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Viruses and nanbots

molecular robotics

• Nanorobotics
• Self-assembly of nanoparticles
• Capsid

From: Virome:

Viromes were the first examples of shotgun community sequence, which is now known as metagenomics. In the 2000s, the Rohwer lab sequenced viromes from seawater, marine sediments, adult human stool, ...

T. Hinckley et al. Development of phage-based nanobots for the recognition, separation and detection of bacterial pathogens. 255th American Chemical Society National Meeting, New Orleans, March 20, 2018.

J. Chen et al. Lyophilized engineered phages for Escherichia coli detection in food matrices. ACS Sensors. Vol. 2. October 2017, p. 1573. doi: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00561

J. Chen et al. Bacteriophage-based nanoprobes for rapid bacteria separation. Nanoscale. Vol. 7. August 2015, p. 16230. doi: 10.1039/c5nr03779d

Breitbart, M; Felts, B; Kelley, S; Mahaffy, JM; Nulton, J; Salamon, P; Rohwer, F (22 March 2004). "Diversity and population structure of a near-shore marine-sediment viral community". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 271 (1539): 565–74. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2628. PMC 1691639. PMID 15156913.

Rohwer, F. and Thurber, R.V., 2009. "Viruses manipulate the marine environment". Nature, 459(7244), p.207.

Brussaard, C.P., Wilhelm, S.W., Thingstad, F., Weinbauer, M.G., Bratbak, G., Heldal, M., Kimmance, S.A., Middelboe, M., Nagasaki, K., Paul, J.H. and Schroeder, D.C., 2008. Global-scale processes with a nanoscale drive: the role of marine viruses". The ISME Journal, 2(6), p.575.

Brum, J.R., Ignacio-Espinoza, J.C., Roux, S., Doulcier, G., Acinas, S.G., Alberti, A., Chaffron, S., Cruaud, C., De Vargas, C., Gasol, J.M. and Gorsky, G., 2015. Patterns and ecological drivers of ocean viral communities. Science, 348(6237), p.1261498. [20] • "Ocean microbes produce half of the oxygen we breathe (1) and drive much of the substrate and redox transformations that fuel Earth’s ecosystems (2). However, they do so in a constantly evolving network of chemical, physical and biotic constraints – interactions which are only beginning to be explored. Marine viruses are presumably key players in these interactions (3, 4) as they affect microbial populations through lysis, reprogramming of host metabolism, and horizontal gene transfer"

Brum, J.R. and Sullivan, M.B., 2015. Rising to the challenge: accelerated pace of discovery transforms marine virology. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 13(3), p.147.[21] • "Marine viruses have important roles in microbial mortality, gene transfer, metabolic reprogramming and biogeochemical cycling" • "Viruses were once thought to have a limited influence in marine environments because initial studies detected few viruses capable of infecting cultivated bacteria1. However, similar to early studies of marine bacteria2 cultivation grossly underestimated marine viral abundance. In 1989, direct microscopic examination of seawater showed an ocean teeming with millions of viruses per milliliter of seawater1. Almost simultaneously, another study showed that viruses actively infect marine microorganisms3, which drive energy and nutrient transformations that fuel life on our planet4, leading to speculation that viruses have a major influence on marine ecosystem dynamics1,3 23 ." • "In summary, an explosion of novel tools, technologies and theories are transforming our conceptual view of marine viral ecology. Given this, and the experimental advantages of studying microbial systems, we further challenge the field to advance our understanding of ecological interactions of micro- and nano-scale entities to match, and perhaps even surpass, that of their macro-scale counterparts. " • "" • "" • "" ETC

Breitbart M (2012) Marine viruses: truth or dare. Ann Rev Mar Sci 4: 425–448.

Hemminga, M.A., Vos, W.L., Nazarov, P.V., Koehorst, R.B., Wolfs, C.J., Spruijt, R.B. and Stopar, D. (2010) "Viruses: incredible nanomachines. New advances with filamentous phages" European Biophysics Journal, 39(4): 541–550. doi:10.1007/s00249-009-0523-0 • "From the perspective of nanotechnology, viruses can be regarded as efficient nanomachines, producing numerous copies of themselves."

Johnson, J.E. (2010) "Virus particle maturation: insights into elegantly programmed nanomachines". Current opinion in structural biology, 20(2): 210–216. • "Capsid maturation is an accessible natural example of a nano machine"

Koudelka, K.J., Pitek, A.S., Manchester, M. and Steinmetz, N.F. (2015) "Virus-based nanoparticles as versatile nanomachines". Annual review of virology, 2: 379–401. • "Nanoscale engineering is revolutionizing the way we prevent, detect, and treat diseases. Viruses have played a special role in these developments because they can function as prefabricated nanoscaffolds that have unique properties and are easily modified. The interiors of virus particles can encapsulate and protect sensitive compounds, while the exteriors can be altered to display large and small molecules in precisely defined arrays. These properties of viruses, along with their innate biocompatibility, have led to their development as actively targeted drug delivery systems that expand on and improve current pharmaceutical options." • "In contrast, bionanomaterials based on viruses allow for the templated assembly of millions of identical nanoparticles and their production in living cells. Viruses are ubiquitous in the environment, and those that infect bacteria, mammals, or plants have all been used to manufacture virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs). Viruses are an ideal starting point because they have evolved naturally to deliver nucleic acids and can therefore be subverted for the delivery of other molecules, such as drugs and imaging reagents. Finally, viruses replicate prodigiously, allowing the inexpensive manufacture of VNPs on an industrial scale." • "VNPs are high-precision materials that self-assemble into symmetrical and polyvalent structures that can be tailored at the atomic level. Virus-based materials come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but most are monodisperse with geometries that can be custom modified... Whereas some synthetic nanoparticles persist in the body for weeks or even longer (168–171), virus-based materials are subject to proteolytic degradation and thus are removed safely from the body within days"

Krupovic, M., Prangishvili, D., Hendrix, R.W. and Bamford, D.H. (2011) "Genomics of bacterial and archaeal viruses: dynamics within the prokaryotic virosphere". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 75(4): 610–635. • "Over the past few years, the viruses of prokaryotes have been transformed in the view of microbiologists from simply being convenient experimental model systems into being a major component of the biosphere. They are the global champions of diversity, they constitute a majority of organisms on the planet, they have large roles in the planet’s ecosystems, they exert a significant—some would say dominant—force on the evolution of their bacterial and archaeal hosts, and they have been doing this for billions of years, possibly for as long as there have been cells."

Sunagawa, S., Coelho, L.P., Chaffron, S., Kultima, J.R., Labadie, K., Salazar, G., Djahanschiri, B., Zeller, G., Mende, D.R., Alberti, A. and Cornejo-Castillo, F.M., 2015. Structure and function of the global ocean microbiome. Science, 348(6237), p.1261359. [22] • "We identify ocean microbial core functionality and reveal, given the physicochemical differences, a surprisingly high fraction of its abundance (>73%) to be shared with the human gut microbiome." • "Microorganisms are ubiquitous in the ocean environment, where they play key roles in biogeochemical processes, such as carbon and nutrient cycling (1). With an estimated 104 - 106 cells per milliliter, their biomass combined with high turnover rates and environmental complexity, provides the grounds for immense genetic diversity (2). These microorganisms, and the communities they form, drive and respond to changes in the environment, including climate change-associated shifts in temperature, carbon chemistry, nutrient and oxygen content, and alterations in ocean stratification and currents (3)."

