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Internet manipulation

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Internet manipulation refers to media manipulation on the Internet.

Such manipulation may be conducted for purposes of propaganda, discreditation, harming corporate or political competitors, improving personal or brand reputation or plain trolling among other things.

For this online influencers, hired professionals or software, Internet bots such as social bots, votebots and clickbots, may be used.

Cognitive hacking refers to a cyberattack that aims to change users' perceptions and corresponding behaviors.[1][2][3]

Internet manipulation is sometimes also used to describe selective Internet censorship[4][5] or violations of net neutrality.[6]

Issues

  • It has been found that content that evokes high-arousal emotions (e.g. awe, anger or anxiety) is more viral and that this also hold when surprisingness, interestingness, or usefulness is taken into consideration.[7]
  • Providing and perpetuating simple explanations for complex circumstances may be used for online manipulation. Often such are easier to believe, come in advance of any adequate investigations and have a higher virality than any complex explanations and information.[8]
  • Prior collective ratings of an web content influences ones own perception of it. In 2015 it was shown that the perceived beauty of a piece of artwork in an online context varies with external influence as confederate ratings were manipulated by opinion and credibility for participants of an experiment who were asked to evaluate a piece of artwork.[9] Furthermore on reddit it has been found that content that initially gets a few down- or upvotes often continues going negative, or vice versa. This is referred to as "bandwagon/snowball voting" by Wikipedia users and administrators.[10]
  • Echo chambers and filter bubbles might be created by Website administrators or moderators locking out people with altering viewpoints or by establishing certain rules or by the typical member viewpoints of online sub/communities or Internet tribes
  • Fake news do not need to be read but have an effect in quantity and emotional effect by their headlines and sound bites alone (confirmation bias)[citation needed]
  • Clarifications, conspiracy busting and fake revealments often come late when the damage is already done and/or do not reach the bulk of the audience of the associated misinformation[11][better source needed]

Research and use by intelligence and military agencies

Some of the leaked JTRIG operation methods/techniques
Further information: Internet propaganda
See also: Psychological warfare, State-sponsored Internet propaganda, 2016 United States election interference by Russia, and CIA influence on public opinion

The Joint Threat Research Intelligence Group unit of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British intelligence agency[12] was revealed as part of the global surveillance disclosures in documents leaked by the former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden[13] and its mission scope includes using "dirty tricks" to "destroy, deny, degrade [and] disrupt" enemies.[13][14] Core-tactics include injecting false material onto the Internet in order to destroy the reputation of targets and manipulating online discourse and activism for which methods such as posting material to the Internet and falsely attributing it to someone else, pretending to be a victim of the target individual whose reputation is intended to be destroyed and posting "negative information" on various forums may be used.[15]

Known as "Effects" operations, the work of JTRIG had become a "major part" of GCHQ's operations by 2010.[13] The unit's online propaganda efforts (named "Online Covert Action"[16]) utilize "mass messaging" and the “pushing [of] stories” via the medium of Twitter, Flickr, Facebook and YouTube.[13] Online "false flag" operations are also used by JTRIG against targets.[13] JTRIG have also changed photographs on social media sites, as well as emailing and texting colleagues and neighbours with "unsavory information" about the targeted individual.[13] In June 2015, NSA files published by Glenn Greenwald revealed new details about JTRIG's work at covertly manipulating online communities.[17] The disclosures also revealed the technique of “credential harvesting”, in which journalists could be used to disseminate information and identify non-British journalists who, once manipulated, could give information to the intended target of a secret campaign, perhaps providing access during an interview.[13] It is unknown whether the journalists would be aware that they were being manipulated.[13]

Furthermore Russia is frequently accused of financing an "army of trolls" (i.e. Trolls from Olgino) to post pro-Russian opinions across the Internet.[18]

In politics

See also: 2016 United States election interference by Russia

In 2016 Andrés Sepúlveda disclosed that he manipulated public opinion to rig elections in Latin America. According to him with a budget of $600,000 he led a team of hackers that stole campaign strategies, manipulated social media to create false waves of enthusiasm and derision, and installed spyware in opposition offices to help Enrique Peña Nieto, a right-of-center candidate, win the election.[19][20]

In the run up to India's 2014 elections, both the Bharatiya Janata party (BJP) and the Congress party were were accused of hiring "political trolls" to talk favourably about them on blogs and social media.[18]

The Chinese government is also believed to run a so called "50-cent army" (a reference to how much they are said to paid) and the "Internet Water Army" to reinforce favourable opinion towards it and the Communist Party of China (CCP) as well as to suppress dissent.[18][21]

In December 2014 the Ukrainian information ministry was launched to counter Russian propaganda with one of its first tasks being the creation of social media accounts (also known as the i-Army) and amassing friends posing as residents of eastern Ukraine.[22][18]

In business and marketing

See also: Social media marketing and Corporate warfare

Trolling and other applications

In April 2009, Internet trolls of 4chan voted Christopher Poole, founder of the site, as the world's most influential person of 2008 with 16,794,368 votes by an open Internet poll conducted by Time magazine.[23] The results were questioned even before the poll completed, as automated voting programs and manual ballot stuffing were used to influence the vote.[24][25][26] 4chan's interference with the vote seemed increasingly likely, when it was found that reading the first letter of the first 21 candidates in the poll spelled out a phrase containing two 4chan memes: "mARBLECAKE. ALSO, THE GAME."[27]

