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Draft for Amplexus edit

Introduction:

Amplexus (Latin "embrace") is a type of mating behaviour exhibited by some externally fertilizing species (chiefly amphibians and horseshoe crabs) in which a male grasps a female with his front legs as part of the mating process, and at the same time or with some time delay, he fertilizes the eggs as they are released from the female's body.[1] In amphibians, females may be grasped by the head, waist, or armpits, and the type of amplexus is characteristic of some taxonomic groups. Amplexus involves direct contact between male and female, distinguished from other forms of external fertilization such as broadcast spawning, where sperm and eggs are freely shed into water without direct contact by individuals. In order for amplexus to be initiated, male frogs must first find a mate by attracting one through calls, typically in the evening.[2] Once a male has successfully attracted a mate the process of amplexus begins while the unsuccessful males are forced to continue their search for a mate through further calls.[2] The competition for a female to mate with among males is considered intense as it is not uncommon for a male amphibian to attack an already-amplexed pair of amphibians.[3] When a male amphibian attacks an already-amplexed pair of amphibians he is trying to force the other male to release its grasp of the female so he can then mate with her.[3] Male amphibians are also known to show mate-guarding behaviour, which is shown after amplexus and it is the males attempt to prevent the female amphibian from mating with other males.[3] The duration of amplexus has been found to vary across different species as in some species it has been found to last for many days but in other species, it has been found to last a few hours.[2] Despite the variation in the duration of amplexus across different species, typically all the species that exhibit this behaviour have to use their forelimb muscles for the whole duration of amplexus.[2] Studies have found that this reproductive behaviour of amplexus can come with different fitness costs due to the fact that amplexus can occur for prolonged periods of time. For instance, a study found that when a male amphibian is grasping and holding onto a female amphibian, this can lead to the impairment of the female's ability to move or to feed.[4] After conducting experiments, researchers confirmed that amplexus does decrease a female's locomotor performance (e.g. swimming, walking) as well as decrease the feeding rates of females engaged in amplexus.[4] With regards to the cost of a male engaged in amplexus, male amphibians have been found to not feed at all during amplexus.[4]

The hormone arginine vasotocin (AVT) has been identified as having an effect on the calling behaviours produced by these male amphibians when searching for a female mate, as AVT increased the amount of calling behaviour produced in male amphibians.[5] Additionally, it is believed that the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) has an influence on amplexus in amphibians as it has been found to produce or initiate this behaviour in many anuran amphibians.[5] Furthermore, both arginine vasotocin and gonadotropin-releasing hormone have been found to be involved in the sexual behaviour of male amphibians.[5]

There are two different types of amplexus known as inguinal and axillary amplexus.[6] These two types of amplexus have been classified based on the position of the male amphibian to the female it is mating with.[6] When a male amphibian clasps a female around their waist (inguinal region) using his forelimbs, this is then considered inguinal amplexus.[6] Contrastingly, when a male amphibian clasps behind the forelimbs (axillary region) of a female amphibian, this is then considered axillary amplexus.[6]

This amplexus behaviour allows the amphibians cloacae to be in close contact while gametes are being released.[5]Additionally, amplexus is thought to help with the alignment of the reproductive tracts of both males and females which furthermore contributes to the achievement of successful fertilization.[1]

These forelimb muscles that are used during amplexus are typically larger in males than females.[2] Interestingly, in addition to those forelimb muscles being larger in males, male frogs also typically have keratin pads which are located on their thumbs and contribute to the success of amplexus by assisting in gripping the female for the duration of amplexus.[7]