Paez-Espino, D., Eloe-Fadrosh, E.A., Pavlopoulos, G.A., Thomas, A.D., Huntemann, M., Mikhailova, N., Rubin, E., Ivanova, N.N. and Kyrpides, N.C., 2016. Uncovering Earth’s virome. Nature, 536(7617), p.425. [23] • "Viruses are the most abundant entities across all habitats, and a major reservoir of genetic diversity1 affecting biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem dynamics1. Exploration of viral populations in oceans of the world and within the human microbiome has illuminated considerable genetic complexity2,3"

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Viruses as nanomachines

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from: http://www.storagetwo.com/blog/2016/2/viruses-nanorobots-among-us Viruses defy the usual categories we use to define life. They don’t have cells. They don’t consume, store, or use energy. They don’t move. They don’t reproduce without a host. They don’t show any signs of activity at all unless they’re in an environment where they can spread. They have been compared to nanorobots, and in many ways, it is an apt description. If viruses are not “alive” as we define it, then what should we call these strange evolving and replicating entities?

Mimivirus, a giant virus

Sputnik virophage

- Oncorhynchus nerka Sockeye salmon

Least concern "Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka): Sockeye were released into the Waitaki River catchment in 1902, after some 500,000 ova were gifted by the Canadian government. Young that hatched were released in the hope of yielding a returning run, to develop a commercial fishery based on canning salmon. The species established itself in Lake Ōhau but a sea-going population never developed. A remnant population still exists in Lake Ōhau and its tributaries." "Sockeye salmon stocks in New Zealand derive from a single importation of eggs that occurred in 1902. Although in their native North Pacific habitat most stocks are anadromous, stocks in New Zealand are wholly land-locked. Sockeye were released into the Waitaki River catchment, and were restricted to Lake Ohau for over 60 years where they were largely unknown to anglers. When Lake Benmore was established, this provided the sockeye with unusual but effective adult habitat, and during the 1970s stocks increased. However, when Ruataniwha Dam was completed in 1982, access to Lake Benmore was no longer possible, and today, apart from breeding populations on a couple of commercial salmon farms, sockeye salmon are virtually extinct. Sockeye salmon co-exist in the Waitaki catchment with chinook salmon and brown and rainbow trout. The black gums of the chinook salmon distinguish this species from the sockeye. Sockeye also have a long-based anal fin (see glossary), which can be used to tell them apart from the trout species. In North America, sockeye salmon support an important commercial fishery and are a splendid table fish with bright orange flesh. The land-locked stocks here do not grow as large as their anadromous northern counterparts and rarely exceed 1 kg in weight. Northern stocks also develop brilliant spawning colours, becoming bright red along the back and sides with a green head. These colours are much more subdued in the New Zealand stocks although a pink flush may develop along the sides of larger spawning fish. Spawning occurs in autumn and is confined to a brief period of 2–3 weeks." Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chinook salmon

Not assessed

"Chinook or quinnat salmon are native to North America and Asia, and were brought to New Zealand in the early 1900s. They are big, often weighing 10–15 kilograms. They spawn (breed) in tributaries of rivers on the east coast of the South Island, such as the Waitaki, Rakaia and Rangitātā. New Zealand is the only place in the world where they have been successfully released outside their native home. Some salmon habitats have been harmed because river water is taken to irrigate farms, and rivers have been dammed. This reduces salmon numbers. Young salmon swim out to sea, then after three or four years return upstream to spawn. Unlike trout, they die after spawning." "Chinook or quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are native to the north-west coast of North America, and north-east Asia. New Zealand remains the only place in the world where Chinook salmon have become established successfully outside their natural range. In the early 1900s they were introduced from ova sourced from the McCloud River in California. They were released into the Hakataramea River, a tributary of the Waitaki River in the South Island. They were soon running up other Canterbury rivers such as the Rakaia and Rangitātā." "Chinook are the largest species of the Salmonidae family in New Zealand, commonly reaching 10–15 kilograms. Most adults are three years old when they spawn. When they enter river mouths on their spawning runs, they are very silvery in colour – but this gets duller the longer they stay in fresh water. Salmon are found mainly on the South Island’s east coast, from the Waiau River in North Canterbury to the Clutha River in South Otago. There are also small runs in the Paringa, Taramakau and Hokitika rivers on the West Coast. The renowned fisheries are the Waitaki, Rangitātā, Rakaia and Waimakariri rivers. Once, smaller rivers such as the Ashburton and Ōpihi also supported salmon. Taking water for irrigation has seen these rivers suffer from river mouth closure in summer. In the 2000s they were no longer regarded as good salmon fisheries. Small landlocked Chinook salmon can also be caught in some South Island lakes such as Lake Wakatipu. Dams on the Clutha River prevent them migrating to sea, so they never grow to any great size (they are typically less than 1 kilogram). Occasionally stray salmon are found in North Island rivers." "Chinook salmon are one of three Pacific Salmonidae from the genus Oncorhynchus that has become established in New Zealand. Native to the northwest coast of North American and northeast Asia, the specific name of this fish (pronounced shaw-witch-shaw) comes from the Kamchatka Peninsula and is thought to refer to their distinctive black gums. This character can be used to distinguish chinook salmon from the other Salmonidae in New Zealand. This species is also known as quinnat or king salmon. Chinook salmon in New Zealand have a life cycle that is typical of salmon in the North Pacific. The adults grow to maturity in the sea and migrate upstream to spawn, usually when they are three years old. After spawning, which occurs in autumn, all of the adults die. Juveniles hatch in spring, and typically spend 3 months in fresh water before migrating downstream to enter the ocean in summer. In some populations, a second downstream migration, consisting of individuals that have spent a year in fresh water, occurs the following spring. Chinook salmon are a highly prized sports fish in New Zealand although the population is not large enough to support commercial fishing. However, there are a number of successful salmon farms in New Zealand, and it is possible to buy fresh chinook salmon in most supermarkets nowadays. When the spawning migration of adult fish is in progress between December and April, picket lines of eager anglers are a common sight at major river mouths along the east coast of the South Island. Salmon lose condition as they migrate upstream and thus the most prized fish are those caught soon after arrival in fresh water. Chinook are the largest Salmonidae in New Zealand, commonly reaching 10–15 kg in weight. Chinook salmon occur mainly on the east coast of the South Island from the Waiau River in the north to the Clutha River in the south. The main runs occur in the large braided rivers – the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata and Waitaki. There are also small runs in the Paringa, Taramakau, and Hokitika River on the west coast, but other records of Chinook salmon on the west coast are probably stray fish. A few land-locked stocks are also known from lakes along both the east and west coasts. Although juvenile fish have been caught in some North Island rivers, indicating successful spawning had occurred, there are no consistent runs of Chinook salmon in the North Island." Salmo salar Atlantic salmon

