardinal-nephew: Filippo Boncompagni.[43]

The cardinal-nephews of the 18th century declined in influence as the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased.[31] The church of Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) is described by historian Eamon Duffy as "all the evils of nepotism without the nephew".[44][45] Neri Corsini, cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement XII (1730–1740) was by far the most powerful cardinal-nephew of the 18th century, on account of his uncle's advanced age and blindness.[31] However, Clement XII's successor, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) was described by Hugh Walpole as "a priest without indolence or interest, a prince without favorites, a pope without nephews".[44]

File:Giuseppepecci.jpg
Giuseppe Pecci, the last cardinal-nephew

Romualdo Braschi-Onesti, cardinal-nephew of Pius VI (1775–1799), was the penultimate cardinal-nephew. Despite Pius VI's lineage to a noble Cesena family, his only sister had married a man from the poor Onesti family. Therefore, he commissioned a geneaologist to discover (and inflate) some trace of nobility in the Onesti lineage, an endeavor which yielded only a circuitous connection to Saint Romualdo.[46]

After the turbulent 1800 papal conclave, Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) shunned the institution of the cardinal-nephew and instead relied on his Cardinal Secretary of State, Ercole Cardinal Consalvi.[47] During the 19th century, the only nephew of a pope created cardinal was Gabriel della Genga Sermattei, nephew of Pope Leo XII, created cardinal by Pope Gregory XVI on February 1, 1836.[48] Although the institutionalization of nepotism disappeared in the 18th century, "pietas" (duty to family) remained a theme of papal administration into the 20th century, although rarely with the overt intervention of a papal uncle.[10] Following the example of Pius VI, popes Leo XIII (who elevated his brother, Giuseppe Pecci, cardinal on May 12, 1879) and Pius XII (1939–1958) weakened the formal curial bureaucracy in favor of a parallel government, in which family members often figured prominently.[10] The loss of temporal power over the Papal States (de facto in 1870 with the "Roman Question" and de jure in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty) also eliminated the structural conditions which had figured prominently in the family politics of earlier popes.[10]

Ruolo durante i conclavi

“ A Pope's nephew dies twice—the second time like all men, the first time when his uncle dies. ”

—Cardinal Albani[31]

Even into the 18th century, the cardinal-nephew was a natural power broker at the conclave following his uncle's death, as a figure whom cardinals desirous of continuing the status quo could rally around.[31] Instruzione al cardinal Padrone circa il modo come si deve procurare una fazione di cardinali con tutti i requisiti che deve avere per lo stabilimento della sua grandezza ("Instructions to the chief cardinal on how to create a faction of cardinals with all the requisites for the establishment of his grandeur"), discovered in the archive of the Santa Maria de Monserrato in Rome offers advice to cardinal-nephews for consolidating power within the College of Cardinals.[49] Another text, the Ricordi dati da Gregorio XV al cardinale Lodovisio suo nipote ("Memoir addressed by Gregory XV to his Nephew Cardinal Lodovisio") offers advice for how to rise within the Curia.[50]

Pope Leo X with his cousins Giulio de' Medici (left, the future Pope Clement VII) and Luigi de' Rossi (right), whom he appointed as cardinals

An analysis of the five papal conclaves between 1605 and 1644 shows that cardinal-nephews were generally unsuccessful in electing their chosen candidates, although the victor was usually a cardinal created by the deceased pope.[51] Nine of the twenty-three cardinal electors in the 1492 papal conclave were cardinal-nephews.[52]

A papal election could bring a dramatic change of fortune for a cardinal-nephew, often bringing the former favorites into conflict with the new pope. For example, Prospero Colonna and Francisco de Borja were excommunicated,[53][54] and Carlo Carafa was executed.[55]

Legacy

Ippolito de' Medici, cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement VII and illegitimate son of Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici

Nepotism is a common feature in the history of governance, particularly in cultures where identity and loyalty are determined more at the level of the family than that of the nation-state.[56] The use of nephews, rather than direct descendants, is a product of the tradition of clerical celibacy within the Catholic Church, although hereditary descent from uncles to nephews is also seen in the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East.[57]

The creation of relatives and known-allies as cardinals was only one way in which medieval and Renaissance popes attempted to dilute the power of the College of Cardinals as an "ecclesiastical rival" and perpetuate their influence within the church after their death.[58] The institution of the cardinal-nephew had the effect both of enriching the pope's family with desirable benefices and of modernizing the administration of the papacy, by allowing the pontiff to rule through a proxy which was more easily deemed fallible when necessary and provided a formal distance between the person of the pontiff and the everydayness of pontifical affairs.[10]

