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Spelling patterns

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See also: Help:IPA for English

Spelling-to-sound correspondences

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Vowels

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General American
Letter Lax Tense Heavy Tense-R
a /æ/
man		 Error using {{IPA symbol}}: "eɪ" not found in list
mán		 /ɑ/
mar		 /ɛ/
már
e /ɛ/
met		 /i/
mét		 /ɜ/
hir		 /ɪ/
hér
i /ɪ/
win		 Error using {{IPA symbol}}: "aɪ" not found in list
wín		 /ɜ/
fir		 Error using {{IPA symbol}}: "aɪ" not found in list
fír
o /ɑ/
mop		 Error using {{IPA symbol}}: "oʊ" not found in list
móp		 /ɔ/
for, fór
u /ʌ/
hug		 /ju/
húj		 /ɜ/
kur		 /jʊ/
kúr
u /ʊ/
pûx		 /u/
rúd		 /ʊ/
sûr, xúr

Combinations of vowel letters

[edit]
Spelling Major value
(IPA)		 Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA)		 Examples of minor value Exceptions[clarification needed]
a
  • before multiple consonants
  • final vowel in word
  • followed by 2 or more
    unstressed syllables
  • next syllable contains /ɨ/
 /æ/ hacet, baner, mary
akrobat, kat
nasional, kamera, reality

arid, granit, palas		 /eɪ/ ák, bás, cámber

násionhûd		 /i/ karaóke
/ɑː/ fâðer
/ɒ/ yot
  • before -nge, -ste
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • before heterosyllabic vowel
 /eɪ/ aránj, wást
grás, fámos, víolát
tábl, hátred, Ápril
káos, áorta		 /ɛ/
/æ/
/ɨ/		 meny, eny
manor, hav
cokolat, oranj		 /ɑː/ gâla, sonâta
before final r or r + cons.
(and in derived terms)		 /ɑː/ bar, kart
bard, maring		 /ɛə/ skárs
before r + vowel /ɛə/ unkáring, wáry, vários, glár /æ/ Paris /ɑː/ ar
word-final /ə/ lemma, banana /i/ bolóne
in word-final -ary /ɛ/ ordinery, nesesery
after /w/ except before /k/, /ɡ/, /ŋ/ /ɒ/ woc, worior, kwontity /æ/ kwango
after /w/ before final r or r + cons. /ɔː/ worning, dworf, wor
unstressed /ə/ anuðer, about, wûman Ø artistikally
unstressed, in -age /ɨ/ damaj, bondaj
aa, ah /ɑː/ bâ, blâ /eɪ/ kwálúd
ae (æ) usually /iː/ ensíklópédia, pédiatrisian /ɛ/ esþetik /eɪ/ regai
/aɪ/ meistro
before r /ɛə/ erial, eróplán
ai, ay stressed /eɪ/ bait, kókain, dai /ɛ/
/aɪ/		 sed, agen, sez
samûrei, keiak, ei		 /æ/ plad
/iː/ ke
before r /ɛə/ kairn, milionair, dairy
unstressed /ɨ/ bargan, mountan /ə/ Britan
ao /eɪ/ jail /aʊ/ Touizm /oʊ/ fáro
au, aw /ɔː/ taut, auþor, laun, /ɒ/
/ɑː/		 sosaj, bekoz, lorel
ânt, drâft, lâf		 /eɪ/ gáj
/oʊ/ móv
e
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • final, only vowel in word
  • final, Greek loans
  • before heterosyllabic vowel
 /iː/ reséding, détail, jén
métr, sékret
be, xe
simile, katastrofe
néon		 /eɪ/
/ɛ/
Ø		 úkulále, kafai, cráp
metal, lemon, heron
lívlihûd, fátfûl
  • before multiple consonants
  • final vowel in word
  • followed by 2 or more
    unstressed syllables
  • next syllable contains /ɪ/
 /ɛ/ beter, fec, mery
get, wauterxed
legasy, elegant, delikat