Least concern "Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): The Atlantic salmon is native to rivers draining to the North Atlantic Ocean. Early settlers from Britain were familiar with the fish and eager to establish sea-going salmon populations. Between 1864 and 1910, 24 introductions were attempted involving 5 million ova, but with very little success. There were local fisheries at Lake Te Anau and Lake Manapōuri and in the Waiau River in the 1920s and 1930s, but the fish were poorly conditioned and did not swim out to sea. They weighed only about 2 kilograms, whereas Atlantic salmon in Britain returning from the sea were typically four times that weight. The species is considered to be close to extinction in New Zealand, with remnant wild stocks confined to lakes in Southland’s upper Waiau catchment." "As its name implies, the Atlantic salmon is native to the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere. There, it is a highly prized sports fish renowned for its large size and fighting abilities. Although early settlers in New Zealand were eager to establish Atlantic salmon populations here, most introductions were not successful and feral stocks are confined to the upper Waiau River catchment where it is considered to be close to extinction. Breeding stocks of Atlantic salmon are maintained at the Otago Fish and Game Council hatchery in Wanaka. Atlantic salmon closely resemble brown trout, but are a more slender, elongate fish. The caudal peduncle is also longer; if the anal fin is folded up against the body, it does not reach the base of the caudal fin. Atlantic salmon have dark backs, fading to a silvery colour below the lateral line. The back and sides are covered in small, darker spots but these generally do not extend below the lateral line. There are no spots on the tail. In their native waters, adult Atlantic salmon live in the sea and migrate to their freshwater spawning grounds in winter. Unlike the Pacific salmon species, Atlantic salmon can spawn more than once. In New Zealand most adults reside in lakes and migrate upstream for spawning. Spawning here also occurs in winter." Salmo trutta Brown trout

Least concern "Brown trout were brought in during the 1860s and quickly spread into the rivers and lakes. With plenty of native fish to eat, the trout grew fat – weighing up to 10 kilograms. Today, most brown trout caught by fishermen weigh 1–2 kilograms. They prefer cooler water and live in rivers, lakes and estuaries south of the Coromandel Peninsula. They hide under rocks or streamside plants, and are difficult to catch. Their colours change with the habitat. Brown trout that swim out to sea are bright silver, those in lakes are dull silver, and those in rivers are golden brown. All have black spots. They usually live for eight to ten years." "Brown trout (Salmo trutta) form the basis of most freshwater fishing in New Zealand. From the late 1860s brown trout, from Europe, were introduced throughout New Zealand for fishing. They established themselves rapidly where they were released – and also spread by going out to sea and swimming up other rivers. In the early years they were very well conditioned. Some were so fat they looked like rugby balls, and could weigh over 10 kilograms. After the initial boom, average trout sizes dropped. Acclimatisation societies had set up hatcheries and continued to release small fish into the rivers for decades. The rationale was that there was competition from predators such as eels and shags, but research has since shown this to be a waste of effort, as natural spawning provides more than enough young fish." "Brown trout live mainly in rivers, but are also found in diverse habitats from estuaries to subalpine lakes. Brown trout are predatory fish that eat small aquatic insects and small fish. In flowing water they tend to face upstream, feeding on drifting aquatic insects. In slow-moving pools, brown trout cruise looking for food. In lakes they cruise the shallow zone close to shore, feeding on small fish such as bullies, and invertebrates such as dragonfly nymphs and snails in weed beds. Brown trout often hide under rocks and streamside vegetation, and immediately seek cover if they see movement on the riverbank. As a result, they are one of the most difficult freshwater fish to catch. The body form and behaviour of brown trout are adapted for living in rivers. For example, their pectoral fins are much larger than those of rainbow trout. This allows them to use the river flow to hug the riverbed, where the current is slower and it takes less energy to stay in the feeding position. In New Zealand brown trout often reach 800 millimetres and 5 kilograms. Most fish caught by anglers are smaller – typically 1–2 kilograms." "Brown trout are found south of the Coromandel Peninsula. They prefer lower summer water temperatures than rainbow trout do, and winter water temperatures over 11°C kill brown trout eggs. Life cycle: The female lays several hundred to several thousand eggs in a small hole. These are fertilised by the male. After a month or two the eggs hatch, and the fry live in the gravel before emerging and feeding along stream margins. Adults spawn in early winter, usually in the headwaters of streams with gravel beds. Adults usually survive spawning and spawn annually. Brown trout live for 8–10 years, although individuals up to 15 years old have been recorded in New Zealand." "Brown trout are native to Europe and were first introduced into New Zealand in the late 1860s from British stock that was first established in Tasmania. Many subsequent introductions have occurred, and brown trout are now the most widespread and common introduced fish in New Zealand waters. Brown trout have been introduced to at least 40 other countries worldwide, including Australia, South Africa and countries in South America. The colour pattern of brown trout varies with their habitat. Sea-run and lake fish tend to be silvery with brown and olive spots of varying intensity, whereas river-dwelling fish are darker with dark brown and red spots, the latter being surrounded by paler halos. These red spots are particularly prominent on small river fish. Brown trout seldom have any spots on their tails, a feature that distinguishes them from rainbow trout. Brown trout closely resemble the Atlantic salmon and both occur in the Lake Te Anau system. Brown trout are generally stockier, and have a deeper and shorter caudal peduncle than Atlantic salmon. They also have a shorter-based and deeper anal fin than chinook or sockeye salmon. Brown trout are primarily a freshwater species, but can spend time in the sea. One specimen that was tagged near Christchurch was later recaptured in the Mataura River, while another tagged in the Wanganui River system turned up in Taranaki 125 days later. Spawning, which occurs in autumn and early winter, takes place in fresh water. Brown trout do not undertake extensive spawning migrations like some of the other salmonids, but some movement does occur, particularly for lake populations. Like all salmonids, the female digs a redd where the eggs are deposited. Although the brown trout fishery does not receive as much publicity as that for rainbow trout, these fish are highly prized by anglers because they are considered much harder to catch. Specimens up to 14 kg in weight have been recorded in recent times, but a fish over 5 kg would cause any angler to smile. Brown trout occur virtually everywhere in New Zealand south of Auckland. Populations in the northern North Island are limited because winter water temperatures are probably too warm for successful egg development. Although brown trout have spread to Fiordland, they have not become established on Chatham or Stewart Islands." Salvelinus fontinalis Brook trout

Not assessed

"Brook char (Salvelinus fontinalis): Brook char were first introduced in the late 1870s or early 1880s. They were widely released, but it seems they could not compete with brown trout. They still exist in headwaters of some catchments, such as the upper reaches of the Shag River in Otago, but they are usually very small (typically only 150 millimetres). Lake Emily, inland from Ashburton, is the best fishery, where brook char up to 600 millimetres and 3 kilograms may be caught." "This native of the eastern North American continent was first introduced to New Zealand in the late 1870s or early 1880s. Brook char have been released in virtually all the main catchments on the east coast of the South Island, and they were also widely introduced in the North Island although they now occur in only 3-4 rivers in the Central North Island. Although many populations have now become established in the South Island, river-dwelling brook char are confined to the very small tributaries where they do not have to co-exist with other salmonids. Here they can reach maturity, but they tend to be stunted (small in size) and thus are not usually fished for. Several lake populations have also become established, and these are more popular with anglers. In particular, Lake Emily in the Ashburton River catchment yields brook char up to 2 kg in weight. Brook char are an attractive, brightly coloured member of the Salmonidae family. In fact their colouration is a good characteristic to use to distinguish them from the other salmonids. Their bodies are generally dark with marbling present on the back. Their sides are covered with gold and red spots, the latter of which are surrounded by pale blue halos. In addition, there is a distinctive white stripe followed by a contrasting black stripe on the leading edge of the pelvic, pectoral and anal fins. Brook char also have a very large mouth that extends back behind the posterior margin of the eyes." Salvelinus namaycush Lake trout