Amphibians

Anurans

Amplexus chiefly occurs aquatically, but some more terrestrial anurans (frogs and toads) like the disc-tongued frogs (Discoglossidae) perform amplexus on land. In crown-group anurans like the true frogs (Ranidae), the tree frogs (Hylidae), and the true toads (Bufonidae), amplexus is axillary (in the armpits).[8] Other anurans (the Archaeobatrachia, Sooglossidae and Myobatrachidae), show the ancestral state which is inguinal or lumbar amplexus (abdominal, in front of the hindlegs). Some species show cephalic amplexus where the head of the female is held while others show complete lack of amplexus.[9] Additionally, anurans species have been observed to engage in multiple amplexus, which can also be referred to as a mating ball as many toads attach themselves to a female trying to initiate amplexus.[10] However, multiple amplexus is not common among anurans which could indicate that the costs associated with multiple amplexus are higher than the advantages.[10] For female anurans, the idea of multiple amplexus would probably be more advantageous as mating with more than one male would be beneficial as this would increase fertilization chances or increase offspring genetic diversity.[10]

In most anurans, the males deposit sperm onto the eggs as they are being laid, however males of the genus Ascaphus possess an intromittent organ, unique among anurans, for internal fertilization. Internal fertilization does occur in a few other genera, including Nectophrynoides, Mertensophryne, and Eleutherodactylus.[9][11]

Newts

In the case of newts the process of amplexus is often observed soon after the newts become seasonally active.[5] In the western USA, for example, this time is typically soon after the onset of the winter rainy season, when intermittent streams and vernal pools become available as breeding habitat. The rough-skinned newt is a specific widespread example of a newt in the western USA that can be observed in quiet stream pools and shallow ponds engaging in amplexus.[12] During amplexus in newts, males will typically show the behaviour of tail fanning and chin rubbing which is thought to prompt the mating receptivity of the female newt.[13] Studies have shown that male newts who have deeper tailfins have better control of females during amplexus and are also more successful in catching the females for amplexus.[13] Additionally, it has been found that the probability of a male newt who has a deeper tailfin to achieve amplexus is greater than those newts who do not contain a deeper tailfin as male newts tend to use their tails during male-male competition.[13]

When a male newt, who is unpaired, encounters a female and male newt engaged in amplexus, the unpaired newt will try to displace the paired male newt by using wrestling tactics.[14] A study examining the wrestling of newts found that of the observed wrestling encounters, 90% were 'won' by the paired male meaning he would retain the female newt.[14] The invading unpaired newt was found to rarely successfully displace the paired male newt who was engaged in amplexus.[14]

Horseshoe Crabs

Amplexus occurs in all four species of horseshoe crab. The first pair of walking legs is used to tightly clasp the female in all species, and the second pair is also employed in all but Limulus polyphemus.[15] A male horseshoe crab develops modified claspers during sexual maturity when the male moults, these modified claspers can then help during the process of amplexus.[16] The males pair of posterior claspers are known for having the ability to maintain long-term amplexus which have been found to always attach to the female's opisthosoma during amplexus.[16] Contrastingly, the males anterior claspers have been found to attach to the female's opisthosoma as well, but on the lateral edges of the opisthosoma.[16] Uniquely, amplexus is most likely to occur between horseshoe crabs when the female horseshoe crab has a hard shell.[16] Additionally, males who inhabit a clean shell are more likely to enter amplexus compared to males who contain a dirty shell as it seems females have a preference for clean shells on males.[16] Horseshoe crabs typically will go ashore for amplexus while it is high tide and end up on beaches where the eggs are more protected.[17]