krevis, perix, epiknes		 /iː/ léþal
akséz (plural of aksis)
légally

évil		 /ɪ/ prity
before final r or r + cons.
(and in derived terms)		 /ɜː/ hird, kirb, refiral /ɑː/ klark, sarjant
before r + vowel /ɪə/ sérios, séréz, hér /ɛə/
/ɛ/		 ðerfór, werwûlf
very		 /ɜː/ wir
word-final Ø mát, disiplin, starv
plág		 /iː/ recipe
unstressed /ɨ/ hacet, target, póet /ə/ táken, désensy, móment
usd, before heterosyllabic vowel /i/ creáte, áréa, áþéist, hidéos
ea usually /iː/ béc, éting, pléz /ɛ/ bred, helþy, klenz /eɪ/ braik, grait, staik
before r + cons. /ɜː/ irþ, lirn, irly /ɑː/ harty, harþ /ɪə/ bérd
before final r or r + vowel
(and in derived terms)		 /ɪə/ klér, héring, yérly /ɛə/ ber, per, swer
eau /oʊ/ búro, plato, tablo /juː/ beuty /ɒ/ búrokrasy
ee usually /iː/ bee, feed /eɪ/ matinai, fionsai
before r /ɪə/ ceering, beer, eery
ei, ey usually /eɪ/ vail, rain, óbai /iː/
/aɪ/		 séz, ke, gézer
heit, heist, gneis		 /ɛ/ hefer, lezúr
/aɪ/ ei
after c /iː/ desév, séling, konsét
before r /ɛə/ air, ðair /ɪə/ wérd, wér, éry
unstressed /ɨ/ foren, kounterfet
unstressed, word-final /i/ munke, kurtse, jerze
eo /ɛ/ lepard, jeparde /iː/ pépl /oʊ/ yóman
/ɪə/ leotard
eu(e),
ew(e),
ieu,
iew		 usually /juː/ feudal, keu, deu,
eu, leu, veu		 /oʊ/ so, sho
/ɛf/ leftenant
after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ /uː/ reumatizm, jeuel, bleu
before r /jʊə/ amateur, neural, Neury
both of the above /ʊə/ Jeury, pleurisy
i
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • before -nd, -ld, -gh, -gn
  • word-final
  • before heterosyllabic vowel
 /aɪ/ xín, síted, gíd
títl, ídl, víbrant
wíld, kínd, síd, ensín
alumni, alibi, rádii
víal, kwíet, príor, píos		 /ɪ/ pivot, giv, enjin

wind (one meaning)
 /iː/ maxén, sky
  • before multiple consonants
  • final vowel in word
  • followed by 2 or more
    unstressed syllables
  • next syllable contains /ɪ/
  • before cons. + e/i + vowel
 /ɪ/ hic, fidl, miror
bit
sinema, liberty, militery