Not assessed

"Lake char or mackinaw (Salvelinus namaycush): The mackinaw is native to northern North American lakes, where it can grow up to 46 kilograms. The only New Zealand population occurs in Lake Pearson, in the headwaters of the Waimakariri River. The species arrived in 1906 and was destined for Lake Kaniere on the West Coast. But as they were being transported towards Arthur’s Pass, the temperature of the water containing the fish rose too high. Fearing that the mackinaw would die, the acclimatisers dumped them in nearby Lake Pearson and Lake Grassmere. A population still exists in Lake Pearson, but the typical weight of less than 1 kilogram suggests that it is not an ideal habitat. In New Zealand mackinaw are little more than a curiosity." "This member of the Salmonidae family occurs naturally throughout the north of the United States and in Canada and Alaska. A single importation of eggs occurred in 1906, and these fish were destined for Lake Kaniere on the west coast. However, when their transport ran into difficulties crossing Arthurs Pass, the fish were dumped into Lakes Grasmere and Pearson in the Waimakariri River catchment. Mackinaw have not thrived in New Zealand, and the only known population at present occurs in Lake Pearson. In Lake Pearson, mackinaw co-exist with rainbow and brown trout. They can be distinguished from the trout species by the presence of pale yellow-green spots on the back and sides. The mouth is also very large and the caudal fin quite deeply forked. Mackinaw are one of the few salmonid species that do not dig redds. It is believed that the adults use their tails to sweep mud and silt from gravels along the lakebed and that the eggs are then released over the clean gravels where they sink in among the rocks. Spawning probably occurs in April and May. Overseas, mackinaw are known as a cold-water fish that generally live in deep lakes. It is therefore unusual that they survive in the small and shallow Lake Pearson. Known variously as lake trout, lake char and mackinaw, in their native waters mackinaw grow to a very large size – up to 46 kg in weight. In New Zealand they rarely exceed 1 kg in weight and are often in poor condition when caught, indicating that Lake Pearson is not ideal habitat for them. Due to their restricted distribution, small size, and sluggish response when hooked, mackinaw are not highly regarded by anglers in New Zealand."

Other reading

* Fishing in New Zealand * NIWA Atlas of NZ Freshwater Fishes * Hayes, John, and Les Hill. The artful science of trout fishing. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005. * Millichamp, Ross. Salmon fever: a guide to salmon fishing in New Zealand. Christchurch: Shoal Bay, 1997. * McDowall, R. M. The Reed field guide to New Zealand freshwater fishes. Auckland: Reed, 2000.

Coarse fish

"Coarse fish are freshwater fish other than trout or salmon. They are called coarse fish because their scales are usually larger and coarser than those of trout or salmon. They were introduced in the late 1800s and early 1900s by British settlers, for aquariums or fishing. Many have been illegally set free by anglers wanting to stock up rivers and lakes.

Types of coarse fish

"Coarse fish found in New Zealand are: * Cyprinidae family – goldfish, koi carp, tench, rudd, orfe, gudgeon, grass carp, silver carp * Poeciliidae family – gambusia, caudo, common guppy, sailfin molly, swordtail * Percidae family – European perch * Ictaluridae family – brown bullhead catfish. Most belong to Cyprinidae, a family which contains almost 2,500 species, including carps, minnows, and a host of other small fish found across Europe, Asia, Africa and North America."

Coarse fishing

"Coarse fish are caught by anglers with a baited hook attached to a float. Some species have been illegally introduced and spread by anglers wanting to fish for them. Some species such as goldfish are usually too small to be targeted by anglers. Some very keen coarse anglers aim to catch a variety of species or the largest fish species. A few species, including silver carp and grass carp, do not breed naturally in New Zealand waterways and populations are maintained by releasing fish reared in captivity. It is doubtful whether some species, such as caudo, are established at all, despite records of their presence in New Zealand."

Legal status

"Introduced fish can have four statuses under various pieces of legislation: * sports fish (e.g. perch, tench) – it is an offence to fish for them without a licence. * noxious fish (e.g. koi carp, rudd) – illegal to possess, breed or release under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1987. * unwanted organism (e.g. koi carp, gambusia) – illegal to release, spread, sell or breed under the Biosecurity Act 1993. * restricted species (e.g. silver carp, grass carp) – releases require the approval of the minister of conservation. Offenders can attract a maximum sentence of five years and/or a fine of up to $100,000. The legal status of some species varies. For example, rudd is only a ‘sports fish’ in the Auckland–Waikato fish and game region, but a ‘noxious fish’ elsewhere. Some species, such as caudo, goldfish and orfe, have no legal status."

Value or pest?

"Some coarse fish are valued as food (European perch), or for recreational angling (European perch, koi carp, rudd, tench). Some have adverse effects on ecosystems (koi carp, rudd, tench, gambusia), while others are valued for their use in biological control (grass carp and silver carp). When ‘noxious fish’ or ‘unwanted organisms’ are found in contained areas such as ponds or small lakes, authorities sometimes eradicate them using the natural toxin rotenone, known as Derris Dust to gardeners."

Morihana on horseback

"Sub-inspector Morrison of the Armed Constabulary released goldfish into Lake Taupō in 1873, after bringing the fish on horseback from Napier. Goldfish became known to Māori as morihana – a transliteration of Morrison’s name. For some time morihana were a food for Rotorua Māori."

