Data conversion

Introduction : Natural justice is an important Concept in administrative law. It is not possible to define precisely and scientifically the expression 'natural justice' . The principles of natural justice or fundamentals rules of procedure for administrative action are neither fixed nor prescribed in any code. They are better known than described and easier proclaimed than defined.' Natural justice has meant many things to many writers, lawyers and systems of law. It has many colours and shades and many forms and shapes. It is known as 'substantial justice'2, 'fundamental justice'3, universal justice'4 or 'fair play in action'5. According to de Smith,6 the term 'natural justice' expresses the close relationship between the common law and moral principles describing what is right and what is wrong, while in the words of Megary.7 It is 'justice that is simple and elementary, as distinct from justice that is complex sophisticated and technical'. It is a great humanising principle intended to invest law with fairness to secure justice and to prevent miscarriage of justice. "Natural justice' has been used in a way which implies the existence of moral principles of self-evidence and unarguable truth.8 It is considered as "that part of natural law which relates to the administration of justice". Rules of natural justice are not embodied rules. Being means to an end and not an end in themselves, it is not possible to make an exhaustive catalogue of such rules.9 Though highly attractive and potential, natural justice is a vague and ambiguous concept and, having been criticised as 'sadly lacking in precision',10 has been consigned more than once to the lumber room.11 It is a confused and unwarranted concept and encroaches on the field of ethics.12 Though eminent judges have at times used the phrase 'the principles of natural justice'. even now the concept differs widely in countries usually described as civilised.13 It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, i therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In reply to the aforesaid criticism against natural justice, Lord Reid in the historic decision of Ridge v. Baldwin14 observed. In modern times opinions have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is so vague as to. be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore, it does not exist."15' . ; rtnfr r rn Ict Literary Review: The expression natural justice Os naturale) was largely used in the philosophical speculations of the Roman jurists of the Antonine age, and was intended to denote a system of rules and principles for the guidance of human conduct which. independent of enacted law or of the systems peculiar to any one people, might be discovered by the rational negligence of man, and would be found to grow out of and conform to his nature, meaning by that word his whole mental. moral. and physical constitution.16 In ethics, it consists in practical universal judgments which man himself elicits. These express, necessary and obligatory rules of human conduct which have been established by the author of human nature as essential to the divine purposes in the universe and have been promulgated by God solely through human reason.17

Comparative Studies: So, the comparative Literary Review: The expression natural justice Os naturale) was largely used in the philosophical speculations of the Roman jurists of the Antonine age, and was intended to denote a system of rules and principles for the guidance of human conduct which. independent of enacted law or of the systems peculiar to any one people, might be discovered by the rational negligence of man, and would be found to grow out of and conform to his nature, meaning by that word his whole mental. moral. and physical constitution.16 In ethics, it consists in practical universal judgments which man himself elicits. These express, necessary and obligatory rules of human conduct which have been established by the author of human nature as essential to the divine purposes in the universe and have been promulgated by God solely through human reason.17 study of the concept is as follows. Meaning and Object of Principles of jstice: At least some minimum standards of fair play must be determined. Natural Justice is an important safeguard of administrative law. Today these principles are applied to every body . Paul Jekson' book (Natural Justice) "Natural Justice is also another for natural law, although divide of some,...., of the theological, philosophical ..." "Marshall" book (Natural Justice) "That part of Natural Law which relates to administration of justice" Different judges call it moral principles of self evident truth. They inject principles of morality in administration of justice. Lord Long Day in Harvey v Shelton 1884 "The first principles of justice" It called it root, basis for justice . O'Higgins in Graghty v Minister for Local Govt.143 "The elementary principles of justice" Lord Demning in Tameshwar v The Queen144 "The essential principles of Justice" Justice cannot be done without, observing the principles of natural justice. USA: In USA congress can not override theprinciples of natural justice because in USA constitution is supreme and not the parliament and these two principles of natural justice are included in 'due procestslause' of the constitution. India: Same position as was in UK. Principles of natural justice are to be read as part of the every statute but the parliament can take away by the statute itself Pakistan: In Pakistan the same position was followed as were in UK relating to the principle of natural justice but now after 18th amendment in the constitution the situation has changed. In 18th amendment after inclusion of right of 'fair trial and proceeding' which is analogous to the 'due process clause' of the USA constitution the position is little bit tilted towards the USA rather than UK.

4. Research questions 1. Are the principle of natural justice have constitutional guarantees ? 2. Wheather the educating authorities are band to follow the principle of natural justice at any cost? 3. Whether these principles are applicable to the administrative authorities ? 4. Whether and administrative order passed in violation of these principles is ultra virus on that ground ?

5 problem statement Natural justice has payment many things too many writers lawyers justice and systems of law it has many colours shades shapes and forms. Now the problem is are the rules of natural justice embodied rules or can they be I'm present within the the straight jacket of rigid formula.

6 objectives of the study The concept of the natural justice is not complete of any exercise description whether or not the rules of natural justice have been violated in the particular case must be determined in the light of the rights violated and the constitution of the authority which has two to function in accordance with the rules laid down either by the legislature or any other rules the essential feature of the principle of natural justice in his maridi that no person shall be deprived of any right by the judicial or judicial order without a hearing for an independent authority not interested in the the proceeding or in any party of the proceedings.

6:6. Against Whom Principles of Natural Justice are enforced? There are two views about this answer. 1St View / Earlier View: Principles of natural justice are applied only to quasi-judicial and judicial proceeding and not to the administrative functions. Franklin v Minister of Town and County Planning156 In this case, the court held that the duty assigned to the minister was in the nature of administrative so principles of natural justice are not applied to his case: Kishan Chand v Commissionei of Poli ofcenat15

Information basics

Before any data conversion is carried out, the user or application programmer should keep a few basics of computing and information theory in mind. These include:

Information can easily be discarded by the computer, but adding information takes effort.
The computer can add information only in a rule-based fashion. ^{[citation needed]}
Upsampling the data or converting to a more feature-rich format does not add information; it merely makes room for that addition, which usually a human must do.
Data stored in an electronic format can be quickly modified and analyzed.