Gregorio Leti's Papal Nepotism, or the True Relation of the Reasons Which Impel the Popes to make their Nephews Powerful (1667) is one example of contemporary criticism of the institution of the cardinal-nephew; Leti holds the rare distinction of having all of his publications on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books").[59] The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 defended the institution of the cardinal-nephew as a necessary countermeasure to the intrigue of the old Church.[18] According to Francis A. Burkle-Young, 15th century popes in particular found it necessary to elevate their relatives to the College of Cardinals due to their distrust of the crown-cardinals, Roman baronial families, and Italian princely families who also populated the college.[60]

File:Pedro Luis Borgia.jpg
Cesare Borgia (far left) and Pedro Luis de Borja Lanzol de Romaní (center left), two of Pope Alexander VI's ten cardinal-nephews, depicted with Niccolò Machiavelli (center right)

According to Thomas Adolphus Trollope, a famed papal historian, "the evil wrought by them in and to the church has been well nigh fatal to it; and it continued to increase until increasing danger warned the Pontiffs to abstain. The worst cardinals, providing, of course, the material for the worst Popes, have been for the most part cardinal nephews, the temptation to the creation of such having been rendered to great to be resisted by the exorbitant greatness of the power, dignity, and wealth attributed to the members of the Sacred College. The value of these great "prizes" was so enormous, that the "hat" became an object of ambition to princes, and it was the primary object with a long series of Popes to bestow it on their kinsmen."[61]

Cardinale Secretario di Stato

Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Cardinal Secretary of State.

The curial office of Cardinal Secretary of State in many ways evolved from the roles formerly filled by cardinal-nephews. From 1644 to 1692, the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State was essentially inversely proportional to that of the Cardinal Nephew, to whom the Secretariat was subordinate.[41] During some pontificates, for example that of Pope Pius V (1566–1572) and his nephew Michele Bonelli, the cardinal-nephew and secretary of state were one and the same.[62]