finix, spirit, minut
hideos, pozision, Sirius		 /aɪ/ pínt, nínþ

sílently

hwítix
/æ/ merang
/iːɪ/ sky (skiing)
before final r or r + cons.
(and in derived terms)		 /ɜː/ bird, fir, stirer /ɪə/ menhér
before r + vowel /aɪə/ hír, fíring, enkwíry
unstressed /ɨ/ livid, tipikal /ə/ pensil, cuzin Ø bizines
usd, before heterosyllabic vowel /i/ familiar, álien, rádii, idiot
ie finally /aɪ/ di, ti /i/ eery, selfy
medially /iː/ féld, séréz, séj /aɪ/ flíz, tríz /ɪ/ siv
/ɛ/ frend
before r /ɪə/ pér, férs, bulkier
o
  • before multiple consonants
  • final vowel in word
  • followed by 2 or more
    unstressed syllables
  • next syllable contains /ɪ/
 /ɒ/ or /ɑː/ dot, doktor, torent
opera, koloníz, kóoperát
topik, solid, promis		 /ʌ/
/oʊ/
/uː/		 wun, munke, frunt
grós, kóm, brókenly
toom, woom		 /ʊ/ wûlf
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • word-final
  • before heterosyllabic vowel
    (inc. unstressed)
 /oʊ/ ómen, gróv, tótal
nóbl, kóbra
banjo, go
bóa, póet, stóik
kóoperát		 /ɒ/
/uː/
/ʌ/
/ə/		 moral, proper, xon
too, hwoo, moov, looz
kum, luv, dun
purpos, Europ		 /ʊ/ wûman
/ɪ/ wimen
before r /ɔə/ ford, bóring, mór /ɔ/ for, morning
after w, before r /ɜː/ wurd, wurk, wurst /ɔə/ worn
unstressed /ə/ elokwent, wonton, auþor
oa usually /oʊ/ bót, kól, lód /ɔː/ braud
before r /ɔə/ bór, kórs
oe (œ) usually /iː/ améba, sélakanþ, féniks
finally /oʊ/ to, fo /uː/ xoo, kanoo /ʌ/ duz
unstressed /ɪ/ edéma
oeu /uː/ maneuvr
oi, oy usually /ɔɪ/ koin, boi
before r /wɑː/ rezervwar, memwar, repertwar /ɔɪə/ loir /waɪə/ kweir
oo usually /uː/ hoop, booz /ʊ/ wûl, fût, sût /oʊ/ bróc
before k, d /ʊ/ lûk, wûd /uː/ food, brood, spook /ʌ/ blud, flud
before r /ɔə/ dor, mooring /ʊə/ poor
ou stressed /aʊ/ out, aloud, bou /uː/
/ʌ/
/oʊ/		 soop, yoo, þroo
tuc, trubl, kuntry
sól, do, bólder		 /ʊ/ koorier, xûd
/ɒ/ kof
before r /ɔː/ toorist, kontoor, pór /aʊə/
/ɜː/		 our, our, devour
jurne, kurteos, skurj		 /ʊ/ koorier
/ʌ/ kuraj
unstressed /ə/ kamuflâzj, lábor, nervos
ow stressed /aʊ/ kou, sou, alou /oʊ/ kno, xo /ɒ/ aknolej
before r /aʊə/ doure
unstressed /oʊ/ yelo, rainbo, naro
u
  • before multiple consonants
  • final vowel in word
 /ʌ/ buter, dump, kurent /ʊ/ pût, fûl, pûding
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • before heterosyllabic vowel
    (inc. unstressed)
  • word-final
 /juː/ lúminos, mút, túba
búgl, rúbrik
dúel, fatúos, drúid,
Janúary		 /ʊ/ xûgar /ɪ/ bizy
above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ /uː/ rúl, xút, Jún, flu
trúant, flúent, menstruát
before final r or r + cons.
(and in derived terms)		 /ɜː/ kurdl, bur, fury
before r + vowel /jʊə/ lúr, púrity, kúring /jə/ failúr /ɛ/ bery
above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ /ʊə/ rúral, júry, plúral
after g, before e, i Ø ges, disgíz, tung /juː/
/w/		 argu, águ
lingwistiks, segwai
unstressed /ə/ supli /ɨ/ minut, letus
ue, ui usually /juː/ ku, hu, núsans /weɪ/ swád /wiː/ swét
/ɪ/ bild, biskit
above after /r/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/, cons. + /l/ /uː/ blu, tisu, frút, jús
uy /aɪ/ bei, geid
y
  • before multiple consonants
  • followed by 2 or more
    unstressed syllables
  • next syllable contains /ɪ/
 /ɪ/ miþ, kriptik
silinder, tipikal, piramid
sinik		 /aɪ/ hífen, psíke
síklikally
  • before single consonant
  • before cons + (-le or r+vowel)
  • word-final, stressed
 /aɪ/ típing, stíl, paralíz
síkl, sípres
ski, supli, bi
before final r or r + cons.
(and in derived terms)		 /ɜː/ mirtl, mir
before r + vowel /aɪə/ lír, tírant, jírát
unstressed /ə/ sibil, martir
unstressed, word-final /i/ sity, hapy

Consonants

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See also: Digraph (orthography)

Notes:

  • In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it must be at the beginning of a syllable, e.g. j- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it cannot be at the beginning of a word, e.g. -ck in sick and ticket.
  • More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g. "c- before e, i or y" takes precedence over "c".
  • Where the letter combination is described as "word-final", inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g. catalogues.
  • The dialect used is RP.
  • Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.
Spelling Major value (IPA) Examples of major value Other values Examples of other values
b, bb usually /b/ bit, rabit, obtain Ø bdelium, detor, sutl
finally after m
(and in derived terms)		 Ø klím, kóm, numing
c before e, i, y, ae, or oe /s/ selar, sity, sist,
fás, prins, níser
sézium, sélakanþ		 /tʃ/
/ʃ/
/k/
/ts/		 celo, vermicely
spesial, likorix
Keltz, xéker
letóvitsít
initially before n, t Ø knídárian, kténoid
elsewhere /k/ kat, kros Ø vital, indít
cc before e, i or y /ks/ aksept, eksentrik, oksidental /k/
/tʃ/
/s/		 soker, reke, siking
boce, brecia, kapucino
flasid
elsewhere /k/ akount, akru, okur, yuka
ch usually /tʃ/ cás, cin, atacd, cór /k/
/h/
Ø		 ákd
khûtspa
yot
Greek-derived words /k/ kazm, kíméra, kord
French-derived words /ʃ/ xaiz, maxén, kaxd, paraxút
ck /k/ tak, tiket
d, dd, dh /d/ dív, lader, jodpurs /dʒ/
Ø		 graduát, gradual (both also /dj/ in RP)
Wenzdai, handsum
-dg- before e, i, or y /dʒ/ lojer, pijin, ejy
f, -ff /f/ fín, of /v/ ov
g before e, i, y, ae, or oe /dʒ/ jentl, majik, jírát,
páj, alje (GA)		 /ɡ/
/ʒ/		 get, éger, alge (RP)
kolâzj, zjég
in -gm, gn- or -gn Ø díafram, gnóm, síning, rain /ɡ/ signify, repugnant
elsewhere /ɡ/ go, grait, gest /dʒ/ marjarén
gg /ɡ/ stager, flaging /dʒ/ sujest, ekzajerát
gh initially /ɡ/ góst, gastly
elsewhere Ø do, hi, rít, dauter /f/
/x/ or /k/
/ɡ/, /k/, or /x/
/p/		 lâf, enuf
lokh
ûkh!
hikup
h usually /h/ he, alkohol Ø véikl, onest, onor, pirânya
after ex Ø ekzibit, ekzaust /h/ ekshál
j- /dʒ/ jump, ajar /j/
/ʒ/
/h/
Ø		 Halelúya
Zjân
hâlapéno, fahita
Marihwâna
k, -kk, kh usually /k/ ke, bák, treking, xaik
initially before n Ø knee, knok
l, ll /l/ lín, valv, vale Ø
/j/		 hâv, bauk, samon, tortiya
?
m, mm usually /m/ mín, hamer
initially before n Ø mnemonik
n, nn usually /n/ nís, funy
before /k/ or /ɡ/ /ŋ/ link, bangl, ankor
finally after m
(and in derived terms)		 Ø himn, autumn
ng finally and in terms
derived from ng-final words		 /ŋ/ long, kingly, singer, klingy
medially otherwise /ŋɡ/
/ndʒ/		 anger, finger
dánjer, jinjer, dinjy
p, pp usually /p/ pil, hapy, soop, korps, skript Ø koo, recét
initially before n, s, t Ø pneumónia, psíke, ptómain /p/ pst
ph, pph /f/ fótograf, safír /v/ Stéven
q (not before u) /k/ Irâk, Ikâluit
r, rr, rh, rrh usually /r/ rai, parot, rím, díarea Ø írn
  • before consonant
  • finally
  • before final e
 Ø in non-rhotic
dialects such as RP		 kart, bur, fir, kár, wauker, tér, hurt
See below for combinations of vowel letters and the letter r
s, ss usually /s/ song, ask, mesaj, misled /z/
/ʃ/
/ʒ/
Ø		 sizorz, dezert, dizolv, Islâm
xûgar, tisu, agresion
vizion
ílet, eil, dábre
-s- between vowel sounds
(see also "se" below)		 /z/ róz, prizon /s/ básis
word-final -s morpheme
after a voiceless sound		 /s/ petz, xopz
word-final -s morpheme
after a lenis sound		 /z/ bedz, magazénz
sc- before e, i or y /s/ sén, septer, sizorz, síð /sk/
/ʃ/		 skeptik, skirus
faxizm
sch- /sk/ skool, ském, skitso /ʃ/
/s/		 xedúl (in RP, otherwise: /sk/), xist
sizm (in RP, otherwise: /sk/)
sh /ʃ/ xin, faxion
t, -tt usually /t/ ten, biter,
katíon,
cást, wolet		 /ʃ/
/tʃ/
/d/
Ø		 rasio, Marsian
kwestion, bastion
kindergarten
kasl, cásen, balai
in unstressed -sten, -stle, -ften Ø lisen, rusl, sofen /t/ tungsten, ekzistent
-tch /tʃ/ bac, kicen
th /θ/
/ð/		 þin, bóþ,
ðe, boðerz		 /t/
/tθ/
/th/
Ø
 tím
aitþ
outhous, potherb
asma
v, -vv /v/ vín, savy
w /w/ sword, swerve, wál Ø
/uː/
/v/		 twoo, sord, anser, gunel
koom
Veltanxouûng
wh- usually /w/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng. hweel
before o /h/ or /hw/ in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng. hwoo, hwól /w/ hwoping, hwurl
wr- /r/ or /wr/ in Scottish Eng. wrong, wrist
x initially /z/ kzílofón
elsewhere /ks/ ekstent, ekskúz, aks /ɡz/
/ɡʒ/
/kʃ/
Ø		 ekzit (in some pronunciations)
lukzúry (in some pronunciations)
anksios
fópâ
-xc before e or i /ks/ ekselent, eksíted
y- /j/ yes, yung
z, -zz /z/ zoo, pizaz /ts/
Ø		 skitsófrenik, pétsa
rondevoo
Spelling Major value
(IPA)		 Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA)		 Examples of minor value Exceptions
ayer, ayor /ɛə(r)/ laier, maior
ower /aʊər/ doury, touer, flouery