Bullying jokesters and politically oriented hacktivists may share sophisticated knowledge of how to manipulate the Web and social media.[28]

Countermeasures

See also: Wikipedia, Wikipedia:Citation needed, Fact checking, Web literacy, and Media literacy

In WIRED it was noted that nation-state rules such as compulsory registration and threats of punishment are not adequate measures to combat the problem of online bots.[29]

To guard against the issue of prior ratings influencing perception several websites such as reddit have taken steps such as hiding the vote-count for a specified time.[10]

Some other potential measures under discussion are flagging posts for being likely satire or false. For instance in December 2016 Facebook announced that disputed articles will be marked with the help of users and outside fact checkers.[30]

Furthermore various kinds of software may be used to combat this problem such as fake checking software or voluntary browser extensions that store every website one reads or use the browsing history to deliver fake-revealments to those who read a fake story after some kind of consensus was found on the falsehood of a story.[original research?]

Research

German chancellor Angela Merkel has issued the Bundestag to deal with the possibilities of political manipulation by social bots or fake news.[31]

See also

4

References

  1. ^ "Cognitive Hacking" (PDF). 2003. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  2. ^ "Cognitive hacking and intelligence and security informatics" (PDF). doi:10.1117/12.554454. Retrieved 4 February 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ "Cognitive Hacking: A Battle for the Mind" (PDF). Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  4. ^ Castells, Manuel. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780745695792. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  5. ^ "Condemnation over Egypt's internet shutdown". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  6. ^ "Net neutrality wins in Europe - a victory for the internet as we know it". ZME Science. 31 August 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  7. ^ Berger, Jonah; Milkman, Katherine L (April 2012). "What Makes Online Content Viral?" (PDF). Journal of Marketing Research. 49 (2): 192–205. doi:10.1509/jmr.10.0353.
  8. ^ Hoff, Carsten Klotz von (6 April 2012). "Manipulation 2.0 – Meinungsmache via Facebook" (in German). Der Freitag. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  9. ^ Golda, Christopher P. Informational Social Influence and the Internet: Manipulation in a Consumptive Society. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  10. ^ a b "Moderators: New subreddit feature - comment scores may be hidden for a defined time period after posting • /r/modnews". reddit. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  11. ^ "Die Scheinwelt von Facebook & Co. (German-language documentary by the ZDF)" (in German). Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  12. ^ "Snowden leaks: GCHQ 'attacked Anonymous' hackers". BBC. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h "Snowden Docs: British Spies Used Sex and 'Dirty Tricks'". NBC News. 7 February 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  14. ^ Glenn Greenwald (2014-02-24). "How Covert Agents Infiltrate the Internet to Manipulate, Deceive, and Destroy Reputations". The Intercept. - contains the DISRUPTION Operational Playbook slide presentation by GCHQ
  15. ^ Greenwald, Glenn. "How Covert Agents Infiltrate the Internet to Manipulate, Deceive, and Destroy Reputations". The Intercept. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  16. ^ Snowden: ‘Training Guide’ for GCHQ, NSA Agents Infiltrating and Disrupting Alternative Media Online. February 25, 2014.
  17. ^ Greenwald, Glenn and Andrew Fishman. Controversial GCHQ Unit Engaged in Domestic Law Enforcement, Online Propaganda, Psychology Research. The Intercept. 2015-06-22.
  18. ^ a b c d Shearlaw, Maeve (2 April 2015). "From Britain to Beijing: how governments manipulate the internet". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  19. ^ "How to Hack an Election". Bloomberg. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
  20. ^ "Man claims he rigged elections in most Latin American countries over 8 years". The Independent. 2 April 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
  21. ^ MacKinnon, Rebecca (2012). Consent of the networked: the world-wide struggle for Internet freedom. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02442-1. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  22. ^ "Ukraine's new online army in media war with Russia". BBC. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  23. ^ "The World's Most Influential Person Is..." TIME. April 27, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
  24. ^ Heater, Brian (April 27, 2009). "4Chan Followers Hack Time's 'Influential' Poll". PC Magazine. Archived from the original on April 30, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Schonfeld, Erick (April 21, 2009). "4Chan Takes Over The Time 100". Washington Post. Retrieved April 27, 2009.
  26. ^ "moot wins, Time Inc. loses « Music Machinery". Musicmachinery.com. April 27, 2009. Archived from the original on May 3, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Reddit Top Links. "Marble Cake Also the Game [PIC]". Buzzfeed.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
  28. ^ Maslin, Janet (31 May 2012). "'We Are Anonymous' by Parmy Olson". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  29. ^ "Debatte um „Social Bots": Blinder Aktionismus gegen die eigene Hilflosigkeit" (in German). WIRED Germany. 23 January 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  30. ^ Jamieson, Amber; Solon, Olivia (15 December 2016). "Facebook to begin flagging fake news in response to mounting criticism". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  31. ^ "Bundestagsdebatte: Merkel schimpft über Internet-Trolle" (in German). Süddeutsche Zeitung. 1 November 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
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