Introduced and naturalised: Coarse fish
Family	Image	Scientific name	Common name	Fish- base	IUCN status	Comments
Cyprinidae	Cyprinidae is the carp or minnow family. It includes the carps, the true minnows, and their relatives such as the barbs and barbels. "The Cyprinidae family is one of the largest of the freshwater fish families with about 1450 known species. None are native to New Zealand, but several species have been introduced here. Generally carp have large scales, small barbels around their mouth, and no adipose fin. There are many exceptions to this, however, as might be expected in such a large family. Cyprinids have been cultured as a food fish for thousands of years in their native countries. No such industry exists in New Zealand, although two of the species listed above, grass and silver carp, were brought here as potential aquatic plant or algal control agents. Neither of these species has established feral stocks here, but the other carp species have, although the precise status of orfe is uncertain. With the exception of goldfish, rudd and tench, the carps are confined to the North Island in New Zealand. None have spread to Chatham or Stewart Island. Most of the carp species in New Zealand have no teeth and so as adults they feed mainly on plants and algae. However, juvenile fish will eat small animals such as snails. Spawning occurs during summer and carp prefer aquatic vegetation as an egg laying substrate. Because of their feeding and spawning requirements, carps tend to be found in warm, weedy waters in lakes and slow-flowing rivers."
		Carassius auratus	Goldfish		Least concern	"Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were imported early after Europeans settled in New Zealand, although exactly when is uncertain. They were probably introduced by aquarists and pond-keepers as an ornamental species. They were liberated into wild habitats such as Lake Taupō and Lake Rotorua in the 1870s, and by the 2000s were widespread, mostly living in ponds and small lakes, and probably harmless." "Goldfish were first brought to New Zealand in the late 1860s. Aquarists and breeders carried out further introductions and goldfish are now widespread and well established in the North Island. Their South Island distribution is more restricted, but recent surveys by the Department of Conservation have shown that they are in Nelson, central Otago, Southland and the West Coast. In the early 1900s, feral goldfish populations in central North Island lakes were important to the Maori as a food fish."
		Ctenopharyngodon idella	Grass carp		Not assessed	"Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) were introduced for biological control. It is unlikely either species will reproduce in the wild – all populations were established and are maintained by hatchery production. These carp grow to several kilograms in weight, and are found intermittently around the country. Grass carp eat large, leafy aquatic plants and in doing so they help control excessive plant growth in ponds and drainage ditches, reducing the need to spray water weeds or use draglines to clean drains. Silver carp eat phytoplankton (small, single-celled algae that make the water in ponds green and turbid), and were imported to help control it. However, their effectiveness is unproven." "Grass carp were first brought to New Zealand in the 1960s because of their potential to control the growth of aquatic plants. Unlike the other introduced fish brought to New Zealand, the potential value and impact of grass carp was investigated in secure facilities prior to their use in field trials. Although these fish mature, they have extremely specific spawning and rearing requirements and the establishment of a wild population is extremely unlikely. There has been much controversy surrounding the use of grass carp as a weed control agent in New Zealand. So far, the main value of grrass carp in New Zealand has been to eradicate problem weed species from lakes, thus allowing native plant communities to re-establish. This means they have a role to play in lake restoration, as well as weed control, but their use for weed control in drains is still being investigated. Today, stocks of grass carp are maintained for breeding at a private hatchery north of Auckland. Grass carp are a large and robust fish. They commonly exceed 500 mm in length, 10kg in weight, and can live for 15-20 years. Their backs are a dark bronze colour, but this gradually fades to silver on the belly. The margins of their large scales are outlined in a darker colour, giving them a crosshatched appearance. Grass carp have no barbels, but can be distinguished from goldfish by the short dorsal fin with only 7–9 rays."
		Cyprinus carpio	Wild common carp/Koi carp		Vulnerable	"Koi or European carp (Cyprinus carpio) were brought to New Zealand in the 1800s, but did not become established in the wild until the 1960s, when ornamental koi were released. They are now abundant in the lakes of the lower Waikato, and present in some other areas, especially the north. Globally koi carp are a problem. They churn up the beds of wetlands while searching for food, causing environmental deterioration. In New Zealand koi are classed as a ‘noxious fish’ and an ‘unwanted organism’, making their possession unlawful. Nevertheless, they are a target of recreational coarse fishers (who are illegally spreading the fish around the country), because of their size (10 kilograms or more) and fighting ability. Bow hunters look for koi carp in the Waikato wetlands." "Koi carp: This brightly coloured member of the Cyprinidae family is a variety of the common carp. The common carp is native to Asia, although it has been introduced so widely and for so many centuries that its precise origins are uncertain. Today, it occurs on every continent except Antarctica. It is not known whether the introduction of koi carp here was deliberate or accidental, but feral breeding stocks were first noticed in the Waikato in 1983. They are now common throughout the lower Waikato system, and have been spread mainly into ponds throughout the North Island. The first South Island record of koi carp occurred in Nelson in 2000, but most of the South Island populations have now been successfully eradicated. Wild common carp tend to be an olive green colour, but the New Zealand stocks are derived from the highly bred ornamental Japanese koi and thus can exhibit a calico pattern of black, red, orange, gold and white blotches. So far, our feral stocks have not reverted back to the wild colouration. Although their colour pattern is a useful distinguishing characteristic, they also have two pairs of barbels that the other Cyprinidae found here lack. Koi eat a wide variety of organisms, including both plants and animals. One way they feed is by sucking up and expelling material from the bottom, filtering out edible material as they do so. This habit means that, at high densities in shallow lakes, they can greatly increase the turbidity of the water because they are constantly disturbing the substrate.This makes waterways unattractive and reduces the abundance of aquatic plants. In other countries, common carp have caused such an increase in turbidity that vast amounts of money and effort have been spent trying to eradicate them; unfortunately these have largely been unsuccessful. Although similar problems have not yet been documented in New Zealand, the spread of this fish should certainly be minimised."
		Leuciscus idus	Ide/Orfe		Least concern	"Orfe (Leuciscus idus) and gudgeon (Gobio gobio) were introduced illegally with a view to establishing populations for anglers. Orfe possibly occur in a single lake near Auckland, although it is uncertain if they are still present. Gudgeon became established in another Auckland pond. Once discovered, attempts were made to exterminate them, and as far as is known, there are now no gudgeon in New Zealand." "This member of the Cryprinidae family is native to northern Europe where it is valued as a coarse angling fish. Orfe eggs were illegally imported to New Zealand by mail sometime in the 1980s. Subsequent releases occurred between 1985–86 in at least 8 and possibly 5 more sites north of Auckland. The current status of these populations is in doubt; some believe orfe failed to survive in at least 7 of these sites while others are less certain. At least one release site remains unknown and it seems likely that orfe persist in the wild in at least one location in New Zealand. In Europe, wild orfe are usually greyish brown with silver bellies. However, the variety of orfe present in New Zealand (the golden orfe) is derived from ornamental pond stocks and thus closely resembles rudd. Although it is not known if the two species co-exist, on orfe the scales are smaller and the fins more orange than red coloured. Rudd also have a small projection at the base of their pelvic and pectoral fins. Eventually, the orfe’s golden colouration may revert to the wild type. Little is known about the biology of orfe in New Zealand. In Europe they primarily inhabit slow-flowing waters. Their food consists of aquatic invertebrates such as worms and snails, but large orfe may consume other fish and aquatic vegetation. Like the other Cyprinidae, orfe are prolific breeders and large females may contain tens of thousands of eggs. Whether they become a nuisance species in New Zealand or will be successfully eradicated remains to be seen."
		Scardinius erythrophthalmus	Common rudd		Least concern	"A fish of ponds and lakes, rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) were smuggled into New Zealand in the 1960s and liberated quite widely – illegally and to provide game for sport (they can reach 2 kilograms). They are common in the hydro lakes of Waikato. Concerns about their potential adverse effects on the environment have led to their classification as ‘noxious fish’, except in the Auckland/Waikato fish and game region, where they are ‘sports fish’ and a licence is needed to fish for them." "This member of the Cyprinidae family is native to Eurasia and was illegally imported to New Zealand in 1967. Stock bred from this importation was subsequently widely released and rudd are now well established in many North Island waterways, particularly in the Waikato River catchment. Rudd have also been recorded around Christchurch, and more recently from other parts of the South Island. Like goldfish, rudd do not have any barbels around their mouth, a feature that tells them apart from koi. They can be distinguished from goldfish because they lack the stout spines on the front edge of the dorsal fin, and from orfe by the projections that occur at the bases of their pectoral and pelvis fins. Rudd can also be confused with perch, but perch have two dorsal fins, the first with several firm spines. Rudd are darker on their backs than on their bellies and have bronze highlights when the light catches their scales. Their fins are usually bright reddish orange. Juvenile rudd are planktivorous, but as adults their diet consists mainly of aquatic plants. As a herbivore, rudd are likely to have a role in supressing the regeneration of aquatic plants in lakes and hence in maintaining poor water quality. A high-density rudd population ruined the trout fishery in an Auckland lake becuse they outcompeted trout for anglers lures. This suggests their introduction into new waters could be detrimental to fish and native plant communities as well as to water quality. Like all the Cyprinidae, rudd are prolific breeders and large females can produce literally hundreds of thousands of eggs. The largest rudd ever recorded was over 400 mm in length, but fish 200–250 mm in size are much more common."