Combinations of other consonant and vowel letters

[edit]
Spelling Major value
(IPA)		 Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA)		 Examples of minor value Exceptions
ah /ɑː/ blâ
al /æl/ pal, talkum, alje, alp /ɔːl/ bauld, faulkon
alf /ɑːf/ (RP)
/æf/ (GA)		 kâf, hâf /æl/ alfalfa, malfézans /ɔlf/ paulfre
alk /ɔːk/ wauk, cauking, taukativ /ælk/ alkalín, grimalkin /ɔlk/ baulkaníz
all /ɔːl/
/æl/		 kaul, faulout, smauler
xal, kalus, falo		 /ɒl/
/(ə)l/		 wolet, swolo
alou, díald		 /ɛl/ (GA) marxmalo, pal-mal
alm /ɑːm/ (all three examples have alt. pronunc.) kâm (also: /ɑːlm/), âmond (also: /ælm/), pâmistry (also: /ɑːlm/) /ælm/
/ɔːlm/		 dalmásian, salmonela
aulmanak (also: /ælm/), aulmóst		 /æm/ samon
/(ə)lm/ signalman
alt /ɒlt/ (RP)
/ɔːlt/ (GA)		 aulter, mault, saulty, basault /ælt/
/ɔːlt/		 alto, xalt, saltásion
aultar, asfault		 /ɑlt/ gextâlt (GA)
/(ə)lt/ roialty, penalty
aoh, oh /oʊ/ fáro, o
unstressed ci- before a vowel /ʃ/ spesial, grásios /si/ spésiéz
-cqu /kw/ akwaint, akwír /k/ laker, raket
word-final -ed morpheme
after /t/ or /d/*		 /ɨd/ waited
word-final -ed morpheme
after a voiceless sound*		 /t/ topd, surfd /ɛd/ bíped, unfed
word-final -ed morpheme
after a lenis sound*		 /d/ clímd, faild, orderd /ɛd/ imbed, misled, infrared
eh /eɪ/ ai
word-final -es morpheme** /ɨz/ woxez, boksez
unstressed ex- before a vowel or h /ɨɡz/ ekzist, ekzamin, ekzaust /ɛks/ ekshál
gu- before a /ɡw/ bílingwal, gwâno, langwaj /ɡ/ gard, garantee
word-final -le after a consonant /əl/ litl, tábl
-(a)isle /aɪəl/ eil, íl, eníl, líl
word-final -ngue /ŋ/ tung, harang, merang (dessert) /ŋɡeɪ/ dengai (also /ŋɡi/), distengai, merengai (music/dance)
old /oʊld/ blíndfóld, ólder, bóld /əld/ scafóld, kobóld (also /ɒld/
olk /oʊk/ yók, fók
oll /ɒl/ dol, folo, kol, holer /oʊl/ ról, stróler, póling, tólway
olm /ɒlm/ olm, dolmen /oʊlm/ enrólment, hólmium /oʊm/ hóm (oak)
ong /ɒŋ/ (RP)
/ɔːŋ/ (GA)		 wrong, strong, song /ɒŋ/ Kongres, kongregásion
qu- /kw/ kween, kwik /k/ likor, moskéto
quar- before consonant /kwɔː(r)/ kworter, kwort
word-final -que /k/ mosk, bisk /keɪ/ riskai /kjuː/ barbeku
word-final -re after a consonant /ər/ ógr
ro /rɒ/ rod /roʊ/ ról /ə(r)/ írn
unstressed sci- before a vowel /tʃ/ konsiens (/ʃ/ in RP) /si/ omnisient (RP only)
sci- (stressed) /saɪ/ síens
-scle /səl/ korpusl, musl
-se (noun) /s/ hous, mous
-se (verb) /z/ houz, raiz /s/ cás
unstressed -si before a vowel /ʃ/ ekspansion /ʒ/ divizion, ilúzion /zi/ fiziolojy, bizier, sézium
flimziest
/si/ tarsier
unstressed -ssi before a vowel /ʃ/ mision /si/ potasium, dosiai
unstressed -sure /ʒər/ lezúr, trezúr
unstressed -ti before a vowel /ʃ/ násion, ambisios /ʒ/ ekwázion /ti/ patio, /taɪ/ catíon
unstressed -ture /tʃər/ nátúr, piktúr
unstressed -zure /ʒər/ sézúr, azúr

