Blocking oscillator

Basis of solid-state Blocking oscillator

The waveform generated by this circuit

Blocking oscillator used for growing time of light of the LED. (Brightness of a luminescence decreased.)

A blocking oscillator is a simple configuration of discrete electronic components which can produce a free-running signal, requiring only a resistor, a transformer, and one amplifying element. The name is derived from the fact that the transistor (or tube) is cut-off or "blocked" for most of the duty-cycle, producing periodic pulses. The non-sinusoidal output is not suitable for use as a radio-frequency local oscillator, but it can serve as a timing generator, to power lights, LEDs, Elwire, or small neon indicators. The simple tones are also sufficient for applications such as alarms or a morse-code practice device. Some cameras use a blocking oscillator to strobe the flash prior to a shot to reduce the red-eye effect.

When it comes to the components involved in this circuit, specific types of each component are needed to have it work to its full potential. The transformer is a vital component. For example, a pulse transformer creates rectangular pulses, which are characterized by fast rise and fall times with a flat top. There are a seemingly endless amount of combinations of voltages, transformers, capacitors, transistors and resistors that can be used to vary and model the circuit.

Due to the circuit's simplicity, it forms the basis for many of the learning projects in commercial electronic kits. The secondary winding of the transformer can be fed to a speaker, a lamp, or the windings of a relay. Instead of a resistor, a potentiometer placed in parallel with the timing capacitor permits the frequency to be adjusted freely, but at low resistances the transistor can be overdriven, and possibly damaged. The output signal will jump in amplitude and be greatly distorted.

Circuit operation

The circuit works due to positive feedback through the transformer and involves two times—the time T_closed when the switch is closed, and the time T_open when the switch is open. The following abbreviations are used in the analysis:

• t, time, a variable
• T_closed: instant at the end of the closed cycle, beginning of open cycle. Also a measure of the time duration when the switch is closed.
• T_open: instant at the end of the open cycle, beginning of closed cycle. Same as T=0. Also a measure of the time duration when the switch is open.
• V_b, source voltage e.g. V_battery
• V_p, voltage across the primary winding. An ideal switch will present supply voltage V_b across the primary, so in the ideal case V_p = V_b.
• V_s, voltage across the secondary winding
• V_z, fixed load voltage caused by e.g. by the reverse voltage of a Zener diode or the forward voltage of a light-emitting diode (LED).
• I_m, magnetizing current in the primary
• I_peak,m, maximum or "peak" magnetizing current in the primary. Occurs immediately before T_open.
• N_p, number of primary turns
• N_s, number of secondary turns
• N, the turns ratio defined as N_s/N_p, . For an ideal transformer operating under ideal conditions, I_s = I_p/N, V_s = N×V_p.
• L_p, primary (self-)inductance, a value determined by the number of primary turns N_p squared, and an "inductance factor" A_L. Self-inductance is often written as L_p = A_L×N_p²×10⁻⁹ henries.
• R, combined switch and primary resistance
• U_p, energy stored in the flux of the magnetic field in the windings, as represented by the magnetizing current I_m.

A more-detailed analysis would require the following:

• M = mutual inductance, its value determined by degree to which the magnetic field created by the primary couples to (is shared by) the secondary, and vice versa. coupling. Coupling is never perfect; there is always so-called primary and secondary "leakage flux". Usually calculated from short-circuit secondary and short-circuited primary measurements.
  • L_p,leak = self-inductance that represents the magnetic field created by, and coupled to the primary windings only
  • L_s,leak = self-inductance that represents the magnetic field created by, and coupled to the secondary windings only
• C_windings = interwinding capacitance. Values exist for the primary turns only, the secondary turns only, and the primary-to-secondary windings. Usually combined into a single value.

Operation during T_closed (time when the switch is closed)

When the switch (transistor, tube) closes it places the source voltage V_b across the transformer primary. The magnetizing current I_m of the transformer is I_m = V_primary×t/L_p; here t (time) is a variable that starts at 0. This magnetizing current I_m will "ride upon" any reflected secondary current I_s that flows into a secondary load (e.g. into the control terminal of the switch; reflected secondary current in primary = I_s/N). The changing primary current causes a changing magnetic field ("flux") through the transformer's windings; this changing field induces a (relatively) steady secondary voltage V_s = N×V_b. In some designs (as shown in the diagrams) the secondary voltage V_s adds to the source voltage V_b; in this case because the voltage across the primary (during the time the switch is closed) is approximately V_b, V_s = (N+1)×V_b. Alternately the switch may get some of its control voltage or current directly from V_b and the rest from the induced V_s. Thus the switch-control voltage or current is "in phase" meaning that it keeps the switch closed, and it (via the switch) maintains the source voltage across the primary.