		Tinca tinca	Tench		Least concern	"Tench (Tinca tinca) were introduced by acclimatisation societies in the 1870s. They lived mainly in some North Otago waters, and did not become widespread or abundant for many decades. Recently, anglers and others have spread tench more widely – often illegally (it is illegal to liberate fish into new waters without approval from the minister of conservation). Tench appeal to coarse fishers because they grow large, are powerful swimmers, and a challenge to catch. In the early 2000s they were widespread, mostly in small lakes. They are classed as ‘sports fish’, so a licence is needed to fish for them." "This member of the Cyprinidae family is native to Europe and was first introduced to New Zealand in 1867. Although imported as a sports fish, there has been little angler interest in tench until recently. Tench grow to a large size in New Zealand, and some northern lakes have now gained an international reputation among anglers who prefer fishing for coarse fish. Fish over 2 kg in weight are not uncommon, and in some instances 4-kg fish have been caught. Tench are generally an olive green colour although this varies from dark to light. There is a single small barbel at each corner of the mouth. The fins tend to be thick and fleshy and the body is covered in small scales. Their eyes are bright orange, and this is their most distinctive characteristic. The biology of tench in New Zealand has not been studied, but is probably similar to that of fish in their native waters. Tench generally live in still or slow-flowing waters and are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans, molluscs and insect larvae. Males have longer and fatter pelvic fins than females. Spawning occurs in spring and summer and, like all the Cyprinidae, tench are prolific breeders; a large female may produce hundreds of thousands of small eggs. Although most fishing for tench occurs in the Auckland area, tench are also present in some lakes and ponds in Northland, Tauranga and Wellington. They have been present in the South Island near Oamaru for many years, but have also been found recently in Nelson, Marlborough and Canterbury during recent surveys by the Department of Conservation. A golden variety of tench, which is bright yellow-orange, is thought to be present in some small lakes and ponds near Auckland. This variety of tench was illegally imported in about 1980."
Gobiidae		Arenigobius bifrenatus	Bridled goby		Not assessed
Ictaluridae		Ameiurus nebulosus	Brown bullhead (catfish)		Least concern	"North American brown bullhead catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus) were introduced for unknown reasons in the 1870s. They became abundant in the lower Waikato River, and were not found elsewhere for many decades apart from small numbers in Lake Māhinapua, near Hokitika, the only confirmed South Island population. Their range increased from the 1980s – perhaps spread by commercial eel fishers who caught them in their fyke nets (large, funnel-shaped nets that trap fish). Intermittent catfish populations are now widespread in northern waters, including Lake Taupō, although how they reached this lake is uncertain. They have spread from Lake Taupō to the series of hydro lakes in the Waikato River." "The catfish is not native to New Zealand and is the only member of the Ictaluridae family that occurs in New Zealand waters. The Ictaluridae, or North American catfish, is one of the smallest of more than 30 catfish families worldwide with about 45 species. Ictalurids are characterised by having barbels around the mouth – these look rather like whiskers and hence the common name catfish. However in North America, where there are many species of catfish, the species found in New Zealand is known as the brown bullhead. The brown bullhead catfish is dark brown to olive green colour with paler sides and bellies. In addition to the eight distinctive barbels around their mouth, catfish also have relatively small eyes and a smooth skin. The leading edge on their dorsal and pectoral fins has a sharp spine, and thus catfish should be handled very carefully to avoid injury from the spine. Catfish are an extremely robust fish and can survive for long periods out of water. They commonly grow to 200–300 mm in length. Catfish have been present in New Zealand since the late 1800s. For many years, they were rarely encountered with the only known populations occurring in the lower Waikato River and in Lake Mahinapua south of Hokitika. They were first recorded from Lake Taupo in 1985. Since then, catfish have gradually spread throughout Lake Taupo and down the Waikato River. In 1997, catfish were recorded for the first time from the Kaituna Lagoon near Lake Ellesmere, and in 2003 from a stream entering Hokianga Harbour. Accidental introductions via boat trailers and especially fyke nets used for eeling is continuing to spread this species around New Zealand. Catfish spawn in shallow depressions on the substrate in the shallows. The male guards and fans the eggs during development, and also guards the larvae for about a week after hatching. Catfish are carnivorous and use their sensitive barbels to probe the substrate and locate insects, crustaceans, molluscs and small fish. Freshwater crayfish are a major prey species for catfish in Lake Taupo."
Percidae		Perca fluviatilis	European perch		Least concern	"European perch (Perca fluviatilis) are a desired angling species, brought to New Zealand in the late 1860s. They are classed as ‘sports fish’, so anglers need a licence to fish for them. Perch are widespread but intermittent around the country. Concentrated populations are in the western and southern North Island, around Hokitika, and in the eastern and southern South Island. The fish has firm, white, tasty flesh, and is much the best eating of the exotic non-salmonid species." "Redfin perch belong in the Percidae family, a family of about 60 species that are native to the Northern Hemisphere. One species has become established in New Zealand and it is known simply as the perch. New Zealand perch come from Tasmanian stocks that were originally imported from England. They have become well established in Otago and Southland, but also occur in many other parts of New Zealand, especially around Auckland, the Waikato and in North Island west coast lakes south of New Plymouth. Perch can be distinguished from other species by the presence of the two dorsal fins, the first having 13–17 firm sharp spines. There is also a broad flat spine on the gill cover. Perch have six or more dark bands along their sides; these are most prominent in small fish. The bottom edge of the caudal fin is bright red-orange, as are the anal and pectoral fins. These features make perch easy to recognize. Although perch were liberated widely in the late 1870s, there was little interest in their angling potential until after 1990. They are a fine table fish with firm white flesh, but their small size and lack of fighting ability meant that they never became as popular with anglers as the salmonids. Perch are suitable game fish for youngsters because they are relatively easy to catch. Most perch in New Zealand are between 1–2 kg in weight. Perch prefer slow-flowing and still water habitats. They are strictly carnivorous and adults feed mainly on other fish. Perch have been shown to reduce the abundance of common bullies in lakes. They also reduce inanga, smelt and crayfish in lakes where they have been introduced. At high densities, small fish predominate and can cause toxic cyanobacterial blooms."
Poeciliidae	Poeciliidae include live-bearing aquarium fish, such as the guppy, molly, platy, and swordtail. "A group of exotic species belongs to the family Poeciliidae, sometimes known as the livebearers because they give birth to live young rather than lay eggs. There are five small livebearers in natural habitats in New Zealand – one (gambusia) was introduced for biological control, the others for aquariums." "As the common name of this family implies, the Poeciliidae are characterised by giving birth to live young. Other family characteristics include a single soft-rayed dorsal fin and no lateral line. On male poeciliids, the anal fin has evolved into a structure known as a gonopodium that is used to transfer sperm bundles to the female fish. Poeciliidae are generally small; less than 100 mm in length, and usually the female is much larger than the male. The Poeciliidae are native to the Americas, extending from the upper Mississippi valley through Central America down to Argentina. There may be up to 300 species in this family and many are popular with aquarists. Five species have been introduced to New Zealand but only gambusia is widespread. The other members generally require warm water habitats, and are mostly confined to thermal areas in the central North Island." "In addition to mosquitofish, there are four other species of Poeciliidae in New Zealand. As all of these have a very restricted distribution, they have been combined for this discussion. They are all popular aquarium species (who has not heard of the guppy) and probably came to be released by aquarists either tired of looking after their fish or eager to establish feral populations in New Zealand. All except the caudo require warm water, and thus are unlikely to spread from their current locations in geothermal waters of the central North Island."
		Gambusia affinis	Mosquitofish		Least concern	"Gambusia (Gambusia affinis) were introduced, probably in the 1930s, in the hope they would help control mosquitoes. This is unproven in New Zealand, and they may be no more useful than native fish. Gambusia have become increasingly widespread since the 1980s, and are now common from the Waikato and Bay of Plenty northwards. A few populations have been reported in the northern South Island, where efforts have been made to exterminate them as they may be detrimental to native fish." "Gambusia or mosquitofish have been introduced to many countries to combat mosquitoes – they eat the larvae and pupae. They were first released in New Zealand in the 1930s. In a number of countries they have become pests by competing with native fish, and in New Zealand they are classed as an "unwanted organism" under the Biosecurity Act 1993."
		Phallocerus caudimaculatus	Speckled mosquitofish		Not assessed	"Resembling gambusia, caudo (Phalloceros caudimaculatus) have been reported from waters around Whāngārei, but it is uncertain if there are wild populations. Aquarists have stocks that could become established if released into suitable habitats." "Caudo (Phallocerus caudimaculatus) Caudo were only recently discovered in New Zealand. The only known population occurs in stock water troughs near Whangarei, but the origins of this population are a mystery. They are thought to have come from a nearby stream, but no population can be found there today. The discovery of yet another illegally introduced fish in New Zealand is of concern because it is unknown what impact these fish might have on the ecology. Caudo do not require particularly warm water, and thus could easily spread to other parts of Northland."
		Poecilia latipinna	Sailfin molly		Least concern	"Three poeciliids liberated into the wild by aquarists now live in geothermally heated waters in the central North Island. The common guppy (Poecilia reticulata) has been found in streams near Reporoa, the sailfin molly (Poecilia latipinna) in a wetland at the southern end of Lake Taupō, and the swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri) in a stream near Taupō. None of these species is likely to become established in waters of normal ambient temperature, so their geographical range will be restricted. Some were once in the Waipāhīhī Stream, near Taupō, but when water flows were manipulated, temperatures rose and the fish died out." "Sailfin molly (Poecilia latipinna) As its name implies, the sailfin molly has a large dorsal fin. In male fish this can be twice as high as their body. Sailfin molly are only found at the southern end of Lake Taupo in the warm geothermal swamps around Tokaanu and Waihi, but are quite abundant there. Sailfin molly are one of the largest poeciliids in New Zealand with female fish known to reach 120 mm."
		Poecilia reticulata	Guppy		Not assessed	"Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) Guppies are restricted to warm geothermal waters near Reporoa where they have probably been present since the 1920s. They closely resemble mosquitofish, although the male is more brightly coloured. Reaching a maximum length of 60 mm, guppies mature just a few weeks after being born. Like many live bearers, the female guppy can use sperm from one copulation to produce several broods of young."
		Xiphophorus helleri	Green swordtail		Not assessed	"Swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri) Feral swordtail in New Zealand are bright orange on the back and sides, a feature that distinguishes them from the other Poeciliidae. The lower part of the caudal fin in male swordtail is elongated into a tapering sword-like projection, hence the common name. They were probably only released in the last 15 years or so, and may eventually revert to the olive-brown colour typical of wild populations. They are only known to occur in Waipahihi Stream near Taupo. A survey of this stream in 1999 failed to catch any swordtail, and this population may now be extinct."