Small text indicates rare words. Loans words: SP for Spanish, FR for French.

Sound to spelling correspondences

[edit]

The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "…" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as au for the [æ] sound in laugh (some accents). In some cases, the spellings shown are found in only one known English word (such as "mh" for /m/, or "yrrh" for /ɜr/).

Consonants
IPA Spelling Examples
/p/ p, pp, gh pill, happy, hiccough
/b/ b, bb bit, rabbit
/t/ t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct ten, hitter, topped, pterodactyl, thyme, ctenoid
/d/ d, dd, ed, dh, t (in some dialects), tt (in some dialects) dive, ladder, failed, dharma, waiter, flatter
/ɡ/ g, gg, gue, gh go, stagger, catalogue, ghost
/k/ c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, cqu, cu, que, kk, kh, q, x (changing its/ks/ sound into its /k/ sound) cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, acquis, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan, burqa, excitement
/m/ m, mm, mb, mn, mh, gm, chm mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, diaphragm, drachm
/n/ n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, mn nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, mnemonic
/ŋ/ ng, n, ngue sing, link, tongue
/r/ r, rr, wr, rh, rrh ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrh(o)ea
/f/ f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, lieutenant  (Br)
/v/ v, vv, f, ph, w vine, savvy, of, Stephen, weltanschauung
/θ/ th, chth, phth, tth, fth (in some dialects) thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew, twelfth
/ð/ th, the them, breathe
/s/ s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch (in some dialects), cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects) song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen
/z/ s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects) has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity
/ʃ/ sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schmooze, crescendo
/ʒ/ si, s, g, z, j, ti, sh (in some dialects) division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, equation, Pershing
/tʃ/ ch, t, tch, ti, c, cc, tsch, cz chin, nature, batch, bastion (some accents), cello, bocce, putsch, Czech
/dʒ/ g, j, dg, dge, d, di, gi, ge, gg magic, jump, judgment, bridge, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, exaggerate
/h/ h, wh, j, ch, x he, who, fajita, chutzpah, Quixote
/j/ y, i, j, ll, e yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla, eoarchean
/l/ l, ll, lh line, hallo, Lhasa
/w/ w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects) we, persuade, choir, Ouija board, what
/hw/ wh (in Hiberno-Eng. and Southern Am. Eng.) wheel
/wr/ wr (in Scottish Eng.) wren
Vowels
IPA Spelling Examples
/iː/ e, ea, ee, e…e, ae, ei, i…e, ie, eo, oe, ie...e, ay, ey, i, y, oi, ue, ey, a be, beach, bee, cede, Caesar, deceit, machine, field, people, amoeba (variant of ameba), hygiene, quay (RP only; /eɪ/ in GA), key, ski, city, chamois, Portuguese, geyser (RP only; /aɪ/ in GA), karaoke
/ɪ/ i, y, ui, e, ee, ie, o, u, a, ei, ee, ia, ea, i...e, ai, ii, oe bit, myth, build, pretty, been (some accents), sieve, women, busy, damage, counterfeit, carriage, mileage, medicine, bargain, shiitake, oedema