Note

  1. ^ a b c Matthew Bunson, 1995. "Cardinal Nephew". The Pope Encyclopedia. Crown Trade Paperbacks. ISBN 0-517-88256-6.
  2. ^ Fino a papa Innocenzo XII, le uniche eccezioni alla regola furono i papi che non crearono cardinali (Pio III, Marcello II, Urbano VII, Leone XI) e papa Adriano VI (che creò un solo cardinale).
  3. ^ John Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through The Ages: A History, Paulist Press, 2005, ISBN 0809142341, p. 170. Vidmar segnala l'eccezione costituita da Niccolò V, che creò cardinale il fratellastro Filippo Calandrini il 20 dicembre 1448 (cfr. Salvator, 1998, "XV Century (1404–1503)").
  4. ^ Un diciannovesimo, Vicedomino de Vicedominis, fu eletto papa ma morì prima dell'annuncio della sua elezione, e di conseguenza non è compreso nel computo dei pontefici; aveva assunto il nome di Gregorio XI. S. Miranda (cfr. Consistory of 1127, citando fonti antiche come Alfonso Chacón, sostiene che papa Anastasio IV (Corrado della Suburra) fosse probabilmente un nipote del papa che l'aveva elevato al cardinalato, Onorio II; tuttavia, gli studiosi moderni (Brixius, pp. 36, 78; Klewitz, p. 128; Hüls, pp. 128, 201; Zenker, pp. 46-48) concordano nel dire che Corrado fu creato cardinale da papa Pasquale II, e negano o non fanno parola di alcun suo legame di parentela con Onore II.
  5. ^ Miranda, Salvator. 1998. "Essay of a General List of Cardinals (112-2006)".
  6. ^ a b c Miranda, Salvator. 1998. "General list of Cardinals: XI Century (999–1099)".
  7. ^ For the discussion concerning dubious cases see List of cardinal-nephews.
  8. ^ Bargrave, John. 1867. Pope Alexander the Seventh and the College of Cardinals. Camden Society. p. 3.
  9. ^ Burke-Young, Francis A. 1998. "The election of Pope Paul II (1464)".
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Reinhard, Wolfgang, Levillain, ed., 2002. "Nepotism", p. 1031–1033.
  11. ^ Ekelund et al., 2004, p. 703.
  12. ^ Setton, 1984, p. 639.
  13. ^ Setton, 1984, p. 711.
  14. ^ Chadwick, 1981, p. 289.
  15. ^ a b Ekelund et al., 2004, p. 702.
  16. ^ a b c d e Laurain-Portemer, Madeleine, Levillain, ed., 2002. "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State", p. 1467–1469.
  17. ^ Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 141.
  18. ^ a b c d Template:Ws
  19. ^ a b Template:Ws
  20. ^ a b c Hsia, 2005, p. 102.
  21. ^ a b c Pirie, Valérie. 1965. "The Triple Crown: An Account of the Papal Conclaves: Preliminary Chapter". Spring Books.
  22. ^ a b Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 144.
  23. ^ Bireley, Robert. 2004. Book Review of Bürokratie und Nepotismus unter Paul V. (1605–1621): Studien zur frühneuzeitlichen Mikropolitik in Rom by Birgit Emich. The Catholic Historical Review. 90, 1: 127–129.
  24. ^ Osheim, Duane J. "Review of Kardinal Scipione Borghese, 1605–1633: Vermögen, Finanzen und sozialer Aufstieg eines Papstnepoten". The American Historical Review. 90, 4: 971–972.
  25. ^ Thomas Munck. Europa XVII wieku. Warszawa 1999, p. 341
  26. ^ Tizon-Germe, Anne-Cécile, Levillain, ed., 2002, "Gregory XIV", p. 666.
  27. ^ Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 144–145.
  28. ^ Williams, 2004, p. 103.
  29. ^ von Rankle, Leopold. 1848. The History of the Popes. p. 307.
  30. ^ Template:Ws
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h Chadwick, 1981, p. 305.
  32. ^ Template:Ws
  33. ^ Chadwick, 1981, p. 303.
  34. ^ a b Boutry, Philippe, Levillain, ed., 2002, "Innocent X", p. 801–802.
  35. ^ a b Chadwick, 1981, p. 304.
  36. ^ a b Rosa, Mario, Levillain, ed., 2002, "Curia", p. 468.
  37. ^ Fr. Jeffrey Keyes. "A YOUNG MAN IN THE ROME OF PIUS VII". p. 34.
  38. ^ Miranda, Salvador. 1998. "Consistory of September 2, 1686."
  39. ^ a b Standen, Edith A. 1981. "Tapestries for a Cardinal-Nephew: A Roman Set Illustrating Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 16: 147–164.
  40. ^ Hansman, Silvia. 1999, Spring. "The Vatican Secret Archives". Seminar on Records and Archives in Society.
  41. ^ a b Chadwick, 1981, p. 299.
  42. ^ Miranda, Salvator. 1998. "Guide to documents and events (76–2005)".
  43. ^ Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 142.
  44. ^ a b Wilcock, John. 2005. "Popes and Anti-Popes".
  45. ^ Duffy, Eamon. 2006. "Saints & sinners: a history of the Popes".
  46. ^ Pirie, Valérie. 1965. "The Triple Crown: An Account of the Papal Conclaves: XVIIIth Century: PIUS VI (BRASCHI)". Spring Books.
  47. ^ Pirie, Valérie. 1965. "The Triple Crown: An Account of the Papal Conclaves: XIXth Century". Spring Books. p. 305.
  48. ^ Miranda, Salvador. 1998. "Consistory of February 1, 1836 (VIII)".
  49. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore s114
  50. ^ Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 93.
  51. ^ Signorotto and Visceglia, 2002, p. 121.
  52. ^ Burke-Young, Francis A. 1998. "The election of Pope Alexander VI (1492)".
  53. ^ Trollope, 1876, p. 138.
  54. ^ Miranda, S. 1998. "Consistory of September 28, 1500 (IX)". Florida International University.
  55. ^ Miranda, S. 1998. "Consistory of June 7, 1555 (I)". Florida International University.
  56. ^ Chadwick, 1981, p. 301.
  57. ^ Chadwick, 1981, p. 302.
  58. ^ Hsia, 2005, p. 103.
  59. ^ Ambrosini, Maria Luisa, and Willis, Mary. 1996. The Secret Archives of the Vatican. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 0760701253. p. 138.
  60. ^ Burkle-Young, Francis. 1998. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church: Papal elections in the Fifteenth Century: The election of Pope Eugenius IV (1431)."
  61. ^ Trollope, 1876, p. 138.
  62. ^ Setton, 1984, p. 912.

Bibliografia

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  • Chadwick, Owen. 1981. The Popes and European Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198269196.
  • Duffy, Eamon. 2006. Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300115970.
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Voci correlate

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