External links

The status and exploitation of non-salmonid exotic fish in New Zealand "The first effort to introduce fish into New Zealand was made in 1864 when a private individual tried to import 15 species of British..." * Coarse fishing.co.nz * DOC's work with pest fish * Dean, Tracie Invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand: DOC’s present and future management * New Zealand coarse fishing * NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes * Rowe, D. K. (2004) Potential effects of tench (Tinca tinca) in New Zealand freshwater ecosystems NIWA report. * McDowall, R. M. Gamekeepers for the nation: the story of New Zealand’s acclimatisation societies, 1861–1990. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1994. * McDowall, R. M. The Reed field guide to New Zealand freshwater fishes. Auckland: Reed, 2000.  ; invasive species * Dean, T. (2001). "Invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand: DOC’s present and future management". In Managing invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand. Proceedings of a workshop hosted by Department of Conservation, pp. 59–69. ISBN 0478224230. * Chadderton, W. L. (2001). "Management of invasive freshwater fish: striking the right balance". In Managing invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand. Proceedings of a workshop hosted by the Department of Conservation, pp. 59–69. ISBN 0478224230. * de Winton, M., Dugdale, T., & Clayton, J. (2001). "Coarse fish: the demise of plants and malaise of lakes". In Managing invasive freshwater fish in New Zealand. Proceedings of a workshop hosted by the Department of Conservation, pp. 59–69. ISBN 0478224230. * Rowe, D. K. and Wilding, T. (2012). "Risk assessment model for the introduction of non‐native freshwater fish into New Zealand". Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 28 (4): 582–589. * McDowall, R. M. (2006). Crying wolf, crying foul, or crying shame: alien salmonids and a biodiversity crisis in the southern cool-temperate galaxioid fishes?. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 16(3-4), 233-422. * Invasive species in New Zealand * List of introduced species

References

External links

* Many more native fish at risk, say experts NZ Herald, 4 June 2014. * New Zealands freshwater fish species NIWA. * New Zealand Ntive Fish Community Facebook. * New Zealand’s native freshwater fish are becoming increasingly threatened - Jane Goodman * New Zealand needs to do more to protect its freshwater fish - Mike Joy * Conservation status of New Zealand’s native fish - Richard Allibone * Land-based Aquaculture - Ministry for Primary Industries * Joy, Mike (2013) Freshwater fish predictive modelling for bioassessment Ministry for the Environment, Wellington. * Fish passage in New Zealand rivers Cawthron Institute * Joy, M. K., & Death, R. G. (2013). Freshwater biodiversity. Ecosystem Services In New Zealand In Dymond JR (eds.) Ecosystem services in New Zealand – conditions and trends, Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand. ISBN 9780478347364. * The Freshwater Fish Spawning and Migration Calendar Report Environment Waikato Technical Report 2007/11. * New Zealand’s native freshwater fish face extinction - Green Party * Category:Endemic freshwater fish of New Zealand