/uː/ oo, u, o, u…e, ou, ew, ue, o…e, ui, eu, oeu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, oup, w, u tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver, manoeuvre (Br. variant of prec.), canoe, through (form. variant of "thru"), two, Sioux, lieutenant  (GA), coup, cwm, thru (inf.)
/ʊ/ oo, u, o, oo...e, or, ou, oul look, full, wolf, gooseberry, worsted, courier, should
/eɪ/ a, a…e, aa, ae, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, al, ao, au, ay, e (é), e...e, ea, eg, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, ee (ée), eh, er, es, et, ey, ez, ie, oeh, ue, uet bass, rate, quaalude, reggae, rain, cocaine, arraign, straight, Ralph  (dated Br.), gaol  (Australian var. of "jail"), gauge (var. of gage), pay, ukulele (café), crepe, steak, thegn, veil, beige, reign, eight, matinee (soirée), eh, dossier, demesne, ballet, obey, chez, lingerie  (US), boehmite (also: /oʊ/), dengue (usually: /i/), sobriquet (also: /ɛt/; var. of "soubriquet")
/ə/ a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, ae, oi another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, borough  (Br), Michael, porpoise
/oʊ/ o, o…e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough, eo so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharaoh, furlough, yeoman
/ɛ/ e, ea, a, ae, ai, ay, ea…e, ei, eo, ie, ieu, u, ue, oe met, weather, many, aesthetic, said, says, cleanse, heifer, jeopardy, friend, lieutenant  (Br), bury, guess, foetid
/æ/ a, ai, al, au, i hand, plaid, salmon, laugh (some accents), meringue
/ʌ/ u, o, o…e, oe, ou, oo, wo sun, son, come, does, touch, flood, twopence
/ɔː/ a, au, aw, ough, augh, o, oa, oo, al, uo, u, ao fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, cord, broad, door, walk, fluorine  (Br), sure  (some accents), extraordinary
/ɒ/ o, a, eau, ach, au, ou lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht, sausage, cough
/ɑː/ a, ah, aa, i father, blah, baa, lingerie  (US)
/aɪ/ ae, ai, aie, aille, ais, ay, aye, ei, eigh, ey, eye, i, i…e, ia, ie, ic, ig, igh, is, oi, ui, uy, uye, y, y...e, ye maestro, krait, shanghaied, canaille (RP), aisle, kayak, aye, heist, height, geyser (US), eye, mic, fine, diaper, tie, indict, sign, high, isle, choir, guide, buy, guyed, tryst, type, bye
/ɔɪ/ oi, oy, awy, uoy oy…e, eu foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle, Freudian
/aʊ/ ou, ow, ough, au, ao out, now, bough, tau, Taoism
/ɑr/ aar, ar, are, arre, ear, er, our, uar, arrh bazaar, car, are, bizarre, heart, sergeant, our  (some accents), guard, catarrh
/ɛər/ aar, aer, air, aire, ar, are, ayer, ayor, ear, eir, er, ere, err, erre, ey're, e'er Aaron, aerial, hair, millionaire, ware, vary, prayer, mayor, bear, heir, stationery (some accents), where, err (variant), parterre, they're, e'er
/ɪər/ ear, eer, eir, eor, ere, ers, e're, ier, iere, ir ear, beer, weir, theory  (US), here, revers, we're, pier, premiere, menhir
/ɜr/ er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, journey, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel
/juː/ u, u…e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects, see yod-dropping
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