For example, a true color image can easily be converted to grayscale, while the opposite conversion is a painstaking process. Converting a Unix text file to a Microsoft (DOS/Windows) text file involves adding characters, but this does not increase the entropy since it is rule-based; whereas the addition of color information to a grayscale image cannot be done programmatically, since only a human^{[citation needed]} knows which colors are needed for each section of the picture–there are no rules that can be used to automate that process. Converting a 24-bit PNG to a 48-bit one does not add information to it, it only pads existing RGB pixel values with zeroes^{[citation needed]}, so that a pixel with a value of FF C3 56, for example, becomes FF00 C300 5600. The conversion makes it possible to change a pixel to have a value of, for instance, FF80 C340 56A0, but the conversion itself does not do that, only further manipulation of the image can. Converting an image or audio file in a lossy format (like JPEG or Vorbis) to a lossless (like PNG or FLAC) or uncompressed (like BMP or WAV) format only wastes space, since the same image with its loss of original information (the artifacts of lossy compression) becomes the target. A JPEG image can never be restored to the quality of the original image from which it was made, no matter how much the user tries the "JPEG Artifact Removal" feature of his or her image manipulation program.

Automatic restoration of information that was lost through a lossy compression process would probably require important advances in artificial intelligence.

Because of these realities of computing and information theory, data conversion is often a complex and error-prone process that requires the help of experts.

Pivotal conversion

Data conversion can occur directly from one format to another, but many applications that convert between multiple formats use an intermediate representation by way of which any source format is converted to its target.^[1] For example, it is possible to convert Cyrillic text from KOI8-R to Windows-1251 using a lookup table between the two encodings, but the modern approach is to convert the KOI8-R file to Unicode first and from that to Windows-1251. This is a more manageable approach; rather than needing lookup tables for all possible pairs of character encodings, an application needs only one lookup table for each character set, which it uses to convert to and from Unicode, thereby scaling the number of tables down from hundreds to a few tens.^{[citation needed]}

Pivotal conversion is similarly used in other areas. Office applications, when employed to convert between office file formats, use their internal, default file format as a pivot. For example, a word processor may convert an RTF file to a WordPerfect file by converting the RTF to OpenDocument and then that to WordPerfect format. An image conversion program does not convert a PCX image to PNG directly; instead, when loading the PCX image, it decodes it to a simple bitmap format for internal use in memory, and when commanded to convert to PNG, that memory image is converted to the target format. An audio converter that converts from FLAC to AAC decodes the source file to raw PCM data in memory first, and then performs the lossy AAC compression on that memory image to produce the target file.

Lost and inexact data conversion

The objective of data conversion is to maintain all of the data, and as much of the embedded information as possible. This can only be done if the target format supports the same features and data structures present in the source file. Conversion of a word processing document to a plain text file necessarily involves loss of formatting information, because plain text format does not support word processing constructs such as marking a word as boldface. For this reason, conversion from one format to another which does not support a feature which is important to the user is rarely carried out, though it may be necessary for interoperability, e.g. converting a file from one version of Microsoft Word to an earlier version to enable transfer and use by other users who do not have the same later version of Word installed on their computer.

Loss of information can be mitigated by approximation in the target format. There is no way of converting a character like ä to ASCII, since the ASCII standard lacks it, but the information may be retained by approximating the character as ae. Of course, this is not an optimal solution, and can impact operations like searching and copying; and if a language makes a distinction between ä and ae, then that approximation does involve loss of information.

Data conversion can also suffer from inexactitude, the result of converting between formats that are conceptually different. The WYSIWYG paradigm, extant in word processors and desktop publishing applications, versus the structural-descriptive paradigm, found in SGML, XML and many applications derived therefrom, like HTML and MathML, is one example. Using a WYSIWYG HTML editor conflates the two paradigms, and the result is HTML files with suboptimal, if not nonstandard, code. In the WYSIWYG paradigm a double linebreak signifies a new paragraph, as that is the visual cue for such a construct, but a WYSIWYG HTML editor will usually convert such a sequence to <BR><BR>, which is structurally no new paragraph at all. As another example, converting from PDF to an editable word processor format is a tough chore, because PDF records the textual information like engraving on stone, with each character given a fixed position and linebreaks hard-coded, whereas word processor formats accommodate text reflow. PDF does not know of a word space character—the space between two letters and the space between two words differ only in quantity. Therefore, a title with ample letter-spacing for effect will usually end up with spaces in the word processor file, for example INTRODUCTION with spacing of 1 em as I N T R O D U C T I O N on the word processor.

Open vs. secret specifications

Successful data conversion requires thorough knowledge of the workings of both source and target formats. In the case where the specification of a format is unknown, reverse engineering will be needed to carry out conversion. Reverse engineering can achieve close approximation of the original specifications, but errors and missing features can still result.

Electronics

Data format conversion can also occur at the physical layer of an electronic communication system. Conversion between line codes such as NRZ and RZ can be accomplished when necessary.

References

^ Dragos-Anton Manolescu; Markus Voelter; James Noble (2006). Pattern Languages of Program Design 5. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 271–. ISBN 978-0-321-32194-7.

[ManolescuVoelter2006-1] Dragos-Anton Manolescu; Markus Voelter; James Noble (2006). Pattern Languages of Program Design 5. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 271–. ISBN 978-0-321-32194-7.

[1]