In the case when there is little or no primary resistance and little or no switch resistance, the increase of the magnetizing current I_m is a "linear ramp" defined by the formula in the first paragraph. In the case when there is significant primary resistance or switch resistance or both (total resistance R, e.g. primary-coil resistance plus a resistor in the emitter, FET channel resistance), the L_p/R time constant causes the magnetizing current to be a rising curve with continually decreasing slope. In either case the magnetizing current I_m will come to dominate the total primary (and switch) current I_p. Without a limiter it would increase forever. However, in the first case (low resistance), the switch will eventually be unable to "support" more current meaning that its effective resistance increases so much that the voltage drop across the switch equals the supply voltage; in this condition the switch is said to be "saturated" (e.g. this is determined by a transistor's gain h_fe or "beta"). In the second case (e.g. primary and/or emitter resistance dominant) the (decreasing) slope of the current decreases to a point such that the induced voltage into the secondary is no longer adequate to keep the switch closed. In a third case, the magnetic "core" material saturates, meaning it cannot support further increases in its magnetic field; in this condition induction from primary to secondary fails. In all cases, the rate of rise of the primary magnetizing current (and hence the flux), or the rate-of-rise of the flux directly in the case of saturated core material, drops to zero (or close to zero). In the first two cases, although primary current continues to flow, it approaches a steady value equal to the supply voltage V_b divided by the total resistance(s) R in the primary circuit. In this current-limited condition the transformer's flux will be steady. Only changing flux causes induction of voltage into the secondary, so a steady flux represents a failure of induction. The secondary voltage drops to zero. The switch opens.

–[[ (based around a vacuum tube)

• US Patent 2745012, filed in 1951, "Transistor blocking oscillators".
• US Patent 2780767, filed in 1955, "Circuit arrangement for converting a low voltage into a high direct voltage".
• US Patent 2881380, filed in 1956, "Voltage converter".

See also

• Flyback converter
• Forward converter
• Joule thief

References

• Jacob Millman and Herbert Taub, 1965, Pulse, Digital, and switching Waveforms: Devices and circuits for their generation and processing, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, LCCCN 64-66293. See Chapter 16 "Blocking-Oscillator Circuits" pages 597-621 and problem-pages 924-929. Millman and Taub observe that "As a matter of fact, the only essential difference between the tuned oscillator and the blocking oscillator is in the tightness of coupling between the transformer windings." (p. 616)
• Joseph Petit and Malcolm McWhorter, 1970, Electronic Switching, Timing, and Pulse Circuits: 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, LCCCN: 78-114292. See Chapter 7 "Circuits Containing Inductors or Transformers" pages 180-218 in particular chapters 7-13 "The monostable blocking oscillator" p. 203ff and 7-14 "The astable blocking oscillator" p. 206ff.
• Jacob Millman and Christos Halkias, 1967, Electronic Devices and Circuits, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, ISBN 0-07-042380-6. For a tuned version of the blocking oscillator, i.e. a circuit that will make pretty sinewaves if properly designed, see 17-17 "Resonant-Circuit Oscillators" pp. 530–532.
• F. Langford-Smith, 1953, Radiotron Designer's Handbook, Fourth Edition, Wireless Press (Wireless Valve Company Pty., Sydney, Australia) together with Radio Corporation of America, Electron Tube Division, Harrison NJ (1957).

External links

• The blocking oscillator, web page by James B. Calvert. An elementary (no mathematics) and informative description of various blocking oscillator circuits, employing BJTs and Triodes.
• Circuit models to predict switching performance of nanosecond blocking oscillators, J. McDonald, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, 1964, Volume 11, Issue 4, 442- 448. A paper deriving some circuit models in order to predict the switching performance of BJT blocking oscillators.