Robert (Bob) McDowall

* Robert (Bob) McDowall 1939–2011 * Jellyman, D. (2002). "Bob McDowall—his contribution to New Zealand's freshwater fish" New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 36: 1–12. * Jellyman, Don J. (2011) Robert M. McDowall—taxonomist and biogeographer Environmental Biology of Fishes, 92 (4): 425–435. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9877-0 * Jellyman, D. J. (2011). "Robert M. McDowall—taxonomist and biogeographer". Environmental Biology of Fishes, 92 (4): 425–435. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9877-0 Full text * Robert Montgomery McDowall Obituary, The Royal Society of New Zealand, 14 March 2013. * Bob McDowall – his contribution to freshwater fish and fisheries of New Zealand and Australia – Don Jellyman * Watershed book from freshwater fisheries expert NIWA

New Zealand dairy farming

* Foote, K. J., Joy, M. K., & Death, R. G. (2015). "New Zealand Dairy Farming: Milking Our Environment for All Its Worth" Environmental management, 56 (3): 1–12. doi:10.1007/s00267-015-0517-x Full text

Focus

 ; Planetary boundaries * Bounding the Planetary Future: Why We Need a Great Transition Johan Rockström, Great Transition Initiative * 4. Steffen, Will et al. (2015) "The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration." The Anthropocene Review 2053019614564785.  ; The Great Acceleration * Planetary Boundaries 2: The Great Acceleration - Interview with Katherine Richardson, 15 January 2015. * Visualizing the "Great Acceleration": The IGBP's Planetary Dashboard 9 Febuary 2015. * Great Transition * Anthropocene ;Animal consciousness * animals have consciousness? ScienceLine, 6 March 1015. New York University.  ; Swarm intelligence * Talk:Swarm intelligence

Fish intelligence

* Fish intelligence * Cognition * Intelligence * Bird intelligence * Cat intelligence * Cephalopod intelligence * Cetacean intelligence * Dinosaur intelligence * Evolution of human intelligence * Grubb TC (2003) The Mind of the Trout: A Cognitive Ecology for Biologists and Anglers Univerity of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299183745. * fish "small brain" Google search * fish "small brain" Google Scholar * The Mind-Reading Salmon: The True Meaning of Statistical Significance Charles Seife, Scientific American, 12 August 2011. Fish hold the records for the relative brain weights of vertebrates. Most vertebrate species have brains that weigh about the same in proportion to their total body mass. The deep sea bathopelagic cusk-eel Acanthonus armatus, is an ambush predator with a huge head. This fish has the smallest relative brain of all known vertebrates. At the other extreme, the elephantnose fish, an African freshwater fish, has the largest relative brain of all known vertebrates. ;from goldfish: Goldfish can be trained to recognize and to react to light signals of different colors by using positive reinforcement. Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colours and sounds. Another experiment demonstrated retention of more than 1 month. Fish respond to certain colors most evidently in relation to feeding. Fish learn to anticipate feedings provided they occur at around the same time everyday. Goldfish can learn tricks, such as the limbo, slalom, fetch and soccer, using positive reinforcement training techniques.

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;intelligence * fish are sentient From [17]:

A recent issue of Fish and Fisheries, devoted to learning, cited more than 500 research papers on fish intelligence, proving that fish are smart, that they can use tools, and that they have impressive long-term memories and sophisticated social structures. The introductory chapter said that fish are "steeped in social intelligence, pursuing Machiavellian strategies of manipulation, punishment and reconciliation … exhibiting stable cultural traditions and cooperating to inspect predators and catch food." • Culum Brown, a University of Edinburgh biologist who is studying the evolution of cognition in fish, says, "Fish are more intelligent than they appear. In many areas, such as memory, their cognitive powers match or exceed those of 'higher' vertebrates, including non-human primates." Their long-term memories help fish keep track of complex social relationships. Their spatial memory—"equal in all respects to any other vertebrate"—allows them to create cognitive maps that guide them through their watery homes, using cues such as polarized light, sounds, smells, and visual landmarks. • Dr. Phil Gee, a psychologist from the University of Plymouth, says that fish can tell what time of day it is, and he trained fish to collect food by pressing a lever at specific times. He says "fish have a memory span of at least three months," and they "are probably able to adapt to changes in their circumstances, like any other small animals and birds." • "We're now finding that [fish] are very capable of learning and remembering, and possess a range of cognitive skills that would surprise many people." —Dr. Theresa Burt de Perera, Oxford University • A scientific review presented to the Australian Veterinary Association completely disproved the old myth that goldfish have three-second memories; instead, the veterinarians found that goldfish have impressive memories and problem-solving abilities. One of the researchers said that after conducting the review, they wanted “to get the message out to vets to start looking more closely at fish and considering their welfare like they do other animals.” —The Sunday Times, May 28, 2006 • "Australian crimson spotted rainbowfish, which learnt to escape from a net in their tank, remembered how they did it 11 months later. This is equivalent to a human recalling a lesson learnt 40 years ago." —Sunday Telegraph, Oct. 3, 2004

;memory ;collective intelligence ;swarm intelligence * Swarm intelligence of fish schools * Migratory Behavior

The playful curiosity of this eagle ray reminded me of a story from the inventor of the " Deepflight “flying submarine.” On an early test dive, he found himself dancing with a curious eagle ray.... Moving like they do might be a signal of kinship... and may help express universal gestures for play... "Warm-blooded animals play; fish and reptiles do not... We are designed to play. We need 3D motion. The smarter the creature the more they play. The sea squirt auto-digests its brain when it becomes sessile." – Stuart Brown, founder of the Institute for Play

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* [18] [19] * neurons in a fish * Scientists Capture All The Neurons Firing Across A Fish's Brain On Video Popular Science, 19 March 2013. * Swarm intelligence of fish schools * Cooperation in Fishes * Bshary R (2011) "Machiavellian intelligence in fishes" In:Learning and Cognition in Fishes

• Bshary R, W Wickler and H Fricke (2002) "Fish cognition: a primate's eye view" Animal cognition, 5 (1): 1–13.

• Byrne RW and LA Bates (2007) "Sociality, evolution and cognition" Review, Current biology, 17 (16): R714–R723.

• Allen, Colin (2013) "Fish Cognition and Consciousness" Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 26 (1): 25–39.

• Ebbesson LO and Braithwaite VA.(2012) "Environmental effects on fish neural plasticity and cognition" J Fish Biol, 81 (7): 2151–2174. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03486.x

• Salas C, C Broglio, E Durán, A Gómez, FM Ocaña (2008) "Neuropsychology of learning and memory in teleost fish" Zebrafish, 3 (2): 157–171.

• Victoria A. Braithwaite, Felicity Huntingford, Ruud den Bos. 2011. Variation in Emotion and Cognition Among Fishes. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics

• Wullimann, Mario F (2011) "Basal Ganglia: Insights into Origins from Lamprey Brains" Current Biology, 21 (13) R497-R500.

• Salas C, C Broglio, E Durán, A Gómez, FM Ocaña, F Jiménez-Moya and F Rodríguez (2006) "Neuropsychology of learning and memory in teleost fish" Zebrafish, 3 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1089/zeb.2006.3.157

• Sison, Margarette and Gerlai, Robert (2010) "Associative learning in zebrafish (Danio rerio) in the plus maze" Behavioural Brain Research, 207 (1): 99–104. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.09.043

• Miklósi Á (2002) ["On the usefulness and limits of functional analogies"] Springer,

"Machiavellian Intelligence hypothesis" fish

• Scientists highlight fish 'intelligence' BBC, 31 August 2003.

video

• Dr Culum Brown-Expert on fish behaviour, intelligence and memory – ABC.