References

  1. ^ a b Mollov, Ivelin; Popgeorgiev, Georgi; Naumov, Borislav; Tzankov, Nikolay; Stoyanov, Andrei (2010). "Cases of abnormal amplexus in anurans (Amphibia: Anura) from Bulgaria and Greece" (PDF). Biharean Biologist.
  2. ^ a b c d e McLister, James (2003). "The metabolic cost of amplexus in the grey tree frog (Hyla versicolor): assessing the energetics of male mating success". NRC Canada. doi:10.1139/Z03-013.
  3. ^ a b c Bee, M.A.; Reichert, M.S.; Tumulty, J. (2016), "Assessment and Recognition of Rivals in Anuran Contests", Advances in the Study of Behavior, Elsevier, pp. 161–249, ISBN 9780128047873, retrieved 2019-10-24
  4. ^ a b c Bowcock, Haley; Brown, GregoryP.; Shine, Richard (2009-02-23). "Beastly Bondage: The Costs of Amplexus in Cane Toads (Bufo marinus)". Copeia. 2009 (1): 29–36. doi:10.1643/ce-08-036. ISSN 0045-8511.
  5. ^ a b c d e Propper, Catherine R.; Dixon, Timothy B. (1997). "Differential Effects of Arginine Vasotocin and Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone on Sexual Behaviors in an Anuran Amphibian". Hormones and Behavior. 32 (2): 99–104. doi:10.1006/hbeh.1997.1408.
  6. ^ a b c d Nussbaum, Ronald A. (1980). "Phylogenetic Implications of Amplectic Behavior in Sooglossid Frogs". Herpetologica. 36 (1): 1–5. ISSN 0018-0831.
  7. ^ O’Rourke, Dorcas P.; Rosenbaum, Matthew D. (2015), "Biology and Diseases of Amphibians", Laboratory Animal Medicine, Elsevier, pp. 931–965, ISBN 9780124095274, retrieved 2019-10-24
  8. ^ Vitt, Laurie J.; Caldwell, Janalee P. (2014), "Frogs", Herpetology, Elsevier, pp. 471–522, ISBN 9780123869197, retrieved 2019-10-25
  9. ^ a b Duellman, W. E. and L. Trueb. 1986. Biology of Amphibians. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
  10. ^ a b c Lod, Thierry; Lesbarr, David (2004). "Multiple paternity in Rana dalmatina , a monogamous territorial breeding anuran". Naturwissenschaften. 91 (1): 44–47. doi:10.1007/s00114-003-0491-7. ISSN 0028-1042.
  11. ^ Linzey, D. 2001. Vertebrate Biology, McGraw Hill Publishers, New York.
  12. ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008) Rough-skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa) Archived 2009-05-27 at the Wayback Machine, Globaltwitcher, ed. N. Stromberg
  13. ^ a b c Reedy, Aaron M.; Edwards, Alex; Pendlebury, Chloe; Murdaugh, Laura; Avery, Ryan; Seidenberg, Jake; Aspbury, Andrea S.; Gabor, Caitlin R. (2014). "An acute increase in the stress hormone corticosterone is associated with mating behavior in both male and female red-spotted newts, Notophthalmus viridescens". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 208: 57–63. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.08.008. ISSN 0016-6480.
  14. ^ a b c Verrell, Paul A. (1986). "Wrestling in the red-spotted newt (Notophthalmus viridescens): resource value and contestant asymmetry determine contest duration and outcome". Animal Behaviour. 34 (2): 398–402. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(86)80108-7. ISSN 0003-3472.
  15. ^ Botton, Mark L.; Shuster, Carl N.; Sekiguchi, Koichi; Sugita, Hiroaki (February 1996). "Amplexus and Mating Behavior in the Japanese Horseshoe Crab, Tachypleus tridentatus". Zoological Science. 13 (1): 151–159. doi:10.2108/zsj.13.151.
  16. ^ a b c d e Botton, Mark L.; Shuster, Carl N.; Sekiguchi, Koichi; Sugita, Hiroaki (1996). "Amplexus and Mating Behavior in the Japanese Horseshoe Crab, Tachypleus tridentatus". Zoological Science. 13 (1): 151–159. doi:10.2108/zsj.13.151. ISSN 0289-0003.
  17. ^ Leschen, Alison S.; Grady, Sara P.; Valiela, Ivan (2006). "Fecundity and spawning of the Atlantic horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, in Pleasant Bay, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA". Marine Ecology. 27 (1): 54–65. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2005.00053.x. ISSN 0173